CHAPTER XVI.

OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE ABIPONES.

The multitude and variety of tongues spoken in Paraguay alone, exceeds alike belief and calculation. Nor should you imagine that they vary only in dialect. Most of them are radically different. Truly admirable is their varied structure, of which no rational person can suppose these stupid savages to have been the architects and inventors. Led by this consideration, I have often affirmed that the variety and artful construction of languages should be reckoned amongst the other arguments to prove the existence of an eternal and omniscient God. The Jesuits have given religious instructions to fourteen nations of Paraguay, and widely propagated the Christian faith, in fourteen different languages. They did not each understand them all, but every one was well acquainted with two or three, namely, those of the nations amongst whom they had lived. Of the number of these was I, who spent seven years amongst the Abipones, eleven amongst the Guaranies. The nations for whom we laboured, and for whom founded colonies, were the Guaranies, Chiquitos, Mocobios, Abipones, Tobas, Malbalaes, Vilelas, Passaines, Lules, Isistines, Homoampas, Chunipies, Mataguayos, Chiriguanes, Lenguas or Guaycurùs, Mbayas, Pampas, Serranos, Patagones, and Yaròs. Moreover, the Guichua language, which is peculiar to the whole of Peru, and very familiar to Negro slaves, to the lower orders amongst the Spaniards, and even to matrons of the higher ranks in Tucuman, was used by many of the Jesuits, both in preaching and confession. Different languages were spoken too in the towns of the Chiquitos, which were composed of very different nations. The languages of the Abipones, Mocobios, and Tobas, certainly have all one origin, and are as much alike as Spanish and Portugueze. Yet they differ not only in dialect, but also in innumerable little words. The same may be said of the Tonocotè language, in use amongst the Lules and Isistines. The language of the Chiriguanes and Guaranies, who live full five hundred leagues apart, is the same, with the exception of a few words, which may be easily learnt in the course of two or three weeks by any one who understands either of them.

Many writers upon America have interspersed sentences of the Indian languages into their histories; but, good Heavens! how utterly defective and corrupted! They have scarce left a letter unmutilated. But these writers are excusable, for they have drawn their information from corrupted sources. Without having even entered America, they insert into their journals the words of savage languages, the meaning and pronunciation of which they are totally ignorant of. Hence it is that the American names of places, rivers, trees, plants, and animals, are so wretchedly mutilated in all books, that we can hardly read them without laughter. Spanish children, by constantly conversing with Indians of their own age, imbibe a correct knowledge of the Indian languages, which, to grown-up persons, is a business both of time and labour. I have known adults who, after conversing many years with the Indians, uttered as many errors as syllables. It is difficult for a European to accustom his tongue to the strange and distorted words which the savages pronounce so fast and indistinctly, hissing with their tongues, snoring with their nostrils, grinding with their teeth, and gurgling with their throats; so that you seem to hear the sound of ducks quacking in a pond, rather than the voices of men talking. Learned men had long wished that a person who understood some American language would clearly expound the system, construction, and whole anatomy of it: and it is to comply with the desire of these persons that I am going to treat compendiously of the Abiponian language.

Most of the Americans want some letter which we Europeans use, and use some which we want. A letter of very frequent occurrence amongst the Abipones, but which we Europeans are unacquainted with, is one which has the mixed sound of R and G. To pronounce it properly, the tongue must be slided a little along the roof of the mouth, and brought towards the throat, in the manner of those persons who have a natural incapacity of pronouncing the letter R. To signify this peculiar letter of the Abipones, we have written R or G indiscriminately, but distinguished by a certain mark, thus: _Laetar̂at_, a son: _Achibir̂aik_, salt. The plural number changes R into K, thus: _Laetkáte_, sons. Europeans find much difficulty in pronouncing this letter, especially if it recur several times in the same word, as in _Rar̂egr̂anr̂aik_, a Vilela Indian. _Rellar̂anr̂aǹ potròl_, he hunts wild horses. _Lapr̂ir̂atr̂aik_, many-coloured. The Abipones can distinguish an European, however well-skilled in every other part of their language, by the pronunciation of this letter.

