Chapter 30
possesses inertia. So that we may say that, though the evidence as to the identity of electrical and aetherial inertia is not fully complete, the balance of opinion lies in favour of the identity rather than otherwise. See _Appendix A_.
It can further be demonstrated that electricity possesses elasticity the same as the Aether does. The charge and discharge of a Leyden jar are conclusive evidence of the elasticity associated with electrical phenomena, while further proof is to be found in the fact that Dr. Larmor attributes elasticity to his electrons, such elasticity being of a rotational type.
The identity, therefore, that exists between Aether is now almost complete. We have now only to prove that both are compressible, and the identity is fully established. This will be done by reference to certain of Faraday's experiments before the conclusion of this article. As we have established, logically, the identity that exists between Aether and electricity, the question arises now as to whether they are not one and the same medium. If they are not one and the same medium, then we are in the distinctly unphilosophical position of having to admit that all interplanetary and interstellar space are filled at one and the same time by two different media, and such an assumption is directly opposed to all observation and experience.
Therefore, to be strictly philosophical, one of these media must be done away with, and we may either assert that interplanetary and interstellar space is filled with electricity, or else it is filled with Aether, as it is much simpler to conceive of space being filled with one medium, than it is to suppose it to be filled with two media, which are absolutely identical in all their characteristic properties and functions. Both can give rise to exactly the same kind of phenomena, whether they are the phenomena of heat, light, electricity, or magnetism, and even gravitation itself. So that, if Science wishes to be distinctly philosophical in her statements in future, it will be necessary, it seems to me, to do away either with the Aether, or with the electricity, and as the latter is the better known entity, I am of the opinion that Science will retain the electric conception of space and matter, and do away with the aetherial, as being altogether unnecessary. See _Appendix B_.
Thus are we led to the conclusion that electricity is itself a form of matter, as indeed it must be if it is atomic, as suggested by Dr. Larmor and Professor Thomson.
Professor Lodge, on p. 9 of the work already referred to, states: "Electricity in this respect behaves just like a substance;" and again, p. 313, he writes: "We cannot assert that it is a form of matter, neither can we deny it; on the other hand, we certainly cannot assert that it is a form of energy, and I should be disposed to deny it. It may be that electricity is an _entity per se, just as matter is an entity per se_."
Whether electricity be a form of matter or not, as I believe it undoubtedly is, we have arrived at the fact, in view of the identity between Aether and electricity, that, wherever the one is present, the other is present also. So that if it can be demonstrated by direct experiment that matter can be changed into its equivalent quantities of electricities, or that equivalent quantities of electricities could produce their equivalent forms of matter, then the electrical basis of matter, and consequently the aetherial basis of matter, are proved beyond contradiction, and we are thus led one step nearer to the ultimate unity of the Universe, which unity is to be found in the universal electro-magnetic Aether, which is identical with universal electricity. For if Aether be the basis of all modes of motion, as heat, light, and gravitation, and it is identical with electricity, it follows that electricity is equally the basis of all the varied phenomena, and if to that we add the constitution of matter itself, then we are within sight of the medium in which the ultimate unity of the Universe is to be found.
This view of the subject has already been dealt with by a German scientist, Professor Vogt, in his book on _The Nature of Electricity and Magnetism_, a book, however, which is not translated into English. In that work I believe he shows the possibility of all matter having its origin in electricity; and if that be so, then that theory is really identical with an aetherial basis of matter, seeing that Aether and electricity philosophically seem to be one and the same medium. Let us therefore turn to Faraday's experiments, and see what they teach us on the subject of the electrical basis of matter, and therefore the aetherial basis at the same time.
In paragraph 852 of his _Experimental Researches_ Faraday writes: "The theory of definite electro-chemical action appears to me to touch upon the absolute quantity of electricity, or electrical power, belonging to different bodies. Although we know nothing of what an atom is, yet we cannot resist forming some idea of a small particle which represents it to our mind, and though we cannot say what electricity is, so as to be able to say whether it is a particular _matter or matters_, or mere motion of ordinary matter, yet there is immensity of facts which justify us in believing that the atoms of matter are in some way endowed or associated with electrical powers to which they owe their most striking qualities, and amongst them their chemical affinity. As soon as we perceive, through the teaching of Dalton, that chemical powers are (however varied the circumstances in which they are exerted) definite for each body, we learn to estimate the relative degree of Force which resides in such bodies; and when upon that knowledge comes the fact that electricity, which we appear to be capable of loosening from its habitation for a while, or conveying from place to place, whilst it retains its chemical Force, can be measured out, and being so measured, is found to be as definite in its action as any of those portions which, remaining associated with the particles of matter, give them their chemical relation, we seem to have found a link which connects the proportion of that belonging to the particles in their natural state."
