An Advanced English Grammar with Exercises
PART ONE
THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE
+Summary.+ The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of Sentences.--Use of words in the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech; Infinitives and Participles.--Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence: the Subject Noun (or Simple Subject); the Predicate Verb (or Simple Predicate); Compound Subject and Predicate.--Substitutes for the Parts of Speech: Phrases; Clauses; Compound and Complex Sentences.
THE SENTENCE
+1.+ +A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.+
Fire burns.
Wolves howl.
Rain is falling.
Charles is courageous.
Patient effort removes mountains.
London is the largest city in the world.
A man who respects himself should never condescend to use slovenly language.
Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple thought; others are comparatively long, because the thought is more complicated and therefore requires more words for its expression. But every one of them, whether short or long, is complete in itself. It comes to a definite end, and is followed by a full pause.
+2.+ Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two parts,--a +subject+ and a +predicate+.
+The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.+
Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is _fire_ and the predicate is _burns_. In the third, the subject is _rain_; the predicate, _is falling_. In the last, the subject is _a man who respects himself_; the predicate, _should never condescend to use slovenly language_.
Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of a number of words. But neither the subject by itself nor the predicate by itself, however extended, is a sentence. The mere mention of a thing (_fire_) does not express a complete thought. Neither does a mere assertion (_burns_), if we neglect to mention the person or thing about which the assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a predicate are necessary to make a sentence.
+3.+ +Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.+
1. +A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.+
Dickens wrote “David Copperfield.”
The army approached the city.
2. +An interrogative sentence asks a question.+
Who is that officer?
Does Arthur Moore live here?
3. +An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.+
Open the window.
Pronounce the vowels more distinctly.
4. +An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.+
How calm the sea is!
What a noise the engine makes!
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is also +exclamatory+, if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone of voice.
+4.+ In imperative sentences, the subject (_thou_ or _you_) is almost always omitted, because it is +understood+ by both speaker and hearer without being expressed.
Such omitted words, which are present (_in idea_) to the minds of both speaker and hearer, are said to be “understood.” Thus, in “Open the window,” the subject is “_you_ (understood).” If expressed, the subject would be emphatic: as,--“_You_ open the window.”
+5.+ The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate, but sometimes the predicate precedes.
Here comes Tom.
Next came Edward.
Over went the carriage.
A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in the +inverted order+. This order is especially common in interrogative sentences.
Where is your boat?
When was your last birthday?
Whither wander you?--SHAKSPERE.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
+6.+ If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought.
Savage beasts roamed through the forest.
In this sentence, _beasts_ and _forest_ are the +names+ of objects; _roamed_ +asserts action+, telling us what the beasts _did_; _savage_ +describes+ the beasts; _through_ shows the +relation+ in thought between _forest_ and _roamed_; _the_ +limits+ the meaning of _forest_, showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of these words has its +special office+ (or +function+) +in the sentence+.
+7.+ +In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,--namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.+
I. NOUNS
+8.+ +A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.+
EXAMPLES: Lincoln, William, Elizabeth, sister, engineer, Chicago, island, shelf, star, window, happiness, anger, sidewalk, courage, loss, song.
II. PRONOUNS
+9.+ +A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.+
In “_I_ am ready,” the pronoun _I_ is a convenient substitute for the speaker’s name. In “_You_ have forgotten _your_ umbrella,” the pronouns _you_ and _your_ designate the person to whom one is speaking.
Other pronouns are: _he_, _his_, _him_; _she_, _hers_, _her_; _it_, _its_; _this_, _that_; _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_; _myself_, _yourself_, _himself_, _themselves_.
Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about a person, place, or thing without constantly repeating the name.
+10.+ +Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.+
Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference between them is merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by +naming+ it, and that the pronoun +designates+, but does not +name+. Hence it is convenient to have a general term (+substantive+) to include both these parts of speech.
+11.+ +The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.+
_Frank_ introduced the boys to _his_ father. [_Frank_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _his_.]
_Eleanor_ is visiting _her_ aunt.
The _book_ has lost _its_ cover.
The _trappers_ sat round _their_ camp fire.
_Washington_ and _Franklin_ served _their_ country in different ways. [_Their_ has two antecedents, connected by _and_.]
III. ADJECTIVES
+12.+ +An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.+[5]
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
+An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.+
+13.+ An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning.
