Part 5

The first rough shaping of the more important facets of the brilliants is here seen performed by the workman, who operates on two diamonds at once, by bruising each against the other, angle against angle. The dust that falls from the stones is preserved for the subsequent processes of grinding and polishing those facets that distinguish the many-sided brilliant from the dull, original crystal of the diamond. It is used, mingled with oil, on a flat iron disk, set revolving with vast rapidity by steam-power, the stone itself being held upon this disk or wheel by a tool to which it is attached by a mass of fusible metallic alloy, into which the stone is skilfully inserted. Skill of eye and hand, only attainable by great practice, is needed for this work; but a skill not less exact is needed for another process, which may here be seen in daily operation--the process of cleavage. The diamond, when a blow is struck on an edged tool placed parallel to one of the octahedral faces of the crystal, readily splits in that direction. But to recognize the precise direction on the complex and generally rounded form of the diamond crystal; to cut a little notch by means of a knife edge of diamonds formed of one of the slices cleaved from a crystal, and to cut that notch exactly the right spot; then to plant the steel knife that is to split the diamond precisely in the right position; finally, with a smart blow, to effect the cleavage so as to separate neither too large nor small a portion of the stone--these various steps in the process need great skill and judgment, and present to the observer the interesting spectacle which a handicraft dependent on experience of hand and eye always affords. But Mr. Coster’s exhibition has other objects of interest. For the first time, we may see here, side by side, the diamond with the minerals that accompany it in the river beds of Brazil; and there are even examples in which crystals of diamonds are included within a mass of quartz crystals, which have all the appearance of having been formed simultaneously with deposits of the diamond.

The different districts of Rio and of Bahia are thus represented--the former producing a confusedly crystallized sort of diamond termed “bort,” and the latter an opaque black variety; both these kinds being found associated with the crystallized diamonds used for jewelry. Though useful in state of powder, the black carbon and “bort” are incapable of being cut as a jewel.--_“Maskelyne’s Report,” Great Exhibition._

The Alloys of Aluminum with Copper.

When Sir Humphrey Davy announced the fact that soda, lime, potash, magnesia, and the other alkalies were but oxides of a metallic base, it would have been deemed chimerical to have supposed that the discoveries he made by the expensive aid of the battery would at later date become of really commercial value. He did obtain both sodium and potassium in the metallic state. The substances in this form were new to the chemical world, still more strange to the popular. So new was it to the chemists, that, on a globule of the reduced sodium being presented to a very distinguished chemist, he, with some enthusiasm, examined it; and, admitting the fact of its being a metal, exclaimed, “how heavy it is!”--when the real fact was that its specific gravity was less than water; the expression was the result of the general preconceived opinion that a high specific gravity was a test of a metallic body. It was reserved for a French chemist, Henry St. Claire Deville, to utilize the metal sodium, and that, too, in such a manner that the demand aroused attention to its production;--demand will inevitably bring a supply.

The original reduction was made by Davy, by means of the voltaic battery. After it had been proved that these bases were really metals capable of reduction, chemistry brought all its resources to bear on the problem, and they were produced by other methods than the battery. All the processes adopted, however, were too expensive and laborious, involving an extraordinary amount of complicated manipulations with but inadequate results. The metal sodium, which is the immediate subject of our inquiry, long remained an object simply of curiosity or experiment in the laboratory.

The methods of reducing the metal have of late years been so simplified that, to quote Prof. Chas. A. Joy in the _Journal of Applied Chemistry_: “A few years ago a pound of this metal could not have been purchased for two hundred dollars, and even at that price there were few manufacturers hardy enough to take the order. At the present time it can be readily manufactured for seventy-five cents, if not for fifty cents a pound; and the probabilities are that we shall soon be able to obtain it for one-quarter of a dollar.”

Deville found that by the reaction of the metallic sodium on common chloride of aluminum a reduction was effected; the chlorine taking up the sodium, forming chloride of sodium (common salt), while the aluminum was left free in the metallic state. It is hardly necessary to go into the particulars of the process; but a metal well known to exist, had, for the first time, been brought to the world in such a condition of structure that its qualities could be tested, not only chemically, but mechanically. This was the direct result of Deville’s metallurgic process of obtaining the reducing agent--sodium.

