CHAPTER III

PRONOUNS

+113.+ +A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.+

+The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.+

+A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person+ (§ 11).

Pronouns have in general the same constructions as nouns.

+114.+ Pronouns may be classified as (1) +personal+, (2) +adjective+, (3) +relative+, and (4) +interrogative+.

Under adjective pronouns are included (_a_) +demonstrative pronouns+ and (_b_) +indefinite pronouns+.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

+115.+ +The personal pronouns serve to distinguish (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, and (3) the person, place, or thing spoken of+ (§ 85).

They are declined as follows:--

THE PRONOUN OF THE FIRST PERSON: _I_

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nominative_ I _Nominative_ we _Possessive_ my _or_ mine _Possessive_ our _or_ ours _Objective_ me _Objective_ us

THE PRONOUN OF THE SECOND PERSON: _thou_

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nominative_ thou _Nominative_ you _or_ ye _Possessive_ thy _or_ thine _Possessive_ your _or_ yours _Objective_ thee _Objective_ you _or_ ye

THE PRONOUN OF THE THIRD PERSON: _he_, _she_, _it_

SINGULAR PLURAL

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER MASCULINE, FEMININE, and NEUTER

_Nominative_ he she it they _Possessive_ his her _or_ hers its their _or_ theirs _Objective_ him her it them

Unlike nouns, most of the personal pronouns have distinct forms for the nominative and the objective.

NOTE. The possessive case of personal pronouns never has the apostrophe. Thus,--_its_, _yours_, _theirs_.

The form _it’s_ is proper only as a contraction of _it is_.

GENDER AND NUMBER

+116.+ The pronouns of the first and second persons (_I_ and _thou_) may be either masculine or feminine.

The pronouns of the third person have different forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter in the +singular+ (_he_, _she_, _it_); but in the +plural+ the form _they_ serves for all three genders.

NOTE. In the oldest English _his_ was both masculine and neuter. The neuter use lasted until the seventeenth century. Thus,--

That same eye whose bend doth awe the world Did lose _his_ lustre.--SHAKSPERE, _Julius Cæsar_, i. 2. 123.

+117.+ _Thou_, _thy_, _thine_, _thee_, and _ye_ are old forms still found in poetry and the solemn style.

In ordinary prose, _you_, _your_, and _yours_ are the only forms used for the second person, whether singular or plural. Yet _you_, even when denoting a single person, always takes the verb-forms that go with plural subjects. Thus,--

My friend, _you were_ [NOT _was_] in error.

Hence _you_ may best be regarded as always plural in form, but may be described as singular in sense when it stands for one person only.

NOTE. Members of the Society of Friends (commonly called Quakers) and of some other religious bodies use _thee_ and _thy_ in their ordinary conversation.

_Ye_ was formerly the regular nominative plural, and _you_ the objective; but the forms were afterwards confused. _Ye_ has gone out of use except in poetry and the solemn style, and _you_ is now the regular form for both nominative and objective.

Where an objective form _ye_ is found printed instead of _you_ (as often in Shakspere,--“A southwest blow on _ye_”), it represents an indistinct pronunciation of _you_ rather than the old nominative _ye_. This indistinct sound may still be heard in rapid or careless speech (“I’ll tell yer the truth”).

_Ye_ as an abbreviation for _the_ (as in “_ye_ old town”) has nothing to do with the pronoun _ye_. The _y_ simply stands for the character þ (an old sign for _th_), and the abbreviation was pronounced _the_, never _ye_.

+118.+ _They_, _you_, and _we_ are often used indefinitely for “one” or “people in general.”

_They_ say that Joe has gone to sea.

To shut off the steam, _you_ close both valves of the radiator.

NOTE. _We_, _our_, and _us_ are used in editorial articles instead of _I_, _my_, and _me_, because the writer represents the whole editorial staff. This practice should not be followed in ordinary composition.

A sovereign ruler may use _we_, _our_, and _us_ when speaking of himself in proclamations and other formal documents. This construction is often called “the plural of majesty.” Thus,--

Know that _we_ have divided In three _our_ kingdom.--SHAKSPERE.

The form _’em_ (as in “Tell me your counsels; I will not disclose _’em_,” in _Julius Cæsar_) is not a contraction of _them_, but of _hem_, an old objective plural of _he_.

CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS

NOMINATIVE CASE

+119.+ +Nominative constructions+ of the personal pronouns are the same as those of nouns (§ 88).

_I_ am ready. [Subject.]

It is _I_. [Predicate nominative.]

Here, _you_ rascal, what are you about? [Vocative, direct address.]

Poor _you_! [Nominative of exclamation.]

General Austin, _he_ and no other, won the battle. [Apposition.]

For the +nominative absolute+, see § 345.

Care must be taken not to use an objective form when a predicate nominative is required.

It is _I_ [NOT _me_].

It is _we_ [NOT _us_] who did it.

It was _he_ [NOT _him_] who told us.

It was _they_ [NOT _them_] who were to blame.

+120.+ _It_ has several peculiar uses in the nominative.

1. _It_ is used as the subject in many expressions like “It rains,” “It snows,” “It lightens,” “It is cold,” where no definite subject is thought of. In this use, _it_ is said to be +impersonal+.

NOTE. An impersonal _it_ also occurs as a cognate object (§ 108) in colloquial language: as,--“Hang it!” “Go it!” “He went it.” “He farmed it for a year.” Other examples of the indefinite and impersonal _it_ in various constructions are: “We are roughing _it_.” “Keep _it_ up.” “You’ll catch _it_.” “Let _it_ all go.” “He made a poor job of _it_.” “He made a success of _it_.”

2. _It_ often serves as grammatical subject merely to introduce the verb _is_, the real subject of the thought standing in the predicate. In this use _it_ is called an +expletive+ (or “filler”).

_It_ is he.

_It_ is Christmas.

_It_ was a tiresome ride.

In these examples, the subject of the thought (_he_, _Christmas_, _ride_) appears as a predicate nominative.

3. The antecedent of _it_ is often a group of words.

Wearing tight shoes is foolish. _It_ deforms the feet.

+121.+ In +imperative sentences+ the subject (_you_) is commonly omitted: as,--“Shut the door.”

NOTE. The subject _I_ is sometimes omitted in wishes (as, “_Would_ he were here!” for “I would that he were here”). So also in “Thank you,” “Pray tell me” (compare _prithee_ for “I pray thee”).

Expressions like “Canst tell?” (for “Canst thou tell?”), “Art there?” (for “Art thou there?”) are common in poetry and older English. These come from the gradual wearing away and final disappearance of the pronoun _thou_ (_canst thou_, _canstow_, _canstë_, _canst_).

POSSESSIVE CASE

+122.+ The +possessive+ forms _my_, _thy_, _our_, _your_, _her_, and _their_ are used when a noun follows; _mine_, _thine_, _ours_, _yours_, _hers_, and _theirs_ cannot be followed by a noun, and stand commonly in the predicate. _His_ may be used in either way.

_My_ brother has arrived. The fault is _mine_.

_Our_ work is done. Those seats are _ours_.

I have torn _your_ glove. This pencil is _yours_.

_Their_ turn has come. That field is _theirs_.

_His_ hair is black. The book is not _his_.

Examples of _mine_, _yours_, etc. not in the predicate are:

_Mine_ was a terrier; _yours_ was a pointer.

_Theirs_ is a red motor car.

_Ours_ broke down last night.

_His_ leaked badly.

_His_ name is Martin; _hers_ is Smith.

In such cases the pronoun is always emphatic. The construction is chiefly colloquial.

NOTE. In older English and in poetry _mine_ and _thine_ are common instead of _my_ and _thy_ before words beginning with a vowel or _h_: as,--

_Mine_ eyes dazzle: she died young.--JOHN WEBSTER.

The very minute bids thee ope _thine_ ear.--SHAKSPERE.

_Mine_ is sometimes used after a vocative noun: as,--_brother mine_.

For expressions like “a friend of _mine_,” “that unruly tongue of _yours_,” see § 96.

+123.+ When two or more separate objects are spoken of as possessed, a possessive should precede the name of each if there is danger of ambiguity.

I will send for our secretary and our treasurer. [Two persons.]

I will send for our secretary and treasurer. [One person.]

I have called for my bread and my milk. [Two things.]

I have called for my bread and milk. [A mixture.]