The noun _box_, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we say _wooden_ box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a second adjective (_small_) and a third (_square_), we limit the size and the shape of the box.
Most adjectives (like _wooden_, _square_, and _small_) +describe+ as well as limit. Such words are called +descriptive adjectives+.
We may, however, limit the noun _box_ to a single specimen by means of the adjective _this_ or _that_ or _the_, which does not +describe+, but simply points out, or +designates+. Such words are called +definitive adjectives+.[6]
IV. VERBS
+14.+ +A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.+[7]
The wind _blows_.
The horses _ran_.
The fire _blazed_.
Her jewels _sparkled_.
Tom _climbed_ a tree.
The dynamite _exploded_.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
The treaty still _exists_.
The book _lies_ on the table.
Near the church _stood_ an elm.
My aunt _suffers_ much from headache.
+15.+ A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make an assertion.
+A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.+
You _will see_.
The tree _has fallen_.
We _might have invited_ her.
Our driver _has been discharged_.
+16.+ Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called +auxiliary+ (that is, “aiding”) +verbs+, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.
Thus, in “You _will see_,” the auxiliary verb _will_ helps _see_ to express +future+ action; in “We _might have invited_ her,” the auxiliaries _might_ and _have_ help _invited_ to express action that was +possible+ in past time.
The auxiliary verbs are _is_ (_are_, _was_, _were_, etc.), _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _shall_, _will_, _could_, _would_, _should_, _have_, _had_, _do_, _did_. Their forms and uses will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word or words.
Where _was_ Washington _born_?
The boat _was_ slowly but steadily _approaching_.
+17.+ _Is_ (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject.
1. Gold _is_ a metal.
2. Charles _is_ my friend’s name.
3. The colors of this butterfly _are_ brilliant.
4. Iron _becomes_ red in the fire.
5. Our condition _seemed_ desperate.
6. Bertram _proved_ a good friend in this emergency.
7. My soul _grows_ sad with troubles.--SHAKSPERE.
In the first sentence, the verb _is_ not only +makes an assertion+, but it also +connects+ the rest of the predicate (_a metal_) with the subject (_gold_) in such a way that _a metal_ serves as a description or definition of _gold_.
In sentences 4–7, _becomes_, _seemed_, _proved_, and _grows_ are similarly used.
In such sentences _is_ and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called +copulative+ (that is, “joining”) +verbs+.
_Is_ in this use is often called the +copula+, that is, the “joiner” or “link.”
The forms of the verb _is_ are very irregular. Among the commonest are: _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_, and the verb-phrases _has been_, _have been_, _had been_, _shall be_, _will be_.[8]
V. ADVERBS
+18.+ +An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.+
To +modify+ a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. Thus in “The river fell _rapidly_,” the adverb _rapidly_ modifies the verb _fell_ by showing _how_ the falling took place. In “I am _never_ late,” “This is _absolutely_ true,” “That is _too_ bad,” the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in “He came _very_ often,” “He spoke _almost_ hopefully,” “The river fell _too_ rapidly,” they are adverbs modifying other adverbs.
Most adverbs answer the question “How?” “When?” “Where?” or “To what degree or extent?”
+19.+ Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives modify nouns.
ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
A _bright_ fire burned. The fire burned _brightly_. A _fierce_ wind blew. The wind blew _fiercely_.
+A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.+
Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both +modifiers+. Adjectives modify substantives; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
VI. PREPOSITIONS
+20.+ +A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.+
+The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.+
A preposition is said to +govern+ its object.
In “The surface _of_ the water glistened,” _of_ makes it clear that _surface_ belongs with _water_. In “Philip is _on_ the river,” _on_ shows Philip’s position with respect to the river. _In_, or _near_, or _beyond_ would have indicated a different relation. _Water_ is the object of the preposition _of_, and _river_ is the object of the preposition _on_.
+21.+ A preposition often has more than one object.
Over _hill_ and _dale_ he ran.
He was filled with _shame_ and _despair_.
VII. CONJUNCTIONS
+22.+ +A conjunction connects words or groups of words.+
A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects.
In “Time _and_ tide wait for no man,” “The parcel was small _but_ heavy,” “He wore a kind of doublet _or_ jacket,” the conjunctions _and_, _but_, _or_, connect single words,--_time_ with _tide_, _small_ with _heavy_, _doublet_ with _jacket_. In “Do not go _if_ you are afraid,” “I came _because_ you sent for me,” “Take my key, _but_ do not lose it,” “Sweep the floor _and_ dust the furniture,” each conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it.