Then in paragraph 855 he writes as follows: "It seems a probable and almost a natural consequence, that the quantity which passes is the equivalent of, and therefore equal to, that of the particles separated, _i. e._ that if the electrical power which holds the elements of a grain of water in combination (or which makes a grain of oxygen and hydrogen, in the right proportions, unite into water when they are made to combine) could be thrown into the condition of a current, it would exactly equal the current required for the separation of that grain of water into its elements again."
Further, in Art. 857, he states, "I can have no doubt that, assuming hydrogen as 1, and dismissing small fractions for the simplicity of expression, the equivalent number or atomic weight of oxygen is 8, of chlorine 36, of bromine 78.4, of lead 103.5, of tin 59, etc., notwithstanding that a very high authority doubles several of these numbers." Then, writing upon the definite relationship of electro-chemical equivalents, he states, Art. 835: "Electro-chemical equivalents are always consistent; _i. e._ the same number which represents the equivalent of a substance _A_, when it is separating from a substance _B_, will also represent _A_ when separating from a third substance _C_. Thus 8 is the electro-chemical equivalent of oxygen, whether separating from hydrogen or tin or lead; and 103.5 is the electro-chemical equivalent of lead, whether separating from oxygen or chlorine or iodine."
So that from Faraday's experiments we learn definitely that the electro-chemical equivalents coincide with and agree with the ordinary chemical equivalents according to Dalton's theory. From these experimental results of Faraday's we therefore learn that Faraday was of the opinion that each atom had a definite and certain quantity of electricity associated with it; and if this be true, then, in view of the identity of Aether with electricity, it follows that each atom must have definite and certain quantities of Aether associated with each atom. So that through Faraday's experimental researches we are again led to the hypothesis enunciated by Lord Kelvin in his paper "On the Clustering of Gravitational Matter in any part of the Universe," viz. that all matter has an aetherial, that is, an electrical basis, and that it is by the condensation of this electricity, and combinations of the condensational particles, that all the various elements are formed which compose the infinite variety of forms that constitute the entire Universe. Here, then, it seems to me, we have the evidence which gives to the aetherial Nebular Hypothesis (Art. 121) that experimental evidence which places that hypothesis upon a firm and philosophical foundation, and conclusively proves that it is possible for Aether out in the colder regions of interstellar space to be condensed into masses of gaseous matter, which form nebulae, and other masses in the cold regions of interplanetary space to condense and form comets and meteors.
[Footnote 45: _Aether and Matter._]
ART. 125. _Physical Constitution of Matter._--In Art. 31 we learned that all matter was made up of minute parts called atoms. When these atoms enter into combination with each other, they form the smallest particles of elementary substances as well as compound bodies, these particles or bodies being termed molecules.
A molecule, therefore, may consist of any number of atoms of the same element, or may be formed of the union of the atoms of two different elements. In the preceding article we have learned that the atom of hydrogen or carbon, however, is divisible, at least theoretically if not experimentally, as we came to the conclusion that all atoms are composed of infinitesimal aetherial atoms, which are synonymous with atoms of electricity.
Whether we shall ever be able to experimentally prove the existence of such an atom remains to be seen, though Dr. Larmor states that the atomicity of electricity is coming within the scope of direct experiment; while the researches of Professors Crookes and J. J. Thomson have undoubtedly given direct evidence of the existence of corpuscles, which are part of the atoms of the various elements.
When we try to conceive, however, of the manner in which the various elements can be formed from one primary medium, that is, the Aether or electricity, we find it difficult to arrive at a simple physical conception of the process involved.
We are indebted to Professor J. J. Thomson for what is practically the only simple physical conception of the method in which various elements may be formed from that medium, which gives unity to the whole of the universe. In the Adams Prize Essay of 1883 Professor Thomson indicated a theory based on the vortex atom (Art. 43) which satisfactorily accounted for the various laws which governed gaseous matter, and also showed how the varied chemical combinations might be physically conceived as being produced from one primary medium.
