Part 8

Colonel Kirkpatrick {90} thinks, that there are two distinct ranges of Emodus or Himaleh; the lower of which, separating Nepal from Thibet, is only streaked with snow, while the highest separates Kuchar, or the lower Bhotan, from Thibet. He also thought, that, from the summit of the Lama Dangra hills above Chisapani, he saw the highest ridge. Now, in the maps which I obtained from the natives, three ridges may in some measure be traced, as proceeding from about the lake Manasarawar, which may be considered as the centre of Emodus. The summits of even the most southern of these ridges, which is probably the lowest, are not covered with mere patches of snow, as Colonel Kirkpatrick seems to have thought, but on them the snow is perennial to a very great extent.

The most northern ridge, which is probably the highest, as it is nowhere penetrated by rivers, approaches Hindustan only at the lake Manasarawar, where the remarkable peak called Kailasa may be considered as its centre. This peak may perhaps be visible from the southward, although there exists no certainty of its being so; but the portions of this ridge, which extend west and east from Kailasa, bordering on the north, the upper part of the Indus, and Brahmaputra rivers, are certainly invisible from every part of Hindustan, and very little is known concerning them.

The middle ridge of Himaleh, which separates Thibet from Hindustan, taking this word in its most extended sense as including Kasmir, the dominions of Gorkha, etc. extends probably to the Chinese Sea along the northern frontier of the provinces of Quangsi and Quantong, lowering gradually as it advances to the east. Although, so far as connected with Hindustan, it is of enormous height, yet it is perforated by many rivers, such as the Indus, Sutluj or Satrudra, Karanali or Sarayu, Gandaki, Arun, Brahmaputra, etc.

Mr Colebrooke, indeed, {91} doubts of any rivers crossing this chain; for he says, “It is presumable that all the tributary streams of the Ganges, including the Sarayu, (whether its alleged source in the Manasarawar lake be credited or discredited,) and the Yamuna, rise on the southern side of the Himaliya;” and again he says, “From the western side of the mountains, after the range, taking a sweep to the north, assumes a new direction in the line of the meridian, arise streams tributary to the Indus, or perhaps the Indus itself.” On this I would remark, that all the rivers I have enumerated, no doubt, arise from Thibet, and penetrate this chain. If, indeed, the Sarayu, or rather Karnali, arises from the lake Manasarawar, which is undoubtedly on the north side of the Himaleh ridge, how could Mr Colebrooke’s position be maintained? He is also probably wrong in supposing that the central Himaliya ridge bends to the north. There is rather reason to think that it passes straight west, after it is penetrated by the Indus, and reaches to the Hindoo Coosh of the Honourable Mr Elphinston; while it is the western extremity of the northern ridge, first mentioned, that turns to the north, and separates Samarkhand and Bokhara from Kashgar. These rivers, which penetrate the central Himaliya ridge, do not appear to me to arise from any remarkable ridge of mountains, but spring from detached eminences on the elevated country of Thibet, and pass through interruptions or chasms in the central ridge of Emodus. It is very possible, that Colonel Kirkpatrick saw this ridge from Lama Dangra; but I am very doubtful, whether any part of it is visible from the plains of Hindustan; or, at least, that any of the more distinguished peaks visible from thence belong to it. All the peaks measured by Colonel Crawford were, no doubt, to the southward of the central ridge, and I suspect that all the snow-clad mountains visible from the plains, like those seen by Colonel Crawford, are either detached peaks, or belong to the southern ridge.

There is also reason to think, that the peak measured by Lieutenant Web, and which was one appearing conspicuous from the plains of Rohilkhand, {92a} is that laid down by Mr Arrowsmith, about 40 miles south from Litighat, that is, from the central chain, and must therefore be near the southern edge of the alpine region. Contrary, therefore, to the opinion of Mr Colebrooke, {92b} I think it very much to be doubted, whether the snowy mountains, visible from Rohilkhand, are the highest ground between the level plains of India, and the elevated regions of southern Tartary, by which I presume he means Thibet.