Have you Bacon’s “Essays and Apophthegms”? [One book.]

Have you Bacon’s “Essays” and his “Advancement of Learning”? [Two books.]

OBJECTIVE CASE

+124.+ The commonest constructions in which personal pronouns take the +objective case+ are the following:--

1. Object of a preposition (§ 97): as,--

Take it from _him_.

2. Direct object of a transitive verb (§ 99): as,--

I will find _you_.

3. Indirect object of a transitive verb (§ 105): as,--

He gave _me_ a dollar.

4. Subject of an infinitive (see § 325).

NOTE. In poetry the objective _me_ is sometimes used in exclamations: as,--“_Me_ miserable!” (MILTON).

In _methinks_ and _meseems_ (“it seems to me”), _me_ is a remnant of the old dative, as in the indirect object (see § 107).

The compounds _thereof_, _therewith_, _therefrom_, etc., are equivalent to _of it_, _with it_, _from it_, etc.: as,--“Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants _thereof_” (_Leviticus_ xxv. 10).

For the impersonal _it_ as cognate object, see § 120.

THE _SELF_-PRONOUNS (COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS)

+125.+ The three +compound personal pronouns+ are made by adding the word _self_ to certain forms of the personal pronouns. Thus,--

myself, _plural_ ourselves;

thyself _or_ yourself, _plural_ yourselves;

himself, herself, itself, _plural_ themselves.

To these may be added the indefinite _oneself_, more commonly written as two words, _one’s self_ (§ 139).

Observe that _yourself_ is singular, and _yourselves_ plural. _Hisself_ and _theirselves_ are incorrect forms. _Ourself_ (not _ourselves_) is the compound pronoun corresponding to the royal _we_ (§ 118).

What touches us _ourself_ shall be last served.--SHAKSPERE.

+126.+ 1. +The compound personal pronouns may be used to emphasize substantives.+

+In this use they are called intensive pronouns.+

I _myself_ will go.

King Alfred _himself_ took the field.

They did the work _themselves_.

An intensive pronoun is in apposition with the substantive to which it refers.

2. +The compound personal pronouns may be used as the objects of transitive verbs or of prepositions when the object denotes the same person or thing as the subject.+

+In this use they are called reflexive pronouns.+

I have hurt _myself_.

King Alfred interested _himself_ in his subjects.

These schemers deceived _themselves_.

Mary was talking to _herself_.

He gave _himself_ a holiday. [Indirect object.]

These pronouns are called +reflexive+ (that is, “bending back”) because they +refer back+ to the subject and repeat its meaning in an object construction.

NOTE. A reflexive pronoun sometimes refers to a substantive in the objective case: as,--“Our captors left _us_ to _ourselves_.”

In older English the simple personal pronouns _me_, _thee_, etc., were often used reflexively: as,--“I held _me_ [= _myself_] still”; “Yield _thee_ [= _thyself_] captive”; “They built _them_ [= for _themselves_] houses” (see § 106). This idiom survives in colloquial language (as, “I have hurt _me_,” “I have bought _me_ a rifle”), but it is avoided in writing except in a few expressions such as: “I must look about _me_”; “We gazed about _us_”; “Look behind _you_.”

+127.+ The adjective _own_ is sometimes inserted between the first and the second part of the _self_-pronouns for emphasis.

EXAMPLES: my own self, your own self, his own self, our own selves, their own selves.

In this use, _self_ is in strictness a noun limited by the possessive and by the adjective _own_, but the phrases may be regarded as compound pronouns. Other adjectives are sometimes inserted between the possessive and _self_: as,--my _very_ self, his _worthless_ self.

+128.+ The intensive pronouns are sometimes used without a substantive. Thus,--

It is _myself_. [_Myself_ = _I myself_.]

You are hardly _yourself_ to-day.

In poetry and older English, the intensives are even found as subjects: as,--“_Ourself_ will mingle with society” (_Macbeth_).

+129.+ The intensive pronouns should not be used as simple personal pronouns.

Thus we should say:--“He was kind to Mary and _me_” (NOT _myself_); “They invited my wife and _me_ (NOT _myself_).”

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

+130.+ +Some words are used either as adjectives or as pronouns. Such words are called adjective pronouns.+

Adjective pronouns are classified, according to their meaning, as (1) +demonstrative pronouns+ and (2) +indefinite pronouns+.

I. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

+131.+ +The demonstratives are _this_ (plural, _these_), _that_ (plural, _those_). They point out persons or things for special attention.+

The demonstratives may be used either as adjectives or as pronouns.

I. As adjectives:--

_This_ sailor saved my life. _These_ girls are energetic.

Be kind to _this_ child. I am not alarmed by _these_ threats.

Give _this_ boy a dime. _These_ cherries are sour.

_This_ fire is too hot. Look at _these_ acorns.

_That_ saw is dull. _Those_ trees are dying.

We must cross _that_ stream. Take _those_ dishes away.

_That_ train is late. Who are _those_ strangers?

Send _that_ dog home. Do you see _those_ rocks?

I am tired of _that_ tune. I am sorry for _those_ children.

II. As pronouns:--

_This_ is a fine morning.[19] _These_ are cowboys.

_This_ is my uncle. Robert gave me _these_.

Can you do _this_? I never saw _these_ before.

_This_ is the road. Who are _these_?

Look at _this_. _These_ are our rackets.

_That_ is Ellen in the canoe. _Those_ are deer.

_That_ would please him. _Those_ are nasturtiums.

_That_ must be he. What are _those_?

What is _that_? _Those_ are kangaroos.

If the demonstrative is followed by a noun which it limits (as in “_this_ sailor”), it is an adjective. If the demonstrative points out something which it does not name (as in “_This_ is a fine morning”), it takes the place of a noun and is therefore a pronoun. The simple subject of the sentence “This camera is expensive” is the noun _camera_, which is modified by the adjective _this_. The subject of the sentence “_This_ is expensive” is the pronoun _this_.

NOTE. _Yon_, _yond_, and _yonder_ are common as demonstratives in older English and in poetry. Thus,--“Nerissa, cheer _yon_ stranger” (_Merchant of Venice_). “Question _yond_ man” (_As You Like It_). “Is not _yond_ Diomed?” (_Troilus and Cressida_). “Call _yonder_ fellow hither” (_Henry V_). “Is _yonder_ the man?” (_As You Like It_).

+132.+ Demonstratives have only the inflection of number. They have the same form for all three genders. The nominative and objective cases are alike; the possessive is replaced by _of_ with the objective.

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom. and Obj._ this _Nom. and Obj._ these _Possessive_ [of this] _Possessive_ [of these]

_Nom. and Obj._ that _Nom. and Obj._ those _Possessive_ [of that] _Possessive_ [of those]

_Yon_, _yond_, and _yonder_ are not inflected.

+133.+ A demonstrative pronoun may be used to avoid the repetition of a noun.

My dog and _that_ [= the dog] of my friend John have been fighting.

Compare these maps with _those_ [= the maps] on the blackboard.

+134.+ The singular forms _this_ and _that_ (not the plurals _these_ and _those_) are used with the nouns _kind_ and _sort_.

I like _this_ kind of grapes.

I have met _this_ sort of people before.

_That_ kind of apples grows in Idaho.

II. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

+135.+ +The indefinite pronouns point out objects less clearly or definitely than demonstratives do.+

EXAMPLES: each, every, either, both, neither, some, any, such, none, other, another, each other, one another.

_Each_ has its merits.

_Some_ are missing.

I cannot give you _any_.

_Either_ is correct.

He knows _neither_ of you.

I like _both_.

+136.+ Most indefinites may be either +pronouns+ or +adjectives+. But _none_ is always a substantive in modern use, and _every_ is always an adjective.

+137.+ _None_ may be either singular or plural. When it means distinctly _not one_, it is singular. In many instances either construction is permissible.

_None_ of us has the key.

_None_ was (_or_ were) left to tell the tale.

+138.+ _Each other_ and _one another_ are regarded as +compound+ pronouns. They designate related persons or things.

My neighbor and I like _each other_.

We must bear with _one another_.

The relation indicated by these pronouns is that of reciprocity. Hence they are often called reciprocal pronouns.

There is no real distinction between _each other_ and _one another_. The rules sometimes given for such a distinction are not supported by the best usage.