In this theory we have to conceive of the vortex atom as possessing a hollow core, while in our conception of an aetherial atom (Art. 43) we conceived it as being more of a spherical or globular form than ring-shaped. We have, then, to consider the atom of any element as being composed of a vortex ring of various thickness, the thickness of the ring being an indication of its atomic weight.
Each vortex ring must also be conceived as itself being composed of a number of aetherial atoms, or atoms of electricity, the number of such atoms being proportionate to the respective atomic weights of the various elements. Dr. Larmor suggests that a vortex ring may have this constitution in his work on _Aether and Matter_.
According to Professor J. J. Thomson, then, any vortex ring, which we have supposed to be constituted of aetherial atoms, or atoms of electricity, may unite with any other vortex ring, thus producing a vortex ring of double density, which would possess double the electricity of the unit vortex ring. If we united three vortex rings, then the result would be an atom of threefold the density and strength of the unit vortex ring.
We might conceive of four or any number of these rings uniting together to form a separate element, and then each element would simply be a multiple of the unit vortex ring, and so possess regular multiples of the atoms of electricity, each multiple representing a distinct element.
We will now let Professor Thomson speak for himself on the matter, and will describe the theory in his own words, always keeping in mind the hypothesis that the unit vortex ring is itself composed of a definite number of atoms of electricity or electrons, as proved by Faraday. See _Appendix C_.
In the work already referred to, Professor Thomson states: "We may suppose that the union or pairing in this way of two vortex rings of different kinds is what takes place, when two elements of which these vortex rings are atoms combine chemically; while, if the vortex rings are of the same kind, this process is what occurs when atoms combine to form molecules. Now let us suppose that the atoms of different chemical elements are made up of vortex rings, all of the same strength, but that some of these elements consist of only one ring, others of two rings linked together, others of three loops, and so on. Then if any of these rings combine to form a permanent combination, the strength of all the primaries in the system so formed by the combination must be equal."
"Thus an atom of one element may combine with another atom of the same kind, to form a molecule of that substance consisting of two atoms. Again, three of these atoms may combine, and form a system consisting of three primary elements, but the chance of their doing so is small compared with the chance of two pairing; so that the number of systems of this kind will be small compared with the number of the systems consisting only of two atoms. We might have systems of four atoms, but the number would be small compared with the number of systems that consist of three atoms."
"Now, suppose that an atom of one element is to combine with an atom of another. Suppose, to fix our ideas, that the atom consisting of two vortex rings linked together, is to combine with an atom consisting of one vortex ring; then, since, for the stability of connection, the strength of all the primaries which form the components of the compound must be equal, the atom consisting of two links must unite with molecules containing two atoms of the one with one link. Thus the compound formed will be the simplest combination, consisting of one of the atoms which consist of two vortex rings linked together with two of the atoms consisting of only one vortex ring. Similarly, if an atom consisting of three vortex rings linked together were to combine directly with atoms consisting of only one vortex ring, the compound formed would consist of the three linked atoms with three of the others, and so on for all the combinations of atoms formed by any number of vortex rings linked together. This suggests that the elements, called by the chemists monads, dyads, triads and so on, consist of one, two, etc. vortex rings linked together, for then we should know that a dyad could not combine with less than two atoms of a monad to form a stable compound, or a triad with less than three, and so on, which is just the definition of the terms monad, dyad, triad."
"On looking at chemical combination from this point, we expect to find that such compounds as Hydrochloric acid, where one atom of Hydrogen has only to meet one atom of Chlorine; or water, where one atom of Oxygen has only to meet two atoms or a molecule of Hydrogen, would be much more easily and quickly formed than a compound such as ammonia gas, to form which an atom of Nitrogen has to find itself close to three atoms of Hydrogen at once."
"It is the case, I believe, in direct combination, that simple compounds are formed more quickly than compound ones. We might call the ratio of the number of links in the atom of any element, to the number in the atom of Hydrogen, the Valency of the element. Thus the compounds H-CL, H-I, H-F, show that the atoms of Chlorine, Iodine, Fluorine have the same number of links as the atom of Hydrogen, so that the valency of each of these elements is unity. From the compound H_{2}O we infer that the atom of Oxygen consists of twice as many links as the atom of Hydrogen. The compound H_{2}S indicates that the atoms of Sulphur have twice as many links as the atom of Hydrogen."
"The molecules CO_{2} and Marsh Gas have each three primaries represented by C-O-O and C-H-H respectively. According to the view we have taken, atomicity corresponds to complexity of atomic arrangement, and the elements of high atomicity consist of more vortex rings than those whose atomicity is low."