Aluminum in itself would be of but little use, so that a brief description will be all that is necessary. It is about the color of silver, but susceptible of a higher polish, especially on a fresh-cut surface; it is much less susceptible of oxidization than silver; its specific gravity is but little more than pine wood, and its tenacity, ductility, and laminating qualities are nearly equal to silver. Its use in the mechanical arts is limited, notwithstanding all these qualities, from the fact of its low point of fusibility, and at the heat of the fusible point being easily oxidized, so much so as to prevent soldering, except by an autogenous process. But aluminum does possess a property peculiar to itself--that of forming a purely and strictly _chemical alloy_ with copper. It unites with it in any proportion; the compound formed by the addition of 10 per cent. of aluminum to 90 per cent. of copper has been found to possess all the properties of an entirely new metal, with qualities that render it a very valuable material in all fine work, such as astronomical instruments; and very fine machinery, such as watch-lathes, etc.

The French reports on the alloy are somewhat voluminous, but we give the following.

The color of this bronze so closely resembles that of 18 carat gold, such as is used for the best jewelry and watch-cases, that it is capable of receiving the highest polish, and is far superior in beauty to any gilding.

Samples taken from different parts of the largest castings, when analyzed, show the most complete uniformity of composition, provided only that the two metals have originally been properly mixed while in a state of fusion. These experiments have been made upon cylinders weighing many hundreds of pounds, and are entirely conclusive.

This valuable quality is not found in any of the more ordinary alloys of copper. The alloy of copper with tin, for example, known as _gun metal_, is notoriously subject to a phenomenon known as _liquation_; in consequence of which a great difference is found in the composition of the same casting, both in the top as compared with the bottom, and in the centre as compared with the circumference.

This phenomenon often causes great inconvenience, as the different parts of large objects will in consequence vary greatly in hardness as well as in strength. In casting artillery the difficulty becomes a serious one, and no means have yet been discovered by which it can be entirely removed.

This homogeneousness of aluminum bronze is a natural consequence of the great affinity existing between the two metals of which it is composed; and that there is such an affinity is clearly proved by the phenomenon attending the manufacture of the alloy. The copper is first melted in a crucible and the aluminum is then added to it _in ingots_. At first there is, of course, a reduction of temperature, because the aluminum in melting absorbs the heat from the melted copper; and this absorption is so great, in consequence of the great capacity for heat of aluminum, that a part of the copper may even become solid. But let the mixture be stirred a moment with an iron bar, and the two metals immediately unite; and in an instant, although the crucible may have been removed from the furnace, the temperature of the metals rises to incandescence, while the mass becomes as fluid as water.

This enormous disengagement of heat, not seen in the preparation of any other ordinary alloy, indicates, not a simple mixture, but a real chemical combination of the two metals. The 10 per cent. bronze may therefore be properly compared to a salt, the more so as it is found by calculation to contain, within a very minute fraction, four equivalents of copper to one equivalent of aluminum.

The 10 per cent. bronze may be forged cold, and becomes extremely dense under the action of the hammer. The blades of dessert-knives are thus treated in order to give them the requisite hardness and elasticity. But it has another valuable quality which is found in no other kind of brass or bronze: it may be forged hot, as well as, if not better than the very best iron. It thus becomes harder and more rigid, and its fracture shows a grain similar to that of cast steel. On account of the hardness of the aluminum bronze, rolling it into sheets would be a tedious and expensive process, were it not for this property of being malleable at a red heat. But it may in this manner be rolled into sheets of any thickness or drawn into wire of any size. It may also be drawn into tubes of any dimension.

From several experiments made at different times at Paris, it appears that the breaking weight of the cast bronze varies from 65 to 70 kilogrammes the square millimetre. The same bronze drawn into wire supported a weight of 90 kilogrammes the square millimetre. The iron used for suspension bridges, tested in the same manner, did not show an average of more than 30 kilogrammes. Some experiments were also made by Mr. Anderson, at the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, in England, who tested at the same time the aluminum bronze, the brass used for artillery and commonly called _gun metal_, and the cast steel made by Krupp in Prussia. Taking for the maximum strength of the bronze the lowest of the numbers found as above, we are thus enabled to form the following table of comparative tenacities:

Aluminum bronze 10 per cent. 65 Crupp’s Cast Steel 53 Refined Iron 30 Brass for cannon 28

The comparative toughness of these same four metals was also tested in the following manner: A bar of each was prepared of the same size, and each bar was then notched with a chisel to precisely the same depth. The bars were broken separately, upon an anvil, by blows from a hammer. The last three metals in the table broke each at the first blow, with a clean and square fracture. The aluminum bronze only began to crack at the eighth blow, and required a number of additional blows before the two pieces were entirely separated. And the irregular, torn surface of the fracture showed the peculiarly tough and fibrous nature of the metal.