VIII. INTERJECTIONS
+23.+ +An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.+
Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in which they stand; hence their name, which means “thrown in.”
EXAMPLES: _Oh!_ I forgot. _Ah_, how I miss you! _Bravo!_ _Alas!_
THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH
+24.+ +The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.+
+The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.+
Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike: as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive _lay_,” and “He _lay_ on the ground.” But the following examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the +meaning+ which we give to a word +in the sentence+ that determines its classification as a part of speech.
+25.+ The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions.
I. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
NOUNS ADJECTIVES
_Rubber_ comes from South This wheel has a _rubber_ tire. America.
That _brick_ is yellow. Here is a _brick_ house.
The _rich_ have a grave A _rich_ merchant lives here. responsibility.
The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns.
II. NOUNS AND VERBS
NOUNS VERBS
Hear the _wash_ of the tide. _Wash_ those windows. Give me a _stamp_. _Stamp_ this envelope. It is the _call_ of the sea. Ye _call_ me chief.
Other examples are: act, address, ally, answer, boast, care, cause, close, defeat, doubt, drop, heap, hope, mark, offer, pile, place, rest, rule, sail, shape, sleep, spur, test, watch, wound.
III. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
That is a _fast_ boat. The snow is melting _fast_. Draw a _straight_ line. The arrow flew _straight_. _Early_ comers get good seats. Tom awoke _early_.
For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 191.
IV. ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS
_This_ man looks unhappy. _This_ is the sergeant. _That_ book is a dictionary. _That_ is a kangaroo. _Each_ day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from _each_.
For further study of this class of words, see pp. 62–65.
V. ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS
ADVERBS PREPOSITIONS
Jill came tumbling _after_. He returned _after_ the accident. We went _below_. _Below_ us lay the valley. The weeds sprang _up_. We walked _up_ the hill.
Other examples are: aboard, before, beyond, down, inside, underneath.
Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:--
NOUN. The _calm_ lasted for three days. ADJECTIVE. _Calm_ words show quiet minds. VERB. _Calm_ your angry friend.
Other examples are: iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet, black, light, head, wet, round, square, winter, spring.
NOUN. _Wrong_ seldom prospers. ADJECTIVE. You have taken the _wrong_ road. ADVERB. Edward often spells words _wrong_. VERB. You _wrong_ me by your suspicions.
NOUN. The _outside_ of the castle is gloomy. ADJECTIVE. We have an _outside_ stateroom. ADVERB. The messenger is waiting _outside_. PREPOSITION. I shall ride _outside_ the coach.
ADJECTIVE. _That_ boat is a sloop. PRONOUN. _That_ is my uncle. CONJUNCTION. You said _that_ you would help me.
ADJECTIVE. _Neither_ road leads to Utica. PRONOUN. _Neither_ of us arrived in time. CONJUNCTION. _Neither_ Tom nor I was late.
PREPOSITION. I am waiting _for_ the train. CONJUNCTION. You have plenty of time, _for_ the train is late.
INTERJECTION. _Hurrah!_ the battle is won. NOUN. I heard a loud _hurrah_. VERB. The enemy flees. Our men _hurrah_.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
+26.+ Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the +infinitive+ (which is both +verb+ and +noun+) and the +participle+ (which is both +verb+ and +adjective+).
+27.+ Examples of the +infinitive+ may be seen in the following sentences:
_To struggle_ was useless.
_To escape_ is impossible.
_To exercise_ regularly preserves the health.
_To struggle_ is clearly a +noun+, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun _effort_ or _exertion_ might be put in the place of _to struggle_. Similarly, the noun _escape_ might be substituted for _to escape_; and, in the third sentence, _regular exercise_ (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for _to exercise regularly_.
But these three forms (_to struggle_, _to escape_, and _to exercise_) are also +verbs+, for they express action, and one of them (_to exercise_) is modified by an adverb (_regularly_). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called +infinitives+.
+28.+ +The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition _to_, which is called the sign of the infinitive.+
+29.+ The infinitive without _to_ is used in a great variety of verb-phrases.
I _shall go_.
John _will win_.