"Thus high atomicity corresponds to complicated atomic arrangement, and we should expect to find the spectra of bodies of low atomicity much simpler than those of high. This seems to be the case, for we find that the spectra of Sodium, Potassium, Lithium, Hydrogen, Chlorine, which are all monad elements, consist of comparatively few lines."
Here then, on the vortex theory of matter, especially when that vortex theory is given an electric basis, as is the case in Dr. Larmor's electron theory, we have a thinkable and logical explanation of the physical and chemical properties of matter, by which all elements and compounds may be formed from the primordial aetherial or electric atom. As all Nature is composed of about seventy elements, and it has been conclusively demonstrated that an atom of Hydrogen is the same all over the universe, no matter whether it exists on this planet, or in some distant star or nebula, we arrive at the conclusion that all the other elements are exactly the same in their properties and qualities wherever they are found. If, therefore, we couple Faraday's experiments and results as to the electro-chemical equivalents of all atoms, with this theory of Professor J. J. Thomson's, then we are again compelled to come to the conclusion that the unity of the universe in all its universality, and infinite variety of forms and modes of matter, is to be found, and alone found, in the universal Aether, which is co-existent and coextensive with electricity.
ART. 126. _Quod Erat Faciendum._--Before concluding this work let us briefly review the whole of the theory submitted herein to the reader.
That which was to be done consisted primarily in ascertaining the physical cause of Gravitation, by which would be accounted for on a philosophical basis all the phenomena incidental to and associated with the Law of Gravitation. Such phenomena included the physical cause of the Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces, the physical cause of Kepler's Laws, together with a physical conception of the application of Newton's Laws of Motion to all solar and stellar bodies. In addition to this, there were other outstanding problems in physics that it was premised would receive either a partial or an entire physical explanation. It was premised, for example, that the problem of the relative motion of Aether and matter would be solved, that the cause of the permanent magnetism of the earth would be revealed, and the great problem of the constitution of matter attacked, together with the unity of the universe which arose from that conception.
In order, however, for any theory to be philosophical in its initial stages, the rules of some of the greatest philosophers which govern the making of any hypotheses were briefly outlined, and were found to resolve themselves into three divisions.
The first rule dealt with the general simplicity of Nature's mode of working, and therefore the general simplicity which must govern our hypotheses in perfecting any theory as to the cause of all phenomena, gravitational or otherwise.
The second rule showed that the only sound basis from whence we could derive all our data upon which to speculate and reason, lay in our experience of all natural phenomena. Whatever else we might do, or not do, it was absolutely necessary, if we wished to be perfectly philosophical in our conclusions, that we should not traverse the direct results of observations and experiments.
The third rule laid down was the obvious axiom, that the theory so perfected by logical reasoning must satisfactorily account for and explain all the phenomena sought to be explained.
Now I wish to submit the whole theory as propounded in this work in its completion and in its entirety to the reader, and to ask him if the Rules of Philosophy have not been adhered to throughout the whole work? Can any theory be more simple than the one submitted in this work, by which we have endeavoured to account for all, and even more, than was premised in the opening chapters?
The very simplicity of the fundamental hypothesis that Aether is matter, in all its properties and qualities, has been the chief obstacle to the retardation of its earlier discovery.
Any proposition more simple, more easy of comprehension, is, to my mind, difficult of conception. Why, children in our homes and schools may be taught the truth, and grasp it in its concrete form, and that is the highest test of the simplicity of any hypothesis.
Thus the first Rule of Philosophy is satisfied and fulfilled in the initial hypothesis, and I venture to affirm that the same simplicity has characterized the development of the theory throughout its entire progress. Step by step, simple facts and simple truths which are known to any ordinary student have been shown to have a wider and more universal application than even the writer dreamed of, when he started out on his voyage of discovery in philosophical research.
When we consider the second Rule of Philosophy in its application to our theory, we find that experience, as revealed by observation and experiment, is fulfilled to the minutest detail. The simple hypothesis that Aether is matter, fulfils to the very fullest extent all requirements demanded by the experience of all the scientists and experimentalists that the world has ever known. To assert that Aether is not matter is to assert a proposition contrary to all the accumulated experience of the past generations. Therefore, if Aether is matter, then its fundamental qualities must be those which belong to and are associated with all matter, those qualities being atomicity, gravity, density, elasticity, inertia, and compressibility.