The elasticity of the aluminum bronze was tested by M. Tresca, Professor at the _Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers_. The experiment was made upon a bar of simple cast metal, and the following is his report: “The coefficient of elasticity of the aluminum bronze, the cast metal, is half that of the best wrought-iron. This coefficient is double that of brass and four times that of gun metal, under the same conditions.”

The specific gravity is 7.7, about the same as iron. Another very valuable quality is presented in the fact that it is acted on by atmospheric influences less than are silver, brass, or bronze. This places it in the same rank with gold, platinum and aluminum.

Very stiff and very elastic, tougher than iron, very little acted upon chemically, and in certain cases not at all, capable of being cast like ordinary bronze or brass, forged like iron and steel, of being worked in every way like the most malleable metals or alloys, having, added to these properties, a color analogous to that of the most precious metal, this bronze proves itself adapted to uses almost innumerable. At first sight, it seems difficult to admit that the relatively small proportions of aluminum which enters into the composition of this bronze can be sufficient to modify so extraordinarily the properties of the copper which constitutes so large a portion of its weight. But we must remember that the specific gravity of aluminum is very low, and that a given weight of this metal possesses a bulk four times as large as the same weight in silver. It follows from this that the ten per cent. of aluminum contained in the bronze equals in bulk forty per cent. in silver.

The specimens of the ware we have seen, such as spoons, forks, cups, watch-cases, etc., are certainly very beautiful, having the color and high polish of gold, while dilute acids do not affect the surface.

On the Reduction of Silver in the Wet Way.

Every chemist is familiar with the reduction of chloride of silver in the form of powder by means of metallic zinc in the presence of a little free acid. It is not easy to bring two such substances as the silver salt and the metal into close contact, and after the work is accomplished the removal of the excess of zinc has its difficulties. Dr. Grager suggests a modification of the old method that ought to be more generally made known. The chloride of silver is dissolved in ammonia and poured into a well-stopped bottle, and into this is introduced an excess of metallic zinc, in not too small fragments, so that any reduced metal adhering to it may be readily washed off.

The decomposition begins immediately, and is rapidly accomplished, especially if the contents of the flask be well shaken up. Three hours will suffice to reduce one-quarter of a pound of chloride of silver. It is easy to ascertain when the reduction is ended, by testing a portion of the ammoniacal solution with hydrochloric acid. As soon as no cloudiness or curdy precipitate is formed, the work may be regarded as completed.

A slight excess of ammonia is said to be favorable. The reduced silver must be washed with water until all odor of ammonia has disappeared. The pieces of zinc are removed by pouring the contents of the flask through a funnel, the opening of which is too narrow for the passage of the zinc fragments, while the reduced silver can be easily washed through. The finely divided silver can be digested in hydrochloric acid to restore it to a pure white color, and it is then ready for solution or fusion, and will be found to be perfectly pure. In dealing with large quantities it would be economical to recover a portion of the ammonia by distillation. In the same way an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver can also be reduced by zinc, and the silver obtained pure, even when the original solution of the nitrate contains copper--provided a small quantity of silver be kept in the bath.

It is better where copper is present not to take all of the zinc that may be requisite for the reduction of the silver. It will prove a great convenience to be spared the necessity of converting the silver into the chloride, as it is no easy task to wash out this salt on filters--and it will be found to be applicable to alloys which do not contain more than 25 per cent. of silver.--_From Prof. Joy in the Journal of Applied Chemistry._

Transcriber’s Notes

Obvious errors in punctuation have been fixed.

Page 7: “Mechanique Celeste” changed to “Méchanique Céleste”

Page 12: “ou rexperience” changed to “our experience”

Page 18: “head-quarters far astronomical observations” changed to “head-quarters for astronomical observations”

Page 22: “it accomodates” changed to “it accommodates”

The Table of Contents lists “Equation of the Time Table” as the article on page 28. The actual article is named “On the Reduction of Silver in the Wet Way.” This has intentionally been left as per the original. Similarly, there is no actual section titled “Notices of New Tools” despite its inclusion in the Table of Contents, and this has been left as per the original.