Mary _may recite_.
Jack _can swim_.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. That _go_, _win_, _recite_, and _swim_ are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences:--“I intend _to go_,” “John is sure _to win_,” “Mary is permitted _to recite_,” “Jack is able _to swim_.”
+30.+ The following sentence contains two +participles+:--
_Shattered_ and slowly _sinking_, the frigate drifted out to sea.
In this sentence, we recognize _shattered_ as a form of the +verb+ _shatter_, and _sinking_ as a form of the +verb+ _sink_. They both express action, and _sinking_ is modified by the adverb _slowly_. But _shattered_ and _sinking_ have also the nature of +adjectives+, for they are used to describe the noun _frigate_. Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called +participles+, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.
+31.+ +The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.+
A participle is said to +belong to+ the substantive which it describes or limits.
+32.+ The chief classes of participles are +present participles+ and +past participles+, so called from the time which they denote.
All present participles end in _ing_. Past participles have several different endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs (§ 334).
+33.+ Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.
Tom _is coming_.
Our boat _was wrecked_.
I _have sent_ the money.
He _has brought_ me a letter.
Your book _is found_.
They _have sold_ their horses.
You _have broken_ your watch.
The ship _had struck_ on the reef.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual practice.
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
+34.+ Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) that these have very different offices or functions in the sentence, and (2) that their functions are not of equal importance.
Clearly, the most important parts of speech are +substantives+ (nouns and pronouns) and +verbs+.
Substantives enable us to +name or designate+ persons, places, or things, and verbs enable us to +make statements+ about them. Both substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no +subject+; without a verb, there can be no +predicate+: and both a subject and a predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make a sentence.
+Adjectives+ and +adverbs+ are less important than substantives and verbs. Their function is to +modify+ other parts of speech, that is, to change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and adverbs usually modify verbs (by indicating _how_, _when_, or _where_ the action took place). Without substantives, there would be no use for adjectives; without verbs, there would be little use for adverbs.
+Prepositions+ and +conjunctions+ are also less important than substantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives if there were nothing to connect.
+Interjections+ are the least important of all. They add liveliness to language, but they are not actual necessities. We could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without ever using an interjection.
+35.+ A sentence may consist of but two words,--a noun or pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus,--
Charles | swims.
Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will contain more than one word. Thus,--
Young Charles | swims slowly.
Here the +complete subject+ (_young Charles_) consists of a noun (_Charles_) and an adjective (_young_), which describes _Charles_. The +complete predicate+ consists of a verb (_swims_) and an adverb (_slowly_), which modifies _swim_ by indicating _how_ the action is performed. The subject noun (_Charles_) and the predicate verb (_swims_) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying the sentence; for this would still exist as the expression of a thought (_Charles swims_), though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers are included.
+36.+ +The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.+
+The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.+
+The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.+
+The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.+
In each of the following sentences the +complete subject+ and the +complete predicate+ are separated by a vertical line, and the +simple subject+ and the +simple predicate+ are printed in italics:--
The _spider_ | _spreads_ her web.
The fiery _smoke_ | _rose_ upward in billowing volumes.
A nameless _unrest_ | _urged_ me forward.
Our frantic _horses_ | _swept_ round an angle of the road.
The _infirmities_ of age | _came_ early upon him.
The general _feeling_ among the English in Bengal | _was_ strongly in favor of the Governor General.
_Salutes_ | _were fired_ from the batteries.
The _Clives_ | _had been settled_ ever since the twelfth century on an estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire.
_I_ | _have written_ repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse.
+37.+ Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one +compound subject+, and two or more simple predicates to make one +compound predicate+.
1. _Charles_ and _Henry_ | play tennis well.
2. _Moore_ and _I_ | passed some merry days together.
3. _Frances_ and _she_ | are friends.
4. _Hats_, _caps_, _boots_, and _gloves_ | were piled together in confusion.
5. The watch | _sank_ and _was lost_.
6. The balloon | _rose_ higher and higher and finally _disappeared_.
7. He | neither _smiled_ nor _frowned_.
8. _Snow_ and _ice_ | _covered_ the ground and _made_ our progress difficult.
+38.+ +A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.+
+Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.+
In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (_Charles_ and _Henry_) are joined by the conjunction _and_ to make a compound subject. In the fourth, four substantives (_hats_, _caps_, _boots_, _gloves_) form a series in which the last two are joined by _and_. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are compound; in the eighth, both the subject and the predicate.