The third or southern ridge forms the southern boundary of the alpine region above described. In many parts, the whole space between this and the central ridge is thickly covered with immense peaks, so as to leave no separation between the ridges; but in other parts, there exists an intermediate, more level, and habitable portion, interposed between the central ridge and the southern peaks, which in these parts form a very distinct ridge. This is particularly the case in the Chamba country, towards Kasmir, in the Taklakhar country on the Karnali, and in the Kirata country on the Arun, as will be afterwards described.

Of the productions of this part I shall now proceed to treat, confining myself to those of the southern face, where there are but a very few of the cattle, (Bos grunniens,) whose tails form the Chaungri of India, and the badges by which the Turkish Bashaws are distinguished; nor are there any of the goats which produce the fine wool from whence the shawls are made; nor are there mines of gold, nor, one excepted, of salt, nor of borax. All these, so far as I can learn, are almost entirely the produce of the country beyond the alps.

An account of the Chandra or shawl-wool goat has been given by Colonel Kirkpatrick, {93} who suspects it to be rather scarce, even in Thibet, since it is not without the greatest difficulty that a perfect male of this species can be procured, owing to the jealous vigilance employed by the Thibetians to prevent their being conveyed into foreign countries. The editor, in a note, thinks this opinion unfounded, because Captain Turner brought several of these animals from Thibet to Bengal, from whence he sent a few to England. I do not see that the reasoning of either Colonel Kirkpatrick, or his editor, is here conclusive. If the people of Thibet are jealous, the difficulty of procuring a perfect male for exportation can be no proof of the species being scarce. Neither can Captain Turner’s having been allowed to bring several of these animals to Bengal be considered as a proof of the want of jealousy. A great many wethers of this breed are annually brought to market at Kathmandu, and may be readily procured, nor does it appear that those brought by Captain Turner were entire males. Those remaining in the Governor General’s park in 1803 were all wethers. That both entire males and females may be procured, we know from the exertions of Mr Moorcroft; but that the people of Thibet are very jealous in preserving the monopoly, I have been assured by that gentleman, as well as by the people of Nepal.

I have already mentioned, that I believe sulphur, and perhaps talc, are found in these alpine regions, and there can be no doubt that they abound with Mica (_Abrak_) in large plates, and in rock crystal (_Belor_) of a large size. It is probably in reference to this mineral, that some parts of this great alpine chain, towards the north-west, has been named Belor Tag, although Mr Elphinston gives another derivation, and changes the final _r_ into a _t_, in order to accommodate the word to his meaning, which may, however, be quite correct. Besides these mineral productions, the alpine region has several metallic veins, especially lead and zinc, or tutenague.

The most valuable production of the southern face of these mountains is the animal which produces musk, of which vast numbers are annually killed. The only other large animal found there is a kind of wild sheep of great size. The accounts which I have received concerning it are very imperfect, and I have only seen one skin, which was in a very bad state of preservation. It may possibly be the same animal that our zoologists have described by the name of _Argali_.

These frigid regions are the constant abode of two of the finest birds that are known, the Manal {95a} and Damphiya. {95b} To me both seem evidently to have the closest affinity with each other, in size, manners, and form, and the females of the two species are not easily distinguishable; yet the former, (Meleagris satyra, L.) by the best ornithologists, has been most unaccountably classed with the turkey, and the latter (Phasianus Impeyanus) with the pheasant, to which the resemblance is very trifling.

Along with these two fine birds, according to Colonel Kirkpatrick, {95c} is found the _Chakor_, or _Chiukoar_, according to his orthography. He states, that this bird “is well known to the Europeans in India by the name of fire-eater. It is a species of partridge, (_Perdix rufa_,) and derives its English name from its reputed power of swallowing fire. The fact, according to the people of Nepal, is that in the season of love, this bird is remarkably fond of red or _chean_ (Cayenne) pepper, after eating two or three capsules of which, it will eat a red coal if offered to it.” This account of the Nepalese deserves no credit; for, in its native frozen mountains, where is the Chakor to procure Capsicum or Cayenne pepper? and I know that the birds will pick at sparks of fire, where no capsicum has been given to them.

The vegetable productions of these mountains are, however, the greatest object of curiosity, and it is with infinite regret that I not only have not had it in my power to visit them, but that the disturbances existing between the two governments, when I was on the frontier, have prevented me from procuring complete specimens and seeds of many of the most interesting objects, for which arrangements had been made, when the disputes put a stop to communication. While at Nathpur, I had indeed previously procured young plants of most of the kinds, but although kept in a very cool house, not one of them resisted the summer heats. I shall now mention some of the most remarkable.

The _Dhupi_ is a species of juniper. Its wood has a beautiful grain, a fine mahogany colour, and a remarkably pleasant scent, a good deal resembling that of the pencil cedar, but stronger, and I think more agreeable. Planks of this are sent to Thibet, from whence they are probably carried to China. A man, whom I sent from Nathpur to Thibet, in order to procure plants, says, that the Dhupi grows to be a very large tree, in which case it would be a valuable acquisition in Europe, in the northern parts of which it will no doubt thrive.

The _Thumuriya Dhupi_ is another species of juniper, which is a low bush, like the kind common in the north of Europe. Its branches and leaves have an agreeable smell, and are used in fumigations.

The _Hingwalka Chhota saral_, or small alpine fir, so strongly resembles the common fir of the south of Europe, (_Pinus picca_, W.) that I can perceive no difference in the foliage; but I have not seen the cones. There is, however, probably some difference, for it is said never to grow to a considerable size, and the leaves, if I can trust to memory, have a much more agreeable smell than those of the common fir.

The _Hingwalka bara Saral_, or large alpine fir, is in fact the yew tree; and although I have seen it in all its stages, I can perceive no very essential difference between it and the tree of Europe. Its leaves, however, are rather larger, and bent, (_falcata_.) Like the yew in the north of Europe, it grows to a great size.

The _Bhuryapatra_ or _Bhurjapatra_ is a species of birch, the bark of which resembles that of the tree common in Europe, in being separable into fine smooth layers; but these are of a fine chesnut colour. This bark is imported into the low country in considerable quantity, and is used both in the religious ceremonies of the Hindus, and for constructing the flexible tubes with which the natives smoke tobacco.

The _Sanpati_ is a small Rhododendron, which has a considerable affinity with the kinds described in the Encyclopédie by the names of R. linearifolium and ferrugineum. It is a shrub much like our sweet gale in Europe, and its leaves are very odorous, and, even when dried, retain their fragrance. It is used in fumigations, and sent to the low country.

The _Bhairopati_, although I have not seen the flower, is, I have no doubt, another similar species of the Rhododendron, which has a great resemblance to the kind called Chamæcistus. Its qualities are similar to those of the former, but it is less fragrant. The man whom I sent to Thibet brought, as the _Bhairopati_, a totally different plant, of which the specimens so strongly resemble branches of the Cypressus sempervirens meta convoluta, that I should have no doubt of its being this plant, were it not that the man describes it as a shrub, and that its dried leaves have a disagreeable sulphurous smell. It is, however, the Rhododendron which is always sold in the shops of Hindustan as the _Bhairopati_.

There seems to be some difficulty in fixing the nomenclature of the _Jatamangsi_, a plant celebrated among the natives as a perfume, and of which large quantities are sent from these Alps to the plains of India. What I procured at the shops in Nathpur, and recently imported from the Alps, was the species of Valerian described by Dr Roxburgh in the Asiatick Researches, and supposed by Sir William Jones to be the spikenard of the ancients. As there can be no disputing about taste, I cannot take upon myself to say how far the encomiums bestowed on the fragrance of the spikenard are applicable to this valerian; and the native women, no doubt, consider the smell very agreeable, because most of such as can afford it use oil impregnated with this root for perfuming their hair. All I can say is, that, if this root was the spikenard of the Roman ladies, their lovers must have had a very different taste from the youth of modern Europe. A still greater difficulty attends the nomenclature of the _Jatamangsi_. A person whom I employed to bring me the growing plant from the mountains, produced a root totally different from the former. It strongly resembled the root of the Anthamantha meum; but when fresh had an uncommonly fragrant smell. From the appearance of the leaves, I have no doubt that it is an umbelliferous plant.

I have already mentioned the doubts that exist about the plant called _Bhutkesar_, which is imported from the mountains, and used as a medicine. What was brought to me from the snowy mountains was a thick woody root, on the top of which were many stiff bristles, and from among these the young leaves were shooting. These were three times divided into three, and resembled these of a Thalictrum, of which I know there are several species in the lower mountains of Nepal.

The term _Bish_ or _Bikh_, according to the pronunciation of the same letters on the plains, and in the mountains, is applied to four different plants with tuberous roots, all in great request. I have already mentioned the _Singgiya Bish_, as found on the lower mountains and hills, and supposed it to be a species of Smilax. The others have not the smallest resemblance to it, but are so strongly marked by a resemblance to each other, that I have no doubt of their all belonging to the same genus, although I have only seen the flower and fruit of one. This is called _Bishma_ or _Bikhma_, and seems to me to differ little in botanical characters from the _Caltha_ of Europe. The _Bishma_ or _Bikhma_ is also, I believe, called _Mitha_, although I am not certain but that this name may be also given to the following species, which deserves the most serious attention, as the _Bikhma_ is used in medicine, is a strong bitter, very powerful in the cure of fevers, while the plant that will be next mentioned is one of the most virulent poisons.

This dreadful root, of which large quantities are annually imported, is equally fatal when taken into the stomach, and applied to wounds, and is in universal use throughout India for poisoning arrows; and there is too much reason to suspect, for the worst of purposes. Its importation would indeed seem to require the attention of the magistrate. The Gorkhalese pretend, that it is one of their principal securities against invasion from the low countries; and that they could so infect all the waters on the route by which an enemy was advancing, as to occasion his certain destruction. In case of such an attempt, the invaders ought, no doubt, to be on their guard; but the country abounds so in springs, that might be soon cleared, as to render such a means of defence totally ineffectual, were the enemy aware of the circumstance. This poisonous species is called _Bish_, _Bikh_, and _Hodoya Bish_ or _Bikh_, nor am I certain whether the _Mitha_ ought to be referred to it, or to the foregoing kind.

The _Nirbishi_ or _Nirbikhi_ is another plant of the same genus, and, like the first kind, has no deleterious qualities, but is used in medicine. The President of the Asiatick Society, in a note annexed to Dr Roxburgh’s account of the Zedoary, gives the _Nirbisha_ or _Nirbishi_ as a Sangskrita or Hindwi name of that plant, which has not the smallest resemblance to the _Nirbishi _of the Indian Alps. In fact, the nomenclature of the _materia medica_ among the Hindus, so far as I can learn, is miserably defective, and can scarcely fail to be productive of most dangerous mistakes in the practice of medicine. For instance, the man whom I sent to Thibet for plants brought, as the species which produces the poison, that which was first brought to me as the _Nirbishi_, or kind used in medicine.

The _Padam chhal_ is a plant with a thick cylindrical root, that is used in medicine, and brought to the low country for that purpose. The specimen that I procured had one large heart-shaped rough leaf, and had somewhat the appearance of an Anemone.

The _Kutki_ is another officinal plant with a woody root, and a stem containing many alternate leaves, toothed on the edges, and shaped like a spathula. It has much the appearance of a saxifrage. The roots are brought for sale.

The _Brim_ appears to be one of the orchides, and has a root used in medicine.

CHAPTER THIRD. LAWS AND GOVERNMENT.

Parts east from the Kali.—Courts and Forms of Proceeding.—Punishments.—Provincial Government.—Revenue and Endowments.—Officers of State.—Military Establishment.—Differences in the parts west from the River Kali.—Revenue and Civil Establishment.—Military Establishment.

Having thus described, in a general manner, the inhabitants and country of the territory subject to the chief of Gorkha, I shall now give a similar view of the form of government which existed under the petty chiefs, to whom it was formerly subject, and of the changes which have been introduced since its union under one head.

I shall only premise a very just observation of Colonel Kirkpatrick, who says, {101} “that the government, taking its colour, for the most part, from the character and temporary views of the ruling individual, must necessarily be of too fugitive a nature to admit of any delineation equally applicable to all periods and circumstances.” This may serve to explain many differences between his account and mine, without supposing the information received by either to be erroneous.

The management of affairs in all the petty states was in many points the same, and differed chiefly in the names applied to similar officers, and in the nature of the military establishment in the two countries to the east and west of the river Kali. I have already mentioned, that in the former the Hindu rules of purity and law had been established with much less rigour than in the latter; but, in other points, such as the names of officers, and the form of government, the eastern parts followed more nearly the ancient Hindu system, while the western more fully imitated the Muhammedans.

In the parts east of the Kali, for each small territory or manor called a Gang, or, where these were small, for every two or three, there was an officer called an Umra Mokudum or Mahato, and over from ten to twenty gangs there was a higher officer named Desali or Chaudhuri, assisted by a Mujumdar or accountant. In cases of disputes or petty offences, one or other of these officers, called a kind of jury, (Pangchayit,) and endeavoured to settle the affair, so as to avoid farther trouble; but, if one or other of the parties was dissatisfied, he might go to the Raja’s court. There an officer, called Bichari in the east, and Darogah in the west, received an account of the affair from the parties, or from the inferior officers, and endeavoured to settle it. If, however, the cause was important, or required severe punishment, or if either of the parties insisted on it, the matter was referred by the Bichari to the minister of the Raja, called Karyi in the east, and Vazir in the west, either verbally or by petition, according to its importance. The minister communicated the affair to the Raja, who ordered the Bichari to try it by a Pangchayit. This kind of jury made a report, saying, that the parties were guilty of such or such a crime. The Raja then ordered whatever punishment he thought fit, but, in doing so, usually consulted an officer called Dharm’adhikar, or owner of justice, who pointed out the law.

The criminal in the east might appeal from even the Raja’s decision, to the court called Bharadar, consisting of all the chief officers of government; but in the west, no such court, I believe, existed. Oaths were seldom administered. If the parties, however, insisted on this form, the Haribangsa, a part of the Mahabharat, was put into the witness’s hand. Ordeals were seldom used, until the Gorkha family seized the government, since which they have become very frequent.

There were five severe punishments: 1_st_, confiscation of the whole estate; 2_dly_, banishment of the whole family; 3_dly_, degradation of the whole family by delivering the members to the lowest tribes; 4_thly_, maiming the limbs; 5_thly_, death by cutting the throat.

The people of Gorkha have introduced other capital punishments, hanging and flaying alive. Women, as in all Hindu governments, are never put to death; but the punishments inflicted on them are abundantly severe. The most common is the cutting off their noses. Even those of considerable rank are tortured, by being smoked in a small chamber with the suffocating fumes of burning capsicum, and by having their private parts stuffed with this acrid substance.

There were two kinds of fines; Prayaschitta for the neglect of ceremonies, and those inflicted as punishments for crimes. The latter went to the Raja, and do so still. The former went to the Dharm’adhikar, or chancellor; but having been enormously multiplied since the Gorkha government, their amount is divided into eight shares, of which the Raja takes one, the collector (Gomashtash) one, the Dharm’adhikar one, and one goes to each of five families of Brahmans, named Pangre, Pantha, Arjal, Khanal, and Agnidanda. These families divide their shares equally among their members, who have multiplied exceedingly. Besides the fine, all delinquents in matters of ceremony are compelled to entertain a certain number of these five families; the two first fattening on the wicked of the country west from the Narayani; and the other three on those east from that river. The number to be fed is restricted by the sentence, and the criminal may select those to whom he gives the entertainment, in any manner he pleases, confining himself strictly to the families entitled to participate.