The Abipones use the ö, which the Paraguayrians write ë with two dots, like the French, Hungarians, and Germans: as _Ahëpegak_, a horse, _Yahëc_, my face. They make frequent use of the Greek K. They pronounce N like the Spaniards, as if the letter I was added to it: thus, _Español_ must be pronounced _Espaniol_. The Abipones say _Menetañi_, it is within; _Yoamcachiñi_, the inner part is good. The legitimate pronunciation of this and other letters can only be learned _vivâ voce_.

Great attention must be paid to all the different accents and points, for the omission of a point, or the variation of an accent, gives a word a totally different meaning, thus: _Heét_, I fly; _Hëët_, I speak; _Háten_, I despise; _Hateń_, I hit the mark. This language abounds in very long words, consisting of ten, twenty, or more letters. The accents repeated in the same word show where the voice should be raised and where lowered: for the speech of this nation is very much modulated, and resembles singing. The accents alone are scarce sufficient to teach the pronunciation. It would not be amiss to subjoin musical notes to each of the syllables, unless a master supersedes the necessity of this artifice by teaching it _vivâ voce_. It may be as well to give some examples of accents. _Hamihégemkiń_, _Debáyakaikin_, _Raregr̂ágremar̂achiń_, _Oahérkaikiń_. These are names of Abipones. _Grcáuagyégarigé_, pity me. _Oaháyegalgè_, free me. _Hapagrañütapagetá_, you teach one another. _Ñicauagrañíapegar̂algé_, I intercede for thee. _Hemokáchiñütápegioà_, thou praisest me. Here are words of twenty letters. You will not find many monosyllables. The tall Abipones like words which resemble themselves in length.

They have a masculine and a feminine gender, but no neuter. A knowledge of the genders is to be gained by use alone. _Grahaulái_, the sun, is feminine with them, like the German _Die Sonne_. _Grauèk_, the moon, is masculine, as our _Der Monde_. Some adjectives are of both genders, as _Naà_, which is evil, both masculine and feminine. _Neeù_, good, of both genders. In others every gender has its own termination, as _Ariaik_, good, noble, _mas_. _Ariayè_, good, noble, _fem_. _Cachiergaik_, an old man; _Cachergayè_, an old woman.

The nouns have no cases. A letter prefixed to the noun sometimes indicates the case: as, _Ay`m_, I; _M`ay`m_, to me; _Akami_, thou; _M'akami_, to thee.

The formation of the plural number of nouns is very difficult to beginners; for it is so various that hardly any rule can be set down. I give you some examples:

_Singular._ _Plural._

Laetar̂at, a son Laetkaté, sons Lekàt, a metal Lekachì, metals Ahëpegak, a horse Ahëṕega, horses Yúihák, an ox Yúihà, oxen Nekététàk, a goose Neketéteri, geese Oachígranigà, a stag Oachigranigal, stags Iñier̂à, the flower of Iñiegari, flowers, or years the alfaroba, or a year Neogà, a day Neogotà, days Eergr̃aík, a star Eèrgr̂aiè, stars Aápar̃aìk, linen or woollen cloth Aapar̃aikà, pieces of cloth Yapòt, a brave man Yapochì, brave men Lachaogè, a river Lachaokè, rivers Letèk, the leaf of a tree Letegkè, leaves Ketélk, a mule Ketelr̂a, mules Panà, a root Panarì, roots Ìíbichigì, angry, _sing_. Ìíbichigeri, angry, _plur_.

From these few examples it appears that nouns ending in the same letter have different plurals. Moreover, as the Greeks, beside a plural number, have also a dual by which they express two things, so the Abipones have two plurals, of which the one signifies more than one, the other many: thus _Joalé_, a man. _Joaleè_, or _Joaleèna_, some men. _Joalíripì_, many men. _Ahëpegak_, a horse. _Ahëpega_, some horses. _Ahëpegeripì_, many horses.

I wonder that the Abipones have not two words for the first person plural, _we_, like many other American nations. The Guaranies express it in two ways: they sometimes say, _ñandè_, sometimes _ore_. The first they call the inclusive, the second the exclusive. In their prayers, addressing God, they say, We sinners, _ore angaypabiyà_; because God is excluded from the number of sinners. Speaking with men, they say, _ñandè angaypabiyà_, because those whom they address are sinners likewise, and they accordingly use the inclusive _ñandè_.