+39.+ The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject or predicate: _and_ (_both_ ... _and_), _or_ (_either_ ... _or_; _whether_ ... _or_), _nor_ (_neither_ ... _nor_).
SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH
PHRASES
+40.+ A group of words may take the place of a part of speech
_The Father of Waters_ is the Mississippi.
A girl _with blue eyes_ stood _at the window_.
You _are looking_ well.
_The Father of Waters_ is used as a noun, since it names something.
_With blue eyes_ takes the place of an adjective (_blue-eyed_), and modifies _girl_.
_At the window_ indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood, and modifies _stood_.
_Are looking_ could be replaced by the verb _look_.
+41.+ +A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase.+
+A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.+
1. A phrase used as a noun is called a +noun-phrase+.
2. A phrase used as a verb is called a +verb-phrase+.
3. A phrase used as an adjective is called an +adjective phrase+.
4. A phrase used as an adverb is called an +adverbial phrase+.
In the examples in § 40, _The Father of Waters_ is a noun-phrase; _with blue eyes_, an adjective phrase; _at the window_, an adverbial phrase; _are looking_, a verb-phrase.
+42.+ Many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a +preposition and its object+, with or without other words.
Your umbrella is _in the corner_.
He has a heart _of oak_.
A cup _with a broken handle_ stood _on the shelf_.
My house _of cards_ fell _to the floor in a heap_.
+Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.+
CLAUSES--COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+43.+ Phrases must be carefully distinguished from +clauses+. The difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predicate and a phrase does not.
+44.+ +A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.+
The lightning flashed | and | the thunder roared.
The train started | when the bell rang.
Each of these sentences contains two clauses; but the relation between the clauses in the first sentence is very different from that between the clauses in the second.
In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a separate and distinct statement, and might stand by itself as a simple sentence,--that is, as a sentence having but one subject and one predicate. These clauses are joined by the conjunction _and_, which is not a part of either. No doubt the speaker feels that there is some relation in thought between the two statements, or he would not have put them together as clauses in the same sentence. But there is nothing in the form of expression to show what that relation is. In other words, the two clauses are grammatically +independent+, for neither of them modifies (or affects the meaning of) the other. The clauses are therefore said to be +coördinate+,--that is, of the same “order” or rank, and the sentence is called +compound+.
In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between the two clauses is indicated with precision. One clause (_the train started_) makes the main statement,--it expresses the chief fact. Hence it is called the +main+ (or +principal+) +clause+. The other clause (_when the bell rang_) is added because the speaker wishes to +modify+ the main verb (_started_) by defining the time of the action. This clause, then, is used as a +part of speech+. Its function is the same as that of an adverb (_promptly_) or an adverbial phrase (_on the stroke of the bell_). For this purpose alone it exists, and not as an independent statement. Hence it is called a +dependent+ (or +subordinate+) +clause+, because it +depends+ (that is, “hangs”) upon the main clause, and so occupies a lower or “subordinate” rank in the sentence. When thus constructed, a sentence is said to be +complex+.
+45.+ An ordinary +compound sentence+ (as we have seen in § 44) is made by joining two or more simple sentences, each of which thus becomes an +independent coördinate clause+.
In the same way we may join two or more +complex sentences+, using them as clauses to make one compound sentence:--
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the last car disappeared.
This sentence is manifestly +compound+, for it consists of two +coördinate clauses+ (_the train started when the bell rang_; _Tom watched until the last car disappeared_) joined by _and_. Each of these two clauses is itself +complex+, for each could stand by itself as a complex sentence.
Similarly, a +complex+ and a +simple+ sentence may be joined as coördinate clauses to make a compound sentence.
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in despair.
Such a sentence, which is +compound in its structure+, but in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are +complex+, is called a +compound complex sentence+.[9]
+46.+ +A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.+
+A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses are said to be independent.+
+Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.+
+Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.+
1. +A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.+
2. +A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.+
3. +A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent and the rest subordinate.+
+A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence.+
I. SIMPLE SENTENCES
Iron rusts.
George V is king.
Dogs, foxes, and hares are quadrupeds. [Compound subject.]
The defendant rose and addressed the court. [Compound predicate.]
Merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall. [Both subject and predicate are compound.]
II. COMPOUND SENTENCES
Shakspere was born in 1564; he died in 1616. [Two coördinate clauses; no conjunction.]
A rifle cracked, and the wolf fell dead. [Two clauses joined by the conjunction _and_.]
You must hurry, or we shall lose the train. [Two clauses joined by _or_.]
James Watt did not invent the steam engine, but he greatly improved it. [Two clauses joined by _but_.]
Either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach me. [Two clauses joined by _either_ ... _or_.]
The following conjunctions may be used to join coördinate clauses: _and_ (_both_ ... _and_), _or_ (_either_ ... _or_), _nor_ (_neither_ ... _nor_), _but_, _for_.
III. COMPLEX SENTENCES
Examples will be found in §§ 48–50.
CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH
+47.+ +Subordinate clauses+, like phrases, are used as +parts of speech+. They serve as substitutes for +nouns+, for +adjectives+, or for +adverbs+.
1. +A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause.+
2. +A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.+
3. +A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause.+
+48.+ I. NOUN (OR SUBSTANTIVE) CLAUSES.
{_Success_ | _That we should succeed in this plan_} is improbable.
The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the second it is more fully expressed. In the first sentence, the subject is the noun _success_; in the second, the subject is the noun clause, _that we should succeed in this plan_. This clause is introduced by the conjunction _that_; the simple subject of the clause is the pronoun _we_, and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase _should succeed_. The first sentence is +simple+; the second is +complex+.
Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction _that_.
+49.+ II. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an +adjective+, (2) an +adjective phrase+, (3) an +adjective clause+, as a modifier of the subject noun.
{An _honorable_ man | A man _of honor_ | A man _who values his honor_} will not lie.
{A _seasonable_ word | A word _in season_ | A word _that is spoken at the right moment_} may save a soul.
{My _native_ land | The land _of my birth_ | The land _where I was born_} lies far across the sea.
The first two sentences in each group are +simple+, the third is +complex+.
+50.+ III. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an +adverb+, (2) an +adverbial phrase+, (3) an +adverbial clause+, as a modifier of the predicate verb (or verb-phrase).
The lightning struck {_here_. | _on this spot_. | _where we stand_.}
Mr. Andrews lives {_near_. | _in this neighborhood_. | _where you see that elm_.}
The game began {_punctually_. | _on the stroke of one_. | _when the clock struck_.}
The banker will make the loan {_conditionally_. | _on one condition_. | _if you endorse my note_.}
The first two sentences in each group are +simple+, the third is +complex+.
+51.+ Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pronouns _who_, _which_, and _that_, or (2) by adverbs like _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _when_.
Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs _where_, _whither_, _whence_, _when_, _while_, _before_, _after_, _until_, _how_, _as_, or (2) by the conjunctions _because_, _though_, _although_, _if_, _that_ (_in order that_, _so that_), _lest_, etc.
NOTE. The use of +phrases+ and +clauses+ as +parts of speech+ increases enormously the richness and power of language. Though English has a huge stock of words, it cannot provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every idea. By grouping words, however, in phrases and clauses we, in effect, make a great variety of new nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to the needs of the moment in the expression of thought.
SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS
THE SENTENCE
1. Language is thought expressed in words.
2. To express thought words are combined into sentences.
3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.
4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
(1) A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.
(2) An interrogative sentence asks a question.
(3) An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.
(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may also be exclamatory.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
5. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.
6. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
7. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.
8. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
9. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,--namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
(1) A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
(2) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.
Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.
The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.
(3) An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective.
(4) A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.
_Is_ (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject. In such sentences, _is_ and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.
(5) An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.
Adjectives and adverbs are both modifiers.
(6) A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.
(7) A conjunction connects words or groups of words.
(8) An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.
10. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.
11. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition _to_, which is called the sign of the infinitive.
12. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote.
SUBSTITUTES FOR THE PARTS OF SPEECH
PHRASES
13. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase.
A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.
(1) A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.
(2) A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
(3) A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.
(4) A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.
14. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.
CLAUSES
15. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.
16. A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses are said to be independent.
17. Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.
18. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.
(1) A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.
(2) A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.
(3) A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent and the rest subordinate.
A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence.
19. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.
(1) A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause.
(2) A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.
(3) A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause.