CHAPTER II

NOUNS

CLASSIFICATION--COMMON NOUNS AND PROPER NOUNS

+54.+ +A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.+

+55.+ +Nouns are divided into two classes--proper nouns and common nouns.+

1. +A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing.+

EXAMPLES: Lincoln, Napoleon, Ruth, Gladstone, America, Denver, Jove, Ohio, Monday, December, Yale, Christmas, Britannia, Niagara, Merrimac, Elmwood, Louvre, Richardson, Huron, Falstaff.

2. +A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a class of persons, places, or things.+

EXAMPLES: general, emperor, president, clerk, street, town, desk, tree, cloud, chimney, childhood, idea, thought, letter, dynamo, cruiser, dictionary, railroad.

Proper nouns begin with a capital letter; common nouns usually begin with a small letter.

NOTE. Although a proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing, that name may be given to more than one individual. More than one man is named _James_; but when we say _James_, we think of one particular person, whom we are calling by his own name. When we say _man_, on the contrary, we are not calling any single person by name: we are using a noun which applies, in common, to all the members of a large class of persons.

Any word, when mentioned merely +as a word+, is a noun. Thus,--

_And_ is a conjunction.

+56.+ A common noun becomes a proper noun when used as the particular name of a ship, a newspaper, an animal, etc.

Nelson’s flagship was the _Victory_.

Give me this evening’s _Herald_.

My dog is named _Rover_.

The _Limited Express_ is drawn by the _Pioneer_.

+57.+ A proper noun often consists of a group of words, some of which are perhaps ordinarily used as other parts of speech.

EXAMPLES: James Russell Lowell, Washington Elm, Eiffel Tower, Firth of Clyde, North Lexington Junction, Stony Brook, Westminster Abbey, Measure for Measure, White House, Brooklyn Bridge, Atlantic Railroad, Sherman Act, The Return of the Native, Flatiron Building.

NOTE. These are (strictly speaking) noun-phrases (§ 41); but, since all are particular names, they may be regarded as proper nouns.

+58.+ A proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a name that may be applied to any one of a class of objects.

The museum owns two _Rembrandts_ and a _Titian_.

I exchanged my old motor car for a new _Halstead_.

My fountain pen is a _Blake_.

Lend me your _Webster_.

He was a _Napoleon_ of finance.

I am going to buy a _Kazak_.

+59.+ Certain proper nouns have become common nouns when used in a special sense. These generally begin with a small letter.

EXAMPLES: macadam (crushed stone for roads, so called from Macadam, the inventor), mackintosh (a waterproof garment), napoleon (a coin), guinea (twenty-one shillings), mentor (a wise counsellor), derringer (a kind of pistol).

+60.+ A lifeless object, one of the lower animals, or any human quality or emotion is sometimes regarded as a person.

This usage is called +personification+, and the object, animal, or quality is said to be +personified+.

Each old poetic _Mountain_ Inspiration breathed around.--GRAY.

Who’ll toll the bell? “I,” said the _Bull_, “Because I can pull.”

His name was _Patience_.--SPENSER.

Smiles on past _Misfortune’s_ brow Soft _Reflection’s_ hand can trace; And o’er the cheek of _Sorrow_ throw A melancholy grace.--GRAY.

_Love_ is and was my lord and king, And in his presence I attend.--TENNYSON.

_Time_ gently shakes his wings.--DRYDEN.

The name of anything personified is regarded as a proper noun and is usually written with a capital letter.

NOTE. The rule for capitals is not absolute. When the personification is kept up for only a sentence or two (as frequently in Shakspere), the noun often begins with a small letter.

SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS

+61.+ +An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea.+

EXAMPLES: blackness, freshness, smoothness, weight, height, length, depth, strength, health, honesty, beauty, liberty, eternity, satisfaction, precision, splendor, terror, disappointment, elegance, existence, grace, peace.

Many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives.

EXAMPLES: greenness (from _green_), depth (from _deep_), freedom (from _free_), wisdom (from _wise_), rotundity (from _rotund_), falsity or falseness (from _false_), bravery (from _brave_).

+62.+ +A collective noun is the name of a group, class, or multitude, and not of a single person, place, or thing.+

EXAMPLES: crowd, group, legislature, squadron, sheaf, battalion, squad, Associated Press, Mediterranean Steamship Company, Senior Class, School Board.

The same noun may be +abstract+ in one of its meanings, +collective+ in another.

They believe in _fraternity_. [Abstract.]

The student joined a _fraternity_. [Collective.]

+63.+ Abstract nouns are usually common, but become proper when the quality or idea is personified (§ 60).

Collective nouns may be either proper or common.

+64.+ +A noun consisting of two or more words united is called a compound noun.+

EXAMPLES: (1) common nouns,--tablecloth, sidewalk, lampshade, bedclothes, steamboat, fireman, washerwoman, jackknife, hatband, headache, flatiron, innkeeper, knife-edge, steeple-climber, brother-in-law, commander-in-chief, window curtain, insurance company; (2) proper nouns,--Johnson, Williamson, Cooperstown, Louisville, Holywood, Elk-horn, Auburndale, Stratford-on-Avon, Lowell Junction.

As the examples show, the parts of a compound noun may be joined (with or without a hyphen) or written separately. In some words usage is fixed, in others it varies. The hyphen, however, is less used than formerly.

NOTE. The first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after the manner of an adjective. Indeed, many expressions may be regarded either (1) as compounds or (2) as phrases containing an adjective and a noun. Thus _railway conductor_ may be taken as a compound noun, or as a noun (_conductor_) limited by an adjective (_railway_).

INFLECTION OF NOUNS

+65.+ In studying the inflection of nouns and pronouns we have to consider +gender+, +number+, +person+, and +case+.

1. +Gender is distinction according to sex.+

2. +Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person or thing or more than one.+

3. +Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they designate (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person or thing spoken of.+

4. +Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.+

These four properties of substantives are included under inflection for convenience. In strictness, however, nouns are inflected for number and case only. Gender is shown in various ways,--usually by the meaning of the noun or by the use of some pronoun. Person is indicated by the sense, by the pronouns used, and by the form of the verb.

I. GENDER

+66.+ +Gender is distinction according to sex.+

+Nouns and pronouns may be of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender.+

1. +A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine gender.+

EXAMPLES: Joseph, boy, cockerel, buck, footman, butler, brother, father, uncle, he.

2. +A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine gender.+

EXAMPLES: girl, Julia, hen, waitress, maid, doe, spinster, matron, aunt, squaw, she.

3. +A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the neuter gender.+

EXAMPLES: pencil, light, water, star, book, dust, leaf, it.

A noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine is often said to be of +common gender+.

EXAMPLES: bird, speaker, artist, animal, cat, European, musician, operator, they.

+67.+ +A pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it stands or to which it refers.+

Each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender:

MASCULINE: _he_, _his_, _him_. FEMININE: _she_, _her_, _hers_. NEUTER: _it_, _its_.

All other pronouns vary in gender.

_Robert_ greeted _his_ employer. [Masculine.]

A _mother_ passed with _her_ child. [Feminine.]

This _tree_ has lost _its_ foliage. [Neuter.]

_Who_ laughed? [Masculine or feminine.]

How do _you_ do? [Masculine or feminine.]

_They_ have disappeared. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]

I do not care for _either_. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]

+68.+ A neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by +personification+ (§ 60).

Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams The blue Mediterranean.--SHELLEY.

Stern daughter of the Voice of God! O Duty!--WORDSWORTH.

Nature from her seat Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe.--MILTON.

+69.+ In speaking of certain objects, such as a ship and the moon, it is customary to use _she_ and _her_. In like manner, _he_ is used in speaking of the sun and of most animals, without reference to sex, although _it_ often designates an insect or other small creature, and even a very young child.

_Who_ and _which_ are both used in referring to the +lower animals+. _Which_ is the commoner, but _who_ is not infrequent, especially if the animal is thought of as an intelligent being.

Thus one would say, “The dog _which_ is for sale is in that kennel,” even if one added, “_He_ is a collie.” But _which_ would never be used in such a sentence as, “I have a dog _who_ loves children.”

+70.+ The +gender+ of masculine and of feminine nouns may be shown in various ways.

1. The male and the female of many kinds or classes of living beings are denoted by different words.

MASCULINE FEMININE

father mother husband wife uncle aunt king queen monk nun wizard witch lord lady horse mare gander goose drake duck cock hen ram ewe bull cow hart hind buck doe fox vixen[10]

2. Some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition of an ending.

MASCULINE FEMININE

heir heiress baron baroness lion lioness prince princess emperor empress tiger tigress executor executrix administrator administratrix hero heroine Joseph Josephine sultan sultana Philip Philippa

NOTE. The feminine gender is often indicated by the ending _ess_. Frequently the corresponding masculine form ends in _or_ or _er_: as,--actor, actress; governor, governess; waiter, waitress. The ending _ess_ is not so common as formerly. Usage favors _proprietor_, _author_, _editor_, etc., even for the feminine (rather than the harsher forms _proprietress_, _authoress_, _editress_), whenever there is no special reason for emphasizing the difference of sex.

3. A few feminine words become masculine by the addition of an ending. Thus,--_widow_, _widower_; _bride_, _bridegroom_.

4. Gender is sometimes indicated by the ending _man_, _woman_, _maid_, _boy_, or _girl_.

EXAMPLES: salesman, saleswoman; foreman, forewoman; laundryman; milkmaid; cash boy, cash girl.

5. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes prefixed to a noun to indicate gender.

EXAMPLES: manservant, maidservant; mother bird; cock sparrow, hen sparrow; boy friend, girl friend; he-wolf, she-wolf.

6. The gender of a noun may be indicated by some accompanying part of speech, usually by a pronoun.

My _cat_ is always washing _his_ face.

The _intruder_ shook _her_ head.

I was confronted by a pitiful _creature_, haggard and _unshaven_.

NOTE. The variations in form studied under 2 and 3 (above) are often regarded as inflections. In reality, however, the masculine and the feminine are different words. Thus, _baroness_ is not an inflectional form of _baron_, but a distinct noun, made from _baron_ by adding the ending _ess_, precisely as _barony_ and _baronage_ are made from _baron_ by adding the endings _y_ and _age_. The process is rather that of +derivation+ or noun-formation than that of inflection.

II. NUMBER

+71.+ +Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person, place, or thing or more than one.+

+There are two numbers,--the singular and the plural.+

+The singular number denotes but one person, place, or thing. The plural number denotes more than one person, place, or thing.+

+72.+ +Most nouns form the plural number by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular.+

EXAMPLES: mat, mats; wave, waves; problem, problems; bough, boughs; John, Johns; nurse, nurses; tense, tenses; bench, benches; dish, dishes; class, classes; fox, foxes.

SPECIAL RULES

1. If the singular ends in _s_, _x_, _z_, _ch_, or _sh_, the plural ending is _es_.

EXAMPLES: loss, losses; box, boxes; buzz, buzzes; match, matches; rush, rushes.

2. Many nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant also take the ending _es_ in the plural.

EXAMPLES: hero, heroes; cargo, cargoes; potato, potatoes; motto, mottoes; buffalo, buffaloes; mosquito, mosquitoes.

3. Nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a vowel form their plural in _s_: as,--_cameo_, _cameos_; _folio_, _folios_.

4. The following nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant also form their plural in _s_:--

banjo bravo burro cantocasino chromo contralto duodecimo dynamo halo[11] junto lasso memento[11] octavo piano proviso quarto solo soprano stiletto torso tyro zero[11]

+73.+ In some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters the spelling and even the sound of the singular form.

1. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change _y_ to _i_ and add _es_ in the plural.

EXAMPLES: sky, skies; fly, flies; country, countries; berry, berries. (Contrast: valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys; monkey, monkeys; boy, boys; day, days.)

Most proper names ending in _y_, however, take the plural in _s_.

EXAMPLES: Mary, Marys; Murphy, Murphys; Daly, Dalys; Rowley, Rowleys; May, Mays.

2. Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, change the _f_ to _v_ and add _es_ or _s_.

EXAMPLES: wharf, wharves; wife, wives; shelf, shelves; wolf, wolves; thief, thieves; knife, knives; half, halves; calf, calves; life, lives; self, selves; sheaf, sheaves; loaf, loaves; leaf, leaves; elf, elves; beef, beeves.

+74.+ A few nouns form their plural in _en_.

These are: ox, oxen; brother, brethren (_or_ brothers); child, children.

NOTE. Ancient or poetical plurals belonging to this class are: _eyne_ (for _eyen_, from _eye_), _kine_ (cows), _shoon_ (shoes), _hosen_ (hose).

+75.+ A few nouns form their plural by a +change of vowel+.

These are: man, men; woman, women; merman, mermen; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; mouse, mice; louse, lice. Also compound words ending in _man_ or _woman_, such as fireman, firemen; saleswoman, saleswomen; Dutchman, Dutchmen.

NOTE. _German_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_, _dragoman_, _firman_, and _talisman_, which are not compounds of _man_, form their plurals regularly: as,--_Germans_, _Mussulmans_. _Norman_ also forms its plural in _s_.

+76.+ A few nouns have the same form in both singular and plural.

EXAMPLES: deer, sheep, heathen, Japanese, Portuguese, Iroquois.

NOTE. This class was larger in older English than at present. It included, for example, _year_, which in Shakspere has two plurals:--“six thousand _years_,” “twelve _year_ since.”

+77.+ A few nouns have two plurals, but usually with some difference in meaning.

SINGULAR PLURAL

brother { brothers (relatives) { brethren (members of the same society)

horse { horses (animals) { horse (cavalry)

foot { feet (parts of the body) { foot (infantry)

sail { sails (on vessels) { sail (vessels in a fleet)

head { heads (in usual sense) { head (of cattle)

fish { fishes (individually) { fish (collectively)

penny { pennies (single coins) { pence (collectively)

cloth { cloths (pieces of cloth) { clothes (garments)

die { dies (for stamping) { dice (for gaming)

The _pennies_ were arranged in neat piles.

English money is reckoned in pounds, shillings, and _pence_.

+78.+ When +compound nouns+ are made plural, the last part usually takes the plural form; less often the first part; rarely both parts.

EXAMPLES: spoonful, spoonfuls; bathhouse, bathhouses; forget-me-not, forget-me-nots; editor-in-chief, editors-in-chief; maid-of-honor, maids-of-honor; gentleman usher, gentlemen ushers; Knight Templar, Knights Templars; Lord Justice, Lords Justices; manservant, menservants.

+79.+ Letters of the alphabet, figures, signs used in writing, and words regarded merely as words take _’s_ in the plural.

“Embarrassed” is spelled with two _r’s_ and two _s’s_.

Your _3’s_ look like _8’s_.

Tell the printer to change the §’s to ¶’s.

Don’t interrupt me with your _but’s_!

+80.+ Foreign nouns in English sometimes retain their foreign plurals; but many have an English plural also.

Some of the commonest are included in the following list:[12]

SINGULAR PLURAL

alumna (feminine) alumnæ alumnus (masculine) alumni amanuensis amanuenses analysis analyses animalculum animalcula[13] antithesis antitheses appendix { appendices { appendixes axis axes bacillus bacilli bacterium bacteria bandit { banditti { bandits basis bases beau { beaux { beaus candelabrum candelabra cumulus cumuli cherub { cherubim { cherubs crisis crises curriculum curricula datum data ellipsis ellipses erratum errata formula { formulæ { formulas genius { genii { geniuses genus genera gymnasium { gymnasia { gymnasiums hippopotamus hippopotami hypothesis hypotheses larva larvæ memorandum { memoranda { memorandums nebula nebulæ oasis oases parenthesis parentheses phenomenon phenomena radius radii seraph { seraphim { seraphs species species stratum strata synopsis synopses tableau tableaux tempo tempi terminus termini thesis theses trousseau trousseaux vertebra vertebræ

The two plurals sometimes differ in meaning: as,--

Michael Angelo and Raphael were _geniuses_.

Spirits are sometimes called _genii_.

This book has two _indices_.

The printer uses signs called _indexes_.

+81.+ When a +proper name+ with the title _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Miss_, or _Master_, is put into the plural, the rules are as follows:--

1. The plural of _Mr._ is _Messrs._ (pronounced _Messers_[14]). The name remains in the singular. Thus,--

_Mr. Jackson_, plural _Messrs._ (or the _Messrs._) _Jackson_.

2. _Mrs._ has no plural. The name itself takes the plural form. Thus,--

_Mrs. Jackson_, plural _the Mrs. Jacksons_.

3. In the case of _Miss_, sometimes the title is put into the plural, sometimes the name. Thus,--

_Miss Jackson_, plural _the Misses Jackson_ or _the Miss Jacksons_.

The latter expression is somewhat informal. Accordingly, it would not be used in a formal invitation or reply, or in addressing a letter.

4. The plural of _Master_ is _Masters_. The name remains in the singular. Thus,--

_Master Jackson_, plural _the Masters Jackson_.

Other titles usually remain in the singular, the name taking the plural form: as,--_the two General Follansbys_. But when two or more names follow, the title becomes plural: as,--_Generals Rolfe and Johnson_.

+82.+ Some nouns, on account of their meaning, are seldom or never used in the plural.

Such are many names of qualities (as _cheerfulness_, _mirth_), of sciences (as _chemistry_[15]), of forces (as _gravitation_).

Many nouns, commonly used in the singular only, may take a plural in some special sense. Thus,--

earth (the globe) earths (kinds of soil) ice (frozen water) ices (food) tin (a metal) tins (tin dishes or cans) nickel (a metal) nickels (coins)

+83.+ Some nouns are used in the plural only.

Such are: annals, athletics, billiards, dregs, eaves, entrails, lees, nuptials, oats, obsequies, pincers, proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, suds, tweezers, tongs, trousers, victuals, vitals;

and (in certain special senses)

ashes, goods, links, scales, spectacles, stocks.

+84.+ A few nouns are plural in form, but singular in meaning.

Such are: gallows, news, measles, mumps, small pox (for _small pocks_), politics, and some names of sciences (as, civics, economics, ethics, mathematics, physics, optics).

NOTE. These nouns were formerly plural in sense as well as in form. _News_, for example, originally meant “new things.” Shakspere uses it both as a singular and as a plural. Thus,--“_This news_ was brought to Richard” (_King John_, v. 3. 12); “But wherefore do I tell _these news_ to thee?” (_1 Henry IV_, iii. 2. 121). In a few words modern usage varies. The following nouns are sometimes singular, sometimes plural: _alms_, _amends_, _bellows_, _means_, _pains_ (in the sense of “effort”), _tidings_.

III. PERSON

+85.+ +Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they denote (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person spoken of.+

+A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of.+

I, the _king_, command his presence. [First person.]

You, _Thomas_, broke the window. [Second person.]

_Charles_, come here. [Second person.]

He, the _fireman_, saved the train. [Third person.]

The _diver_ sinks slowly from our view. [Third person.]

The _tower_ suddenly collapsed. [Third person.]

The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has nothing to do with its form, but is indicated by the sense or connection; (2) that certain pronouns denote person with precision. Thus, _I_ is always of the first person; _you_ of the second; and _he_ of the third. These personal pronouns will be treated in Chapter III.

IV. CASE

+86.+ +Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.+

There are three cases,--the +nominative+, the +possessive+, and the +objective+.

The possessive case is often called the +genitive+.

The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always alike in form. In some pronouns, however, there is a difference (as,--_I_, _me_; _he_, _him_).

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

+87.+ The inflection of a substantive is called its +declension+. To +decline+ a noun is to give its case-forms in order, first in the singular number and then in the plural. Thus,--

SINGULAR

_Nominative_ boy horse fly chimney _Possessive_ boy’s horse’s fly’s chimney’s _Objective_ boy horse fly chimney

PLURAL

_Nominative_ boys horses flies chimneys _Possessive_ boys’ horses’ flies’ chimneys’ _Objective_ boys horses flies chimneys

SINGULAR

_Nominative_ calf lass man deer _Possessive_ calf’s lass’s man’s deer’s _Objective_ calf lass man deer

PLURAL

_Nominative_ calves lasses men deer _Possessive_ calves’ lasses’ men’s deer’s _Objective_ calves lasses men deer

NOMINATIVE CASE

+88.+ The +nominative case+ is used in the following constructions: (1) the subject, (2) the predicate nominative, (3) the vocative, (or nominative of direct address), (4) the exclamatory nominative, (5) appositive with a nominative, (6) the nominative absolute.

1. +The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.+

_Water_ freezes.

_Charles_ climbed the mountain.

The boy’s _face_ glowed with health and exercise.

A thousand _men_ were killed in this battle.

In the third example, _face_ is the simple subject; the complete subject is _the boy’s face_. In the fourth, _men_ is the simple subject; the complete subject is _a thousand men_. Both _face_ and _men_ are in the nominative case; _face_ is in the singular number; _men_ in the plural.

2. +A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative.+

A predicate nominative is also called a +subject complement+ or an +attribute+.

Lobsters are _crustaceans_.

A good book is a faithful _friend_.

Shakspere was a _native_ of Stratford-on-Avon.

Arnold proved a _traitor_.

Adams was elected _president_.

The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particularly important with respect to pronouns (§ 119).

I am _he_. Are you _she_?

It is _I_. It was _we_ who did it.

The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula _is_ (in its various forms). It will be further studied in connection with intransitive and passive verbs (§§ 214, 252).

3. +A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative.+

A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a +nominative by direct address+ or a +vocative nominative+.

Come, _Ruth_, give me your hand.

Turn to the right, _madam_.

_Herbert_, it is your turn.

Come with me, my _child_.

NOTE. A vocative word is sometimes said to be +independent by direct address+, because it stands by itself, unconnected with any verb. That a vocative is really in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun _thou_ in this construction: as,--I will arrest thee, _thou_ traitor (see § 115).

4. +A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative (or nominative of exclamation).+

_Peace_, be still.

Fortunate _Ruth_!

A _drum_! a _drum_! Macbeth doth come.

Look! a _balloon_!

The _sun_! then we shall have a fine day.

Certain exclamatory nominatives are sometimes classed as interjections (§ 375).

5. +A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and signifying the same person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to be in apposition.+

+An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits.+

Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in the nominative case.

Mr. Scott, the _grocer_, is here. [Apposition with subject.]

Tom, old _fellow_, I am glad to see you. [Apposition with vocative.]

The discoverer of the Pacific was Balboa, a _Spaniard_. [Apposition with predicate nominative.]

NOTE. _Apposition_ means “attachment”; _appositive_ means “attached noun or pronoun.” An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in apposition much as an adjective might do (compare “Balboa, a _Spaniard_” with “_Spanish_ Balboa”). Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.

POSSESSIVE CASE

+89.+ +The possessive case denotes ownership or possession.+

_John’s_ yacht lies at her moorings.

The _duck’s_ feet are webbed.

The _mutineer’s_ pistol burst when he fired.

NOTE. Most uses of the possessive come under the general head of +possession+ in some sense. Special varieties of meaning are +source+ (as in “_hen’s_ eggs”) and +authorship+ (as in “_Wordsworth’s_ sonnets”).

A possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is attached as an adjective might do. Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.

Forms of the Possessive Case

+90.+ +The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number, the ending _’s_.+

EXAMPLES: the owl’s feathers, Elizabeth’s hat, the officer’s name.

+Plural nouns ending in _s_ take no further ending for the possessive. In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the _s_ to indicate the possessive case.+

EXAMPLES: the owls’ feathers, the officers’ names, the artists’ petition, the engineers’ ball.

+Plural nouns not ending in _s_ take _’s_ in the possessive.+

EXAMPLES: the firemen’s ball, the policemen’s quarters, the children’s hour.

NOTE. In older English the possessive of most nouns was written as well as pronounced with the ending _-es_ or _-is_. Thus, in Chaucer, the possessive of _child_ is _childës_ or _childis_; that of _king_ is _kingës_ or _kingis_; that of _John_ is _Johnës_ or _Johnis_. The use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a comparatively modern device, due to a misunderstanding. Scholars at one time thought the _s_ of the possessive a fragment of the pronoun _his_; that is, they took such a phrase as _George’s book_ for a contraction of _George his book_. Hence they used the apostrophe before _s_ to signify the supposed omission of part of the word _his_. Similarly, in the possessive plural, there was thought to be an omission of a final _es_; that is, such a phrase as _the horses’ heads_ was thought to be a contraction of the _horseses_ heads. Both these errors have long been exploded.

+91.+ Nouns like _sheep_ and _deer_, which have the same form in both the singular and the plural, usually take _’s_ in the possessive plural.

Thus, _the deer’s tracks_ would be written, whether one deer or more were meant.

+92.+ POSSESSIVE SINGULAR OF NOUNS ENDING IN _S_.

1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in _s_ or an _s_-sound usually make their possessive singular by adding _’s_.

EXAMPLES: Charles’s hat, Forbes’s garden, Mr. Wells’s daughter, Rice’s carriage, Mrs. Dix’s family, a fox’s brush.

NOTE. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule accords with the best usage; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence forms like _Charles’_ and _Wells’_ cannot be condemned as positively wrong, though _Charles’s_ and _Wells’s_ are preferable. In speaking, the shorter form is often ambiguous, for there is no difference in sound between _Dix’_ and _Dick’s_, _Mr. Hills’_ and _Mr. Hill’s_, _Dr. Childs’_ and _Dr. Child’s_.

2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in _s_ or an _s_-sound, and not accented on the last syllable, may make their possessive singular by adding _’s_, or may take no ending in the possessive.

In the latter case, an apostrophe is added in writing, but in sound there is no difference between the possessive and the nominative.

EXAMPLES: Burrows’s (_or_ Burrows’) Hotel, Æneas’s (_or_ Æneas’) voyage, Beatrice’s (_or_ Beatrice’) gratitude, Felix’s (_or_ Felix’) arrival, for conscience’s (_or_ conscience’) sake.

Most of the nouns in question are proper names. In speaking, one must often use the longer form to prevent ambiguity; for _Williams’_ and _William’s_, _Roberts’_ and _Robert’s_, _Robbins’_ and _Robin’s_, are indistinguishable in sound.

NOTE. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in _s_ or an _s_-sound and accented on the last syllable, follow the rule for monosyllables. Thus,--_Laplace’s_ mathematics (not _Laplace’_); _Alphonse’s_ father (not _Alphonse’_).

When final _s_ is silent (as in many French names), _’s_ must of course be added in the possessive. Thus,--_Descartes’s_ philosophy (pronounced _Daycárt’s_).

Use of the Possessive Case

+93.+[16] Possession may be denoted by a phrase with _of_ as well as by the possessive case. The distinction between the two forms cannot be brought under rigid rules, but the following suggestions will be of use.

I. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of nouns is freely used, but in modern prose it is rare unless the possessor is a living being. A phrase with _of_ is used instead.

The mayor _of Detroit_ (NOT _Detroit’s_ mayor).

The top _of the post_ (NOT the _post’s_ top).

The prevalence _of the epidemic_ (NOT the _epidemic’s_ prevalence).

Contrast the poetic use:--

_Belgium’s_ capital had gathered then Her beauty and her chivalry.--BYRON.

Other prepositions are sometimes used: as,--“the explosion in _New York_” (NOT “_New York’s_ explosion”), “the station _at Plymouth_.”

II. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies.

1. If there is actual ownership or possession of some material thing, the possessive case is generally used in the singular: as,--“John’s _hat_” (not “the hat _of John_”). The possessive plural, however, is often replaced by a phrase with _of_, to avoid ambiguity or harshness: as,--“the jewels _of the ladies_” (rather than “the _ladies’_ jewels”)[17], “the wings _of the geese_” (rather than “the _geese’s_ wings”).

2. With nouns denoting a quality, an act, or the like, either the possessive or the _of_-phrase is proper: as,--“_John’s_ generosity,” or “the generosity _of John_”; “_John’s_ condition,” or “the condition _of John_”; “the _guide’s_ efforts,” or “the efforts _of the guide_”; “_Cæsar’s_ death,” or “the death _of Cæsar_.”

When there is any choice, it usually depends on euphony (that is, agreeable sound), and is therefore a question of style. Sometimes, however, there is a distinction in sense. “_John’s_ fear,” for example, indicates that John is afraid; but “the fear _of John_” means the fear which John inspires in others.

III. The following phrases are established idioms with the possessive. In some of them, however, the possessive may be replaced by _of_ and its object.

(1) The earth’s surface, the sun’s rays, the moon’s reflection, the pit’s mouth, a rope’s end, his journey’s end, at his wit’s end, the ship’s keel, the water’s edge, the cannon’s mouth, out of harm’s way, at swords’ points, for pity’s sake, for conscience’ sake; (2) a moment’s pause, a year’s time, a hand’s breadth, a boat’s length, a month’s salary, a week’s notice, a night’s rest, a day’s work, a stone’s throw, a feather’s weight, an hour’s delay, a dollar’s worth, not a foot’s difference.

In the second group of phrases (“a moment’s pause,” etc.), the possessive denotes not ownership, but +measure+ or +extent+.

IV. The possessive case of certain pronouns (_my_, _our_, _your_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _their_) is more freely used than that of nouns in expressions that do not denote actual ownership.

I know him to _my_ sorrow. [Compare: to his loss, to our detriment, to his advantage.]

The brass has lost _its_ polish.

This question must be decided on _its_ merits.

His arguments did not fail of _their_ effect.

For the inflection of these pronouns, see § 115. For the use of _whose_, see § 152.

+94.+ When a thing belongs to two or more +joint owners+, the sign of the possessive is added to the last name only.

Brown, Jones, and Richardson’s factories. [Brown, Jones, and Richardson are partners.]

It is George and William’s turn to take the boat. [George and William are to go in the boat together.]

On the other hand, in order to avoid ambiguity we should say, “Brown’s, Jones’s, and Richardson’s factories,” if each individual had a factory of his own; and “George’s and William’s answers were correct,” if each boy answered independently of the other.

+95.+ In +compound nouns+ the last part takes the possessive sign. So also when a phrase is used as a noun.

My _father-in-law’s_ home is in Easton.

We had _a quarter of an hour’s_ talk.

Other examples are the following:--

My brother-in-law’s opinion; the commander-in-chief’s orders; the lady-in-waiting’s duties; the coal dealer’s prices; Edward VII’s reign; the King of England’s portrait; half a year’s delay; in three or four months’ time; a cable and a half’s length; the pleasure of Major Pendennis and Mr. Arthur Pendennis’s company (THACKERAY).

NOTE. Noun-phrases often contain two substantives, the second of which is in apposition with the first. In such phrases, _of_ is generally preferable to the possessive. Thus, we may say either “Tom the blacksmith’s daughter” or “the daughter of Tom the blacksmith”; but “the son of Mr. Hill the carpenter” is both neater and clearer than “Mr. Hill the carpenter’s son.” The use of _’s_ is also avoided with a very long phrase like “the owner of the house on the other side of the street.”

An objective may stand in apposition with a possessive, the latter being equivalent to _of_ with an object. Thus,--“I am not yet of Percy’s mind [= of the mind of Percy], the _Hotspur_ of the North” (SHAKSPERE).

+96.+ The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted when it may be readily understood, especially in the predicate.

_Conant’s_ [shop] is open until noon.

I buy my hats at _Bryant’s_ [shop].

We will dine at _Pennock’s_ [restaurant].

That camera is _mine_. (See § 122.)

This construction is common in such expressions as:--

He was a relative of _John’s_.

That careless tongue of _John’s_ will get him into trouble.

In the first example, “a relative of John’s” means “a relative of (= _from among_) John’s relatives.” The second example shows an extension of this construction by analogy. See § 122.

OBJECTIVE CASE

+97.+ The +objective case+, as its name implies, is the case of the +object+. Most of its uses are covered by the following rule:--

+The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.+

The object of a preposition has already been explained and defined (§§ 20–21).

+98.+ The +object of a verb+ may be (1) the direct object, (2) the predicate objective, (3) the indirect object, (4) the cognate object. Of these the direct object is the most important.

The objective is also used (5) adverbially (§ 109), (6) in apposition with another objective (§ 110), and (7) as the subject of an infinitive (§ 111).

1. Direct Object

+99.+ +Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.+

1. That man _struck_ my _dog_.

2. The arrow _hit_ the _target_.

3. Cæsar _conquered Gaul_.

4. Mr. Holland _sells flour_.

5. The farmer _raises corn_.

6. Mr. Eaton _makes stoves_.

7. My grandfather _built_ that _house_.

In Nos. 1–4, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the +receiver of the action+. Thus, in the first sentence, the _dog_ receives the blow; in the second, the _target_ receives the action of hitting. In Nos. 5–7, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the +product+ of the action. For example, the _corn_ is +produced+ by the action expressed by the verb _raises_.

In each example, the noun that follows the verb +completes the sense+ of the verb. “That man _struck_ ----.” “Struck _whom_?” “He struck the _dog_.” Until _dog_ is added the sense of the verb _struck_ is incomplete.

+100.+ +A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case.+

Thus, in the examples above, _dog_ is the direct object of the transitive verb _struck_; _target_ is the direct object of _hit_,--and so on. Each of these nouns is therefore in the +objective case+.

+The direct object is often called the object complement, or the object of the verb.+

+101.+ Intransitive verbs have no object.

The lion _roared_.

The visitor _coughed_ gently.

The log _drifted_ downstream.

We all _listened_ intently.

Compare these sentences with those in § 99. We observe that the verbs (unlike those in § 99) admit no object, since their meaning is complete without the addition of any noun to denote the receiver or product of the action. “The man _struck_----” prompts the inquiry, “Struck _whom_?” But no such question is suggested by “The lion _roared_”; for “Roared _what_?” would be an absurdity.

+102.+ The +predicate nominative+ (§ 88, 2) must not be confused with the +direct object+. They resemble each other in two particulars: (1) both stand in the predicate, and (2) both complete the meaning of the verb. But they differ utterly in their relation to the subject of the sentence. For--

The +predicate nominative+ describes or defines the +subject+. Hence both substantives denote the same person or thing.

Charles [SUBJECT] {is | was | became | was elected} _captain_ [PREDICATE NOMINATIVE].

The +direct object+ neither describes nor defines the subject. On the contrary, it designates that upon which the subject acts. Hence the two substantives regularly[18] denote different persons or things.

Charles [SUBJECT] {struck _James_ [OBJECT]. | threw a _stone_ [OBJECT]. | built a _boat_ [OBJECT].}

Both the direct object and the predicate nominative are classed as +complements+, because they are used to complete the sense of the predicate verb (§ 483).

+103.+ A verb of _asking_ sometimes takes +two direct objects+, one denoting the +person+ and the other the +thing+.

She asked the _boy_ his _name_.

Ask _me_ no _favors_.

I asked the _lawyer_ his _opinion_.

2. Predicate Objective

+104.+ +Verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and _thinking_ may take two objects referring to the same person or thing.+

+The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective.+

We chose Oscar _president_. [_Oscar_ is the direct object of _chose_; _president_ is the predicate objective.]

I call John my _friend_.

They thought the man a _coward_.

Make my house your _home_.

The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective attribute. It is classed as a complement.

An adjective may serve as predicate objective.

I call this ship _unseaworthy_.

Your letter made your sister _anxious_.

What makes Edwin so _careless_?

3. Indirect Object and Similar Idioms

+105.+ +Some verbs of _giving_, _telling_, _refusing_, and the like, may take two objects, a direct object and an indirect object.+

+The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate.+

DIRECT OBJECT ONLY DIRECT OBJECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT

Dick sold his bicycle. Dick sold _John_ his bicycle. I gave permission. I gave this _man_ permission. He paid a dollar. He paid the _gardener_ a dollar. She taught Latin. She taught my _children_ Latin.

Most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are included in the following list:--

allot, allow, assign, bequeath, bring, deny, ensure, fetch, fling, forbid, forgive, give, grant, guarantee, hand, lease, leave, lend, let, owe, pardon, pass, pay, refund, refuse, remit, restore, sell, send, show, sing, spare, teach, tell, throw, toss, vouchsafe.

Pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns.

They denied _her_ the necessities of life.

I guaranteed _them_ a handsome profit.

The king vouchsafed _them_ an audience.

+It is always possible to insert the preposition _to_ before the indirect object without changing the sense.+

Since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase, it is classed as a modifier of the verb.

Thus, in “Dick sold _John_ his bicycle,” _John_ is an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb _sold_.

The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object expressed. Thus,--

He paid the hatter.

Here _hatter_ may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting _to_ before it and adding a direct object (“his _bill_,” “his _money_,” or the like).

+106.+ The objective case sometimes expresses the person _for whom_ anything is done.

William made his _brother_ a kite [= made a kite for his brother].

Sampson built _me_ a boat [= built a boat for me].

This construction may be called the +objective of service+.

NOTE. The objective of service is often included under the head of the indirect object. But the two constructions differ widely in sense, and should be carefully distinguished. To do an act _to_ a person is not the same thing as to do an act _for_ a person. Contrast “John paid the money _to_ me,” with “John paid the money _for_ me”; “Dick sold a bicycle _to_ me,” with “Dick sold a bicycle _for_ me.”

+107.+ The objective case is used after _like_, _unlike_, _near_, and _next_, which are really adjectives or adverbs, though in this construction they are often regarded as prepositions.

She sang like a _bird_. [_Like_ is an adverb.]

The earth is like a _ball_. [_Like_ is an adjective.]

My office is near the _station_. [_Near_ is an adjective.]

That answer was unlike _Joseph_. [_Unlike_ is an adjective.]

This man walks unlike _Joseph_. [_Unlike_ is an adverb.]

A stream ran near the _hut_. [_Near_ is an adverb.]

The use of the objective after these words is a peculiar idiom similar to the indirect object (§ 105). The nature of the construction may be seen (as in the indirect object) by inserting _to_ or _unto_ (“She sang _like unto_ a bird”).

NOTE. The indirect object, the objective of service, and the objective after _like_, _unlike_, and _near_ are all survivals of old dative constructions. Besides the case of the direct object (often called +accusative+), English once had a case (called the +dative+) which meant _to_ or _for_ [somebody or something]. The dative case is easily distinguished in Greek, Latin, and German, but in English it has long been merged in form with the ordinary objective.

4. Cognate Object

+108.+ +A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.+

+A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the objective case.+

He ran a _race_.

The mayor coughed a dubious, insinuating _cough_.

A scornful _laugh_ laughed he.

The trumpeter blew a loud _blast_.

She sleeps the _sleep_ of death.

NOTE. _Cognate_ means “kindred” or “related.” The cognate object repeats the idea of the verb, often with some modification, and may be classed as an adverbial modifier. Its difference from the direct object may be seen by contrasting “The blacksmith struck the _anvil_” with “The blacksmith struck a mighty _blow_” (cf. “struck _mightily_”). For the pronoun _it_ as cognate object, see § 120.

5. Adverbial Objective

+109.+ +A noun, or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial objective.+

We have waited _years_ for this reform.

I am _years_ older than you are.

The river is _miles_ away.

The water rose _three feet_.

This is _an inch_ too long.

My brother is _twenty years_ old.

I will stay a _short time_.

Wait _a moment_.

Come here _this instant_!

Turn your eyes _this way_.

This silk is _several shades_ too light.

A group of words consisting of an adverbial object with its modifier or modifiers forms an +adverbial phrase+ (§ 41).

6. Objective in Apposition

+110.+ A substantive in apposition with an objective is itself in the objective case.

Yesterday I saw Williams the _expressman_. [Apposition with the direct object of _saw_.]

Tom gave his friend _John_ a book. [Apposition with the indirect object _friend_.]

He lives with Andrews the _blacksmith_. [Apposition with the object of the preposition _with_.]

This rule follows from the general principle that an appositive is in the same case as the substantive to which it is attached (§ 88, 5).

7. Subject of an Infinitive

+111.+ The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.

This construction will be treated in connection with the uses of the infinitive (§ 325).

Parsing

+112.+ To +parse+ a word is to describe its grammatical form and to give its construction.

In parsing a +noun+, we mention the class to which it belongs, give its gender, number, person, and case, and tell why it is in that case. Thus,--

1. Frank shot a wolf.

_Frank_ is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb _shot_.

_Wolf_ is a common noun of the masculine or feminine [or common] gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the objective case, because it is the object [or direct object] of the transitive verb _shot_.

2. Jane, come here.

_Jane_ is a proper noun of the feminine gender, in the singular number and second person. It is in the nominative case, being used as a vocative (or in direct address).

3. The rope is fifteen feet long.

_Feet_ is a common noun of the neuter gender, in the plural number and third person. It is in the objective case, being used as an adverbial modifier of the adjective _long_.

4. Edgar’s boat is a sloop.

_Edgar’s_ is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the possessive case, modifying the noun _boat_.