As they have no possessive pronouns, mine, thine, his, the want of them is supplied in every noun, by the addition or alteration of various letters. Amongst the Abipones a great difficulty is occasioned by the various changes of the letters, especially in the second person. Take these examples. _Netà_, a father indeterminately. _Yità_, my father. _Gretaỳ_, thine. _Letà_, his. _Gretà_, our father. _Gretayi_, yours. _Letai_, theirs.

_Naetar̃at_, a son, without expressing whose. _Yaetr̃at_, my son. _Graetr̃achi_, thy son. _Laetr̃at_, his son.

_Nepèp_, a maternal grandfather. _Yepèp_, mine. _Grepepè_, thine. _Lepèp_, his.

_Naàl_, a grandson. _Yaàl_, mine. _Graalí_, thine. _Laàl_, his.

_Nenàk_, a younger brother. _Yenàk_, mine. _Grenarè_, thine. _Lenàk_, his.

_Nakirèk_, a cousin german. _Ñakirèk_, mine. _Gnakiregi_, thine. _Nakirek_, his.

_Noheletè_, the point of a spear. _Yoheletè_, mine. _Grohelichi_, thine. _Loheletè_, his.

_Natatr̃a_, life. _Yatatr̃a_, my life. _Gratatr̃e_, thine. _Latatr̃a_, his.

But these examples are sufficient to show the multiplied variety of the second person. Amongst the Guaranies too, the possessives are affixed to the nouns, but this occasions no difficulty, because the mutation is regular: thus, _Tuba_, a father. _Cheruba_, my father. _Nderuba_, thine. _Tuba_, his. _Guba_, theirs. _Tay̆_, a son. _Cheray̆_, mine. _Nderay̆_, thine. _Tay̆_, his. _Guay̆_, theirs. _Che_ is prefixed to nouns for the first person, and _Nde_ for the second, without variation. Likewise in the plural they say _Ñande_, or _Oreruba_, our father. _Penduba_, your father. _Tuba_, or _Guba_, their father. In all other substantives these particles supply the place of possessives.

The following observation must be made on the possessive nouns of the Abipones. If they see any thing whose owner they do not know, and wish to be made acquainted with, they enquire to whom it belongs in various ways. If the object in question be animate, (even though it only possess vegetable life,) as wheat, a horse, a dog, a captive, &c. they say _Cahami ledà?_ whose property is this? to which the other will reply, _Ylà_, mine. _Grelè_, thine. _Lelà_, his. On the other hand, if the thing be inanimate, as a spear, a garment, food, &c. they say _Kahamì kalàm_, to whom does this belong, and the other will say, _Ai`m_, to me. _Karami_, to thee. _Hala`m_, to him. _Kara`m_, to us, &c.

The pronouns of the first and second persons are subject to no mutations, on account of place or situation. Thus, _Aỳm_, I. _Akami_, thou. _Aka`m_, we. _Akamyì_, you. If _alone_ be added, they are altered in this manner: _Aỳmátarà_, I alone. _Akamítarà_, thou alone. _Akàm àkalè_, we alone.

But the pronoun of the third person, he, is varied, according to the situation of the person of whom you speak. For if the object of discourse

_Mas. he._ _Fem. she._

Be present, he is called, Eneha Anahà If he be sitting, Híñìha Háñiha If lying, Híriha Háriha If standing, Háraha Háraha If walking and seen, Ehahá Ahaha If not seen, Ekaha Akaha.

He alone is also expressed in various ways.

If he alone is sitting, you Yñítarà say

If lying, Irítàra

If walking, Ehátára

If absent, Ekátará

If standing, Erátára.

They form the comparative and superlative degrees, not as in other languages, by the addition of syllables, but in a different manner. An Abipon would express this sentence. _The tiger is worse than the dog_, thus: _the dog is not bad though the tiger be bad_. _Nétegink chik naà, oágan nihirenak la naà_: or thus, _The dog is not bad as the tiger_, _Netegink chi chi naà ỳágàm nihirenak_. When we should say, _The tiger is worst_, an Abipon would say, _the tiger is bad above all things_, _Nihirenak lamerpëëáoge kenoáoge naà_: or thus, _The tiger is bad so that it has no equal in badness_. _Nihirenak chit keoá naà._ Sometimes they express a superlative, or any other eminence, merely by raising the voice. _Ariaik_, according to the pronunciation, signifies either a thing simply good, or the very best. If it be uttered with the whole force of the breast, and with an elevated voice, ending in an acute sound, it denotes the superlative degree; if with a calm, low voice, the positive. They signify that they are much pleased with any thing, or that they approve it greatly, by uttering with a loud voice the words _Là naà!_ before _Ariaik_, or _Eúrenék_. _Now it is bad!_ _It is beautiful_, or _excellent_! _Nehaol_ means night. If they exclaim in a sharp tone, _Là nehaòl_, they mean that it is _midnight_, or the dead of the night: if they pronounce it slowly and hesitatingly, they mean that it is the beginning of the night. When they see any one hit the mark with an arrow, knock down a tiger quickly, &c. and wish to express that he is eminently dexterous, they cry with a loud voice, _La yáraigè_, now he knows, which, with them, is the highest commendation.

They form diminutives, by adding _avàlk_, _aole_, or _olek_, to the last syllable of the word, thus: _Ahëpegak_, a horse. _Ahëpegeravàlk_, a little horse, _Óénèk_, a boy. _Óénèkavàlk_, a little boy. _Haáye_, a girl. _Haayáole_, a little girl. _Paỳ_, father, a word for priest, introduced into America by the Portugueze. _Payolék_, little father, which they used when they wished to express particular kindness towards us. When angry, they only used the word _Paỳ_. _Kàëpak_, wood. _Kàëperáole_, a little piece of wood, by which they designated the beads of the rosary. _Lenechì_, little, moderate. _Lénechiólek_, or _Lenechiavàlk_. They make very frequent use of diminutives, which, with them, indicate either tender affection or contempt: thus, _Yóale_, a man. _Yoaleólek_, a little man, a bit of a man. Often with them a diminutive is a stronger expression of love or praise than any superlative: thus, they call a stronger or handsomer horse than ordinary, _Ahëpegeravàlk_. The Spaniards too express a more particular liking for a thing, when they call it _bonito_, than when they simply call it _bueno_, good or pretty.

Most of the American nations are extremely deficient in words to express number. The Abipones can only express three numbers in proper words. _Iñitára_, one. _Iñoaka_, two. _Iñoaka yekainì_, three. They make up for the other numbers by various arts: thus, _Geyenk ñatè_, the fingers of an emu, which, as it has three in front and one turned back, are four, serves to express that number. _Neènhalek_, a beautiful skin spotted with five different colours, is used to signify the number five. If you interrogate an Abipon respecting the number of any thing, he will stick up his fingers, and say, _leyer iri_, so many. If it be of importance to convey an accurate idea of the number of the thing, he will display the fingers of both hands or feet, and if all these are not sufficient, show them over and over again till they equal the number required. Hence _Hanámbegem_, the fingers of one hand means five; _Lanám rihegem_, the fingers of both hands, ten; _Lanam rihegem, cat gracherhaka anámichirihegèm_, the fingers of both hands and both feet, twenty. They have also another method of making up for want of numbers. When they return from an excursion to hunt wild horses, or shoot tame ones, none of the Abipones will ask them how many horses have you brought home? but, how much space will the troop of horse which you have brought home occupy? to which they will reply, the horses placed in a row would fill the whole market-place, or they extend from this grove to the river's bank. With this reply, which gives them an idea of the quantity of horses, they remain satisfied, though uninformed of the exact number. Sometimes they take up a handful of sand or grass, and showing it to the interrogator, endeavour in this way to express an immense quantity. But when number is spoken of, take care you do not readily credit whatever the Abipones say. They are not ignorant of arithmetic, but averse to it. Their memory generally fails them. They cannot endure the tedious process of counting. Hence to rid themselves of questions on the subject, they show as many fingers as they like, sometimes deceived themselves, sometimes deceiving others. Often, if the number about which you ask exceeds three, an Abipon, to save himself the trouble of showing his fingers, will cry _Pòp!_ many. _Chic leyekalipì_, innumerable. Sometimes, when ten soldiers are coming, the assembled people will exclaim, _Yoaliripì latenk naúeretápek_, a very great number of men are approaching.

But still greater is their want of numerals, which grammarians call ordinals, for they cannot count beyond first: _Era námachìt_, the first. So that the Ten Commandments are reckoned in this way: the first commandment, _Era námachìt_, but as they are unable to express _second_, _third_, _fourth_, in their language, instead of these numbers, they place before the commandments, _and another_, _and another_, _&c_. _Cat laháua_, _cat laháua_, _&c_. They have, however, words signifying first and last, _Enàm cahèk_, that which goes before, and _Iñagehék_, that which comes last.

They have only two distributive numerals: each _Iñitarapè_, and _Iñóakatapè_, which answers to the Latin, _bini_. _Liñoaka yahat_, means twice. _Ekátarapek_, and sometimes _Haûe ken_, once. This is the extent of the Abiponian arithmetic, and the whole of their scanty supply of numbers. Scarce richer are the Guarany Indians, who cannot go beyond the number four. They call One, _Petey̆_. Two, _Mokoy̆_. Three, _Mbohapĭ_. Four, _Irundy̆_. First, _Iyipĭbae_. Second, _Imomokoyndaba_. Third, _Imombohapĭhaba_. Fourth, _Imoimrundy̆haba_. [1]_Singuli, Petey̆tey̆. Bini, Mokoy̆mokoy̆. Terni, Mbohápĭhapĭ. Quaterni, Irundy̆ rundy̆._ Once, _Petey̆ yebĭ_. Twice, _Mokoy̆ yebi_, _&c_. The Guaranies, like the Abipones, when questioned respecting a thing exceeding four, immediately reply, _Ndipapahabi_, or _Ndipapahai_, innumerable. But as a knowledge of numbers is highly necessary in the uses of civilized life, and above all, in confession, the Guaranies were daily taught at church to count in the Spanish language, in the public explanation, or recitation of the catechism. On Sunday, the whole people used to count from one to a thousand, in the Spanish tongue, in the church. But it was all in vain. Generally speaking, we found the art of music, painting, and sculpture, easier learnt than numbers. They can all pronounce the numbers in Spanish, but are so easily and frequently confused in counting, that you must be very cautious how you credit what they say in this matter.

Footnote 1:

I give the original Latin in this and other places, where the English does not fully express the meaning.

For the conjugation of verbs, no paradigm can be given; as the singular number of the present tense of the indicative mood differs in almost all words, and is more difficult to learn than the augments of the Greek verbs. The second person particularly takes new letters, not only in the beginning, but also in the middle, and the end, as will appear from the examples which I shall lay before you.

_Singular._ _Plural._

_I love_ Rikapìt _We love_ Grkapitàk

_Thou lovest_ Grkàpichì _Ye love_ Grkápichii

_He loves_ Nkàpit _They love_ Nkapitè

_I know_ Riáraige Graáraigè Yaraige

_I remember_ Hakaleènt Hakaleènchì Yakaleènt

_Id._ Ñetúnetá Nichuñütá Netúnetá

_I teach_ Hápagřanátřan Hapagřanatřařì Yápagřanatřan

_I hasten_ Rihahagalgè Grahálgalì Yahágalgè

_I die_ Rìígà Gregachì Yígà

_I am drowned_ Riigaráñi Gregácháñi Ygárañi

_I leap_ Riahat Rahachi Rahàt

_I fear_ Rietachà Gretachi Netacha

_I desire_ Rihè Grihì Nihè

_I fly_ Natahegem Natáchihegem Natahegem

_I am drunk_ Rkíhogèt Grkíhogichì Lkíhogèt

_I am slow_ Riaàl Graalì Naal

_I am strong_ Riahòt Grihochi Yhòt

_I am well_ Rioàmkatà Groemkètà Yoámkatà

_I kick_ Hachàk Hachařè Rachak

_I eat_ Hakeñè Kiñigi Rkeñe

_I vomit_ Rièmaletapèk Gremalitápèk Némaletapèk

_I sleep_ Aatè Aachi Roatè

_I am ashamed_ Ripagak Grpágařè Npagàk

_I aim at the mark_ Hatenetálgè Hachínitalgè Yatenetalgè

_I value_ Riápategè Grpáchiigè Yapategè

_I am whipped_ Hamèlk Hamelgì Yamèlk

_I drink_ Řařàm Řařami Nařàm

_I make_ Haèt Eichì Yaèt

_I obey_ Riahapèt Grahapichi Nahapet

_I come to_ Řauè Nauichì Nauè

But these few are sufficient to show the infinite changes of almost all verbs. I refrain from giving more examples which I have in my head; for it is not my intention to teach you the Abiponian language, but to show you the strange construction of it, and to avoid fatiguing your ears with so many long savage words. From the little which I _have_ written, you will collect that the inflexions and variations of the second person in particular can only be learnt by use, not by rules. The other tenses of the indicative mood, and indeed all the moods of every conjugation, give little trouble to learners, being formed simply by adding a few syllables, or particles, to the present of the indicative: for instance:—

Present tense. _Rikapit_, I love. The imperfect is wanting. Preterite. _Rikapit kan_, or _kanigra_, I have loved. Preterpluperfect. _Kánigra gehe rikapit_, I had loved formerly. Future. _Rikapitàm_, I will love.

You add the same particles to the second and third persons, without changing them in any other respect: thus—

_Grkapichi_, thou lovest. _Grkapichi kan_, thou hast loved. _Grkapichi kanigra gehe_, thou hadst loved. _Grkapichiam_, thou wilt love.

For the syllable _am_ is what distinguishes the present from the future.

The imperative mood undergoes no mutation either in the present or future tense. Thus, hasten thou; _Grahálgalí_, which is also the second person of the indicative, thou hastenest. _Eichi_, do thou: _Grkapichi_, love thou: or _Grkapichiam_, which likewise signifies thou wilt love. They sometimes prefix the particle _Tach_ to the second person of the imperative, and _Ták_ to the third: thus _Tach grahápichì_ obey thou. _Tach grakatřani_, say thou. _Ták hanek_, let him come: which also denotes the present of the potential; thus: _Ták hanek Kaámelk_, the Spaniard may come for me. Prohibition is expressed by the future with the addition of the particle _tchik_ or _chigè_, according to the following letter. Thus, thou mayst not kill, _Chit kahamatrañiam_. Thou mayst not lie, _Chit Noaharegraniam_.

The optative, or subjunctive, is formed of various particles, placed before or after the present of the indicative: as I shall show by examples.

_Chigriek_, would that. _Chigriek grkapichi g'Dios eknam caogarik_: Would that thou wouldst love God the Creator. _Kët_, if. _Kët greenřani, G'Dios grkapichi kët_: If thou wert good thou wouldst love God. _Kët_, if, is repeated both in the condition and the conditionated.

_Amla_, after that. _Amla grkapichi g`Dios, Dios `lo nkapíchieřoám_: After thou hast loved God, God will love thee. _Postquam amaveris Deum, Thus amabit te._

_Ehenhà_, until. _Ehenhà na chigrkápichi_ _g'Dios, chitl gihè groamketápekàm_: Until, or as long as thou dost not love God, thou wilt never be quiet. _Donec vel quamdiu non amaveris Deum, non eris unquam quietus._

_Amamach_, when. _Amamach rikápichieřoa, lo grkápichioam_: When thou lovest me, I will love thee. _Quando amaveris me, amabo te._

_Kët mat_, if. _Kët mat nkápichirioà, là rikapitla kët_: If they had loved me, I would have loved them. _Si amassent me, amassem illos._

_Tach_, that. _Tach grkápichioa, rikapichieřoàm_: Love me, that I may love thee. _Ama me, ut amem te._

The Abipones seem to want the infinitive, the place of which they supply in other ways, as I shall more plainly show by examples, thus: now I wish to eat: _Là rihete m'hakéñe_. _Rihe_, or _rihete_, I wish, and _hakéñe_, I eat, are both put in the same mood, tense, and person; the