+139.+ _One_ (possessive _one’s_) is often used as an indefinite personal pronoun. Thus,--

_One_ does not like _one’s_ [NOT _his_ or _their_] motives to be doubted.

The use of _his_ (for _one’s_) to refer back to a preceding _one_ is found in respectable writers, but is contrary to the best usage.

For the indefinite use of _we_, _you_, _they_, see § 118.

+140.+ _All_, _several_, _few_, _many_, and similar words are often classed as indefinites. They may be used as adjectives or as substantives. _Everybody_, _everything_, _anybody_, _anything_, _somewhat_, _aught_, _naught_,[20] etc., are called indefinite nouns.

+141.+ Care should be taken in framing such sentences as the following:--

Everybody has _his_ [NOT _their_] faults.

If anybody wishes to go, _he_ [NOT _they_] may.

If anybody objects, let _him_ [NOT _them_] speak.

Every member of this class must hand in _his_ [NOT _their_] composition to-day.

Each hurries toward _his_ [NOT _their_] home.

Each of us must lead _his_ [NOT _their_] own life.

In sentences of this kind, the personal pronoun (_he_, _his_, _him_) must be in the singular to agree with its antecedent (_everybody_, _anybody_, etc.) (see § 113).

NOTE. When the antecedent is of common gender (as in the last example), the personal pronouns (_he_, _his_, _him_) may be regarded as of common gender also. In very precise or formal language, one may say _he or she_, _his or her_: as,--“Each of us must lead _his or her_ own life”; but this form of expression is to be avoided unless the distinction is clearly necessary.

+142.+ When used as adjectives, none of the indefinites have any forms of inflection. The same is true when they are pronouns, except as follows:--

_Others_ is used as the plural of _another_. The possessive forms are:--singular, _another’s_; plural, _others’_. _The other_ (possessive, _the other’s_) has in the plural _the others_ (possessive, _the others’_). _Each other_ and _one another_ add _’s_ in the possessive. _One_ has a possessive _one’s_; _the one_ becomes _the ones_ in the plural.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

+143.+ +Relative pronouns+ have a peculiar function in the sentence, since they serve both as +pronouns+ and as +connectives+. Their use may be seen by comparing the two sentences that follow:--

1. This is the sailor, and he saved my life.

2. This is the sailor who saved my life.

Each consists of two parts or clauses (§ 44). In No. 1, the two clauses are connected by the conjunction _and_, which belongs to neither; the pronoun _he_, which stands for _sailor_, is the subject of the second clause. In No. 2, there is no conjunction; instead, we find the word _who_, which replaces _and he_. This _who_ is a +pronoun+, since it stands for _sailor_ (precisely as _he_ does in No. 1) and (like _he_) is the subject of the verb _saved_. But _who_ is also a +connective+, since it joins the two parts of the sentence as _and_ does in No. 1. Such words (which serve both as pronouns and as connectives) are called +relative pronouns+.

In No. 1, the two clauses are +coördinate+. Neither serves as a modifier, and each might stand alone as a complete sentence (“This is the sailor.” “He saved my life”). The sentence is compound (§ 44). In No. 2, on the contrary, the clause _who saved my life_ is a +subordinate+ or +dependent clause+, for it is used as an adjective modifier of the noun _sailor_, which it limits by showing what particular sailor is meant. The sentence is +complex+ (§ 44). The dependent clause (_who saved my life_) is connected with the main clause (_this is the sailor_) by the pronoun _who_, which refers to _sailor_.

+144.+ +Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.+[21]

+This substantive is the antecedent of the relative+ (§ 11).

Thus in § 143 the noun _sailor_ is the antecedent of _who_.

_Relative_ means “carrying back.” These pronouns are so called because they carry the mind back directly to the antecedent.

+145.+ The simple relative pronouns are _who_, _which_, _that_, _as_, and _what_.

_Who_ and _which_ are declined as follows in both the singular and the plural:--

_Nominative_ who which _Possessive_ whose whose _Objective_ whom which

_That_, _as_, and _what_ are not inflected. They have the same form for both nominative and objective and are not used in the possessive case.

+146.+ _As_ may be used as a relative pronoun when _such_ stands in the main clause.

Such of you _as_ have finished may go.

I have never seen such strawberries _as_ these [are].

Use such powers _as_ you have.

+147.+ _As_ is often used as a relative after _the same_.

This color is the same _as_ that [is].

Other relatives are also used after _the same_.

This is the same book _that_ (or _which_) you were reading yesterday.

This is the same man _that_ (or _whom_) I saw on the pier last Friday.

+148.+ _Who_ is either masculine or feminine; _which_ and _what_ are neuter; _that_ and _as_ are of all three genders.

All _who_ heard, approved.

Here is the lad _whose_ story interested you.

The first woman _whom_ I saw was Mary.

He answered in such English _as_ he could muster.

I saw nobody _that_ I knew.

This is the road _that_ leads to London.

In older English _the which_ is often used for _which_: as,--

Our foster-nurse of nature is repose, _The which_ he lacks.--SHAKSPERE.

For other uses of _as_, see §§ 368, 428–429. For _but_ in such sentences as “There was nobody _but_ believed him,” see § 370.

+149.+ +A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person.+

The sentences in § 148 illustrate the agreement of the relative with its antecedent in +gender+.

Since relative pronouns have the same form for both numbers and for all three persons, their +number and person+ must be discovered, in each instance, by observing the number and person of the +antecedent+.

It is _I who am_ wrong. [First person, singular number: antecedent, _I_.]

All _you who are_ ready may go. [Second person plural: antecedent, _you_.]

Give help to _him who needs it_. [Third person, singular: antecedent, _him_.]

The _road that leads_ to the shore is sandy. [Third person singular: antecedent, _road_.]

The _roads that lead_ to the shore are sandy. [Third person plural: antecedent, _roads_.]

To determine the number and person of a relative pronoun is particularly necessary when it is the +subject of the clause+, for the form of the verb varies (as the examples show) according to the number and person of the subject (§ 222). Hence the rule for the agreement of a relative with its antecedent is of much practical importance.

+150.+ +The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause.+

The servant _who_ opened the door wore livery. [_Who_ is in the nominative case, being the subject of _opened_.]

He discharged his servant, _who_ immediately left town. [_Who_ is in the nominative case, since it is the subject of _left_, although its antecedent (_servant_) is in the objective.]

The servant _whom_ you discharged has returned. [_Whom_ is in the objective case, since it is the direct object of _discharged_. The antecedent (_servant_) is, on the other hand, in the nominative, because it is the subject of _has returned_.]

Here is such money _as_ I have. [_As_ is in the objective case, being the object of _have_. The antecedent (_money_) is in the nominative.]

+151.+ A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted.

Here is the book _which_ you wanted. Here is the book you wanted.

The noise _that_ I heard was the wind. The noise I heard was the wind.

The man _whom_ I met was a carpenter. The man I met was a carpenter.

NOTE. In older English a relative in the nominative is often omitted: as,--“There’s two or three of us _have_ seen strange sights” (_Julius Cæsar_), that is, “There are two or three of us _who have_ seen,” etc. The same omission is often made in rapid or careless colloquial speech. It is approved in clauses with _there_ in such sentences as “He is one of the best men there are in the world” (§ 232).

+152.+ Certain questions of +gender+ call for particular attention.

1. _Which_ is commonly used in referring to the lower animals unless these are regarded as persons. This is true even when _he_ or _she_ is used of the same animals (§ 69).

This is the dog _which_ I mentioned. Isn’t _he_ a fine fellow?

We have one cow _which_ we prize highly. _She_ is a Jersey.

2. The possessive _whose_ may be used of any object that has life.

This is the man _whose_ watch was stolen.

I have a cat _whose_ name is Tabby.

This is the tree _whose_ leaves were destroyed. _It_ is quite dead.

3. In the case of things without animal life, _of which_ and _whose_ are both common. The tendency is to prefer _of which_ in prose, but _whose_ is often used because of its more agreeable sound. In poetry, _whose_ is especially frequent.

A broad river, the name _of which_ I have forgotten, forms the northern boundary of the province.

Jack was fishing with a bamboo rod, to the end _of which_ he had tied a short piece of ordinary twine.

She was gazing into the pool, _whose_ calm surface reflected her features like a mirror. [“The surface _of which_” would not sound so well.]

NOTE. In older English, _which_ is often used for _who_ or _whom_: as,--“He _which_ hath your noble father slain, pursued my life” (_Hamlet_).

The compounds _whereof_, _wherefrom_, _wherewith_, etc., are equivalent to _of which_, _from which_, etc. (cf. § 124). Thus,--“Esau hated Jacob because of the blessing _wherewith_ his father blessed him” (_Genesis_ xxvii. 41).

DESCRIPTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES

+153.+ The clause introduced by a relative pronoun is an +adjective clause+, since it serves as an adjective modifier of the antecedent (§ 143). There are two different ways in which the antecedent may be thus modified.

1. The Italian, _who wore a flower in his coat_, smiled at me.

2. The Italian _who wore a flower in his coat_ smiled at me.

In the first sentence, the italicized relative clause serves simply to +describe+ the Italian, not to identify him. The flower is a mere detail of the picture.

In the second sentence, the relative clause serves not merely to describe the Italian, but also to distinguish him from all others. The flower is mentioned as a means of +identification+. The relative clause confines or +restricts+ the meaning of the antecedent (_Italian_).

+154.+ +A relative pronoun that serves merely to introduce a descriptive fact is called a descriptive relative.+

+A relative pronoun that introduces a clause confining or limiting the application of the antecedent is called a restrictive relative.+

Thus in the first example in § 153, _who_ is a descriptive relative; in the second, it is a restrictive relative.

+155.+ Before a descriptive relative we regularly make a pause in speaking, but never before a restrictive relative. Hence the rule:--

+A descriptive relative is preceded by a comma; a restrictive relative is not.+

Three sailors, _who_ were loitering on the pier, sprang to the rescue.

A clumsy weapon, _which_ I took for a blunderbuss, hung over the fireplace.

I told the news to the first man _that_ (or _whom_) I met.

The coins _that_ (or _which_) you showed me are doubloons.

Nothing _that_ I have ever read has moved me more profoundly than the third act of “King Lear.”

+156.+ _Who_, _which_, and _that_ are all used as restrictive relatives; but some writers prefer _that_ to _which_, especially in the nominative case.

NOTE. _That_ is not now employed as a descriptive relative, though it was common in this use not very long ago. Thus in 1844 Disraeli wrote: “The deer, _that_ abounded, lived here in a world as savage as themselves” (_Coningsby_, book iii, chapter 5).

The omission of the relative (§ 151) is possible only when the relative is restrictive.

The boy [_whom_] I saw at your house has left town. [Restrictive.]

Charles, _whom_ I saw yesterday, had not heard the news. [Descriptive.]

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN _WHAT_

+157.+ The relative pronoun _what_ is equivalent to _that which_, and has a +double construction+:--(1) the construction of the +omitted+ or +implied antecedent+ (_that_); (2) the construction of the +relative+ (_which_).

{_What_ | _That which_} was said is true. [Here _what_, being equivalent to _that which_, serves as the subject both of _was said_ and of _is_.]

Tom always remembers {_what_ | _that which_} is said to him. [Here _what_, being equivalent to _that which_, serves as both the object of _remembers_ and as the subject of _is said_.]

Tom always remembers {_what_ | _that which_} he learns. [Here _what_ serves both as the object of _remembers_ and as the object of _learns_.]

In parsing _what_, mention both of its constructions.

NOTE. Another method of dealing with the relative _what_ is to regard the whole clause (_what was said_; _what is said to him_; _what he learns_) as a +noun clause+. Thus the clause _what was said_ in the first sentence would be the subject of _is_; in the second and third sentences, the clause would be the object of _remembers_. _What_, in the first sentence, would be parsed as the subject of _was said_; in the second, as the subject of _is said_; and in the third, as the object of _learns_. Neither view is incorrect, and each has its special advantages. The student may well be familiar with both methods, remembering that grammar cannot be treated like mathematics.

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS

+158.+ +The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding _ever_ or _soever_ to _who_, _which_, and _what_.+

They are declined as follows:--

SINGULAR AND PLURAL

_Nominative_ whoever (whosoever) whichever (whichsoever) _Possessive_ whosever (whosesoever) ---- ---- _Objective_ whomever (whomsoever) whichever (whichsoever)

_Whatever_ (_whatsoever_) has no inflection. The nominative and the objective are alike, and the possessive is supplied by the phrase _of whatever_ (_of whatsoever_).

The phrase _of whichever_ (_of whichsoever_) is used instead of _whosever_ exactly as _of which_ is used instead of _whose_ (§ 152).

+159.+ +The compound relative pronouns may include or imply their own antecedents and hence may have a double construction.+

_Whoever_ calls, _he_ must be admitted. [Here _he_, the antecedent of _whoever_, is the subject of _must be admitted_, and _whoever_ is the subject of _calls_.]

_Whoever calls_ must be admitted. [Here the antecedent _he_ is omitted, being implied in _whoever_. _Whoever_ has therefore a double construction, being the subject of both _calls_ and _must be admitted_.]

He shall have _whatever_ he wishes.

I will do _whichever_ you say.

In such sentences, care should be taken to use _whoever_ and _whomever_ correctly. The nominative (_whoever_) is required when the relative is the subject of its own clause.

He asked _whoever_ came.

He told the story to _whoever_ would listen.

He asked _whomever_ he knew.

He told the story to _whomever_ he met.

+160.+ The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or implied.

_Whoever_ deserts you, I will remain faithful.

_Whomever_ it offends, I will speak the truth.

_Whatever_ he attempts, he is sure to fail.

_Whichever_ you choose, you will be disappointed.

NOTE. This construction is closely related to that explained in § 159. “Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful,” is practically equivalent to “Whoever deserts you, let him desert you! I will remain faithful.” No antecedent, however, is felt by the speaker, and hence none need be supplied in parsing. Compare concessive clauses (§ 401).

+161.+ _Which_, _what_, _whichever_, and _whatever_ are often used as adjectives.

Use _what_ (or _whatever_) powers you have.

_Whichever_ plan you adopt, you have my best wishes.

+162.+ A noun limited by the adjectives _what_, _whichever_, and _whatever_, may have the same double construction that these relatives have when they are used as pronouns (§ 159). Thus,--

Take _whichever_ pen is not in use. [Here _pen_ is both the direct object of _take_, and the subject of _is_.]

_Whoso_ for _whosoever_ and _whatso_ for _whatsoever_ are common in older English.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

+163.+ +The interrogative pronouns are _who_, _which_, and _what_. They are used in asking questions.+[22]

_Who_ is your neighbor?

_Who_ goes there?

_Whom_ have you chosen?

From _whom_ did you learn this?

_Whose_ voice is that?

_Which_ shall I take?

_Which_ is correct?

_What_ did he say?

_What_ is lacking?

With _what_ are you so delighted?

+164.+ _Who_ has a possessive _whose_, and an objective _whom_. _Which_ and _what_ are not inflected.

_Who_ may be either masculine or feminine; _which_ and _what_ may be of any gender.

+165.+ The +objective+ _whom_ often begins a question (as in the third example in § 163). Care should be taken not to write _who_ for _whom_.

+166.+ _Which_ and _what_ are used as +interrogative adjectives+.

_Which_ street shall I take?

_What_ village is this?

+167.+ The interrogative adjective _what_ may be used in a peculiar form of exclamatory sentence. Thus,--

_What_ a cold night this is!

_What_ courage he must have had!

_What!_ by itself often serves as an exclamation: as,--“_What!_ do you really think so?” In this use _what_ may be regarded as an interjection.

+168.+ In +parsing pronouns+ the following models may be used:--

1. _He_ was my earliest friend.

_He_ is a personal pronoun of the third person. It is in the masculine gender, the singular number, and the nominative case, being the subject of the verb _was_.

2. A policeman _whom_ I met showed me the house.

_Whom_ is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, _policeman_. It is in the objective case, being the direct object of the transitive verb _met_.

3. The corporal, _whose_ name was Scott, came from Leith.

_Whose_ is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, _corporal_. It is in the possessive case, modifying the noun _name_.

4. _Whose_ birthday do we celebrate in February?

_Whose_ is an interrogative pronoun in the masculine or feminine gender, singular number, and possessive case, modifying the noun _birthday_.

5. He injured _himself_ severely.

_Himself_ is a compound personal pronoun of the third person, used reflexively. It is of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, _he_. It is in the objective case, being the direct object of the transitive verb _injured_.