The objector to this statement is himself violating the chief rule of all philosophy, in that he is going contrary to the tenor and teaching of his own experience. Then, following out the second rule step by step we arrive at the one grand central truth, that electricity is also a form of matter, and that all the forces of the entire universe are but different modes of motion, different vibrations of the universal electro-magnetic Aether; while all the varied bodies that exist are themselves but different manifestations in a gaseous, liquid, or solid form of the same electro-magnetic substance.
Thus, step by step, we have tried to build up a theory of the physical cause of all phenomena, which will satisfactorily account for those phenomena, and even for the structure of the universe itself, from the mechanical standpoint, and by so doing have fulfilled the third Rule of our Philosophy as enunciated by Newton and others.
So that by the conception that Aether is matter, in its primordial state, we have more than fulfilled all that was premised should be done.
Thus the long-sought-for and long-expected cause of Gravitation, together with the cause of the two complementary forces, is found in the simple statement that Aether is matter, with all that is logically included therein. Kepler's Laws and Newton's Laws of Motion also receive a physical explanation in the same universal electro-magnetic Aether.
In addition to the solution of these problems, the transverse vibrations of light has received for the first time a physical conception, and a physical explanation, even admitting that that explanation may not be perfect in detail.
The origin of the permanent magnetism of the earth has also received a physical explanation through the motions of this same electro-magnetic Aether, while certain theories in relation to electricity given to the world by Ampère, Weber, Faraday, and Clerk Maxwell have found their consummation in this atomic electro-magnetic medium.
Further, astronomical hypotheses in relation to comets and nebulae are not untouched by the theory of a compressible and condensing atomic Aether. Indeed, there is not a phase of natural phenomena which is not affected in some way or other by the philosophical result arrived at that Aether is matter in its original state. Therefore, we claim, however imperfectly it may have been done, that not only have the Rules of Philosophy been fulfilled, but that the theory so advanced has accomplished more than even we in our wildest imagination hoped and dreamed for it.
Look at the problem of the Aether how we may, the advantages of the theory of an atomic electro-magnetic Aether far surpass and outweigh the advantages of a frictionless medium, which in some unknown way possesses mass and inertia, although the conception of such properties themselves disproves the existence of such a frictionless medium.
After all, how much of this theory is there which is entirely new or absolutely original? Age after age, men have had exactly similar dreams, and seen similar visions. In the old Grecian days similar views were expressed by their philosophers; and, even in the philosophy of less civilized countries, many of the suggested hypotheses found their place in a more or less perfect form.
Analyze the whole theory from its initial stages to the last chapter, and we shall find, with the exception of one or two features, that every hypothesis first had its origin in the mind of some of the greatest thinkers and philosophers that the world has ever known.
Take several hypotheses as examples. The hypothesis that Aether is atomic was suggested by such men as Newton, Huyghens, Descartes, Challis, Clerk Maxwell, and others.
That Aether is gravitative has been suggested by Young, Grove, Faraday, and Lord Kelvin. Huyghens, Fresnel, and Young postulated different degrees of density for the Aether, while Stokes and McCullagh have affirmed and proved different degrees of elasticity of the medium.
The inertia of the medium has received experimental evidence from Tyndall, Maxwell, Faraday, Lodge, and others, and its compressibility has received the adherence of men like Faraday, Maxwell, and Lord Kelvin.
Then, when we come to deal with the causes of the forces involved in gravitational phenomena, we find that exactly similar hypotheses in regard to the Centrifugal Force have been postulated by Herschel, Bredichin, M. Faye, and Lebedew; while Faraday, Gauss and others have suggested the close relationship that exists between electrical and gravitational phenomena.
The physical explanation of Kepler's Laws was suggested by Kepler himself, while Huyghens, Bernoulli, Descartes, and many of their contemporaries believed in the existence of some kind of vortices.
The unity of the universe has been a dream of philosophers for generations past, and that dream is now crystallized in the definite conception of an atomic universal electro-magnetic medium, while the electrical basis of matter receives the support of such men as Crookes, J. J. Thomson, Larmor and Vogt.
Thus we learn that all the dreams and thoughts, all the hypotheses and postulates of old-world as well as present-day philosophers find their consummation and ultimate realization in one universal, atomic, electro-magnetic medium.
If this fact does not stamp the theory with that authority which is undeniably associated with the names of some of the scientists quoted, then all the greatest men in the scientific world have lived and toiled, thought and dreamed in vain, while the priceless gems of their imagination and research are treated as worthless and valueless.
Again, what shall we say of the discoveries of to-day?
What is the key to the greatest scientific discovery of modern times, viz. wireless or aetherial telegraphy, which is girdling the earth with its mysterious communications? Is not the key to that discovery to be found in this universal electro-magnetic medium?
Whence come the X-rays, Rontgen rays, and other light rays with their adaptability to human suffering, if they come not from this same electro-magnetic medium? their adaptability to human suffering being dependent upon the intimate and close relationship that exists between the physical body and the electro-magnetic medium.
Where is the key to the principle underlying the gramophone, the phonograph and the telephone, if it be not in this self-same atomic and easily impressible medium?
Nay! let us go further, and ask ourselves where is the key to be found for the many marvellous effects of so-called spirit phenomena? Who can read F. W. Myer's _Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death_, and not feel that we are standing on the threshold of the unseen world?
Already men are asking themselves the meaning of the strange sensations which they receive from unseen sources; already men's spirits are vibrating in unison with vibrations that come from the unseen world; and to-day we see spiritual phenomena as through a glass darkly, and the question arises, what is the medium of all this communication, of all these vibrations?
Is there no medium at all which forms the medium of communication? To assert that would be to assert something opposed to all experience and therefore would be unphilosophical.
May not then the theory of an atomic universal electro-magnetic medium help us on in our groping and searching after light in this direction? Who will uplift the veil? Already we peer almost into the spirit world. A little more light, a little more truth, and then there will burst forth upon the hearts and minds of men the grandest and most glorious truth that Nature can reveal of her Creator, and then men shall come to know and understand the place that God holds in the Universe, such truth being advanced on its way by an atomic, universal electro-magnetic Aether which is as truly matter as our own bodies.
ART. 127. _God and the Universe._--To the superficial reader it may appear at first sight, that the theory of the Aether suggested in this work leaves no place in the Universe for the operations and existence of an Infinite and living Spirit, a God. It may be objected, that if all matter and all modes of motion find their physical origin in one common and primordial medium, the electro-magnetic Aether, where is the necessity for the existence of an Eternal and Infinite Spirit?
At first sight there appears some force in the objection, but it loses its point when we come to view the Universe from the standpoint of spirit phenomena. The purpose of the writer in this work has been to deal with natural phenomena only, purely from the philosophical and scientific standpoint. Spirit phenomena (which is equally as real and obvious as natural phenomena) have no part or place in a work which deals with scientific facts and data, but demand and will receive in a future work equal consideration and philosophic treatment. A man must indeed be lacking in vision who cannot see behind all things the evidence of a richer and fuller truth than that which merely lies on the surface, or who fails to read and learn the greatest truth that circles the Universe in its ultimate unity, which indisputably points to the existence of an Eternal and ever-living Spirit, a God. I affirm that there is no scientific truth, even including the law of the conservation of matter and motion, which has been enunciated in this work, but what is reconcilable with the existence of an Eternal and Infinite Spirit; and although such a statement may seem a paradox, yet I am convinced that before many more years have passed, the reconciliation of natural with spiritual phenomena will be an accomplished fact. The fool to-day may say in his heart, there is no God, but ere long not only religion, but Science herself, shall expose his lack of wisdom and his folly.
For all things derive their existence primarily, with all the energies and powers they possess, from God. Look where we will, or at what we will, from the smallest atom or molecule up to the most stupendous world, or myriads of worlds that roll and sparkle in the blue infinity, in each and all we see the indisputable evidence of the existence of a mysterious spirit, or power, that controls and governs them. A spirit or power that we cannot see, but which is so indisputably evidenced that its existence cannot be denied. For example, we see forms of many kinds, some of which are simple entities of themselves, while others are complex and made up of many parts, but while each part is inseparably connected with the other, yet each part is itself distinct from the others in nature and substance. The whole combined forms a complete mechanism or organism, and, like all mechanisms of human make, not only needs a controlling and governing power, but also evidences a maker. Even the laws of Nature and modes of motion, whether it be heat, light, electricity, or magnetism, are, however, unable of themselves to control the mechanism, and therefore prove themselves to be but the servants of an infinite Intelligence, a GOD.
Thus, behind and beyond all we see, in every living form, there is the evidence of a hidden spirit, which is the governing and controlling and sustaining power, and without which the organism ceases to be an organism. A spirit which animates the mechanism, and uses its activities and powers as it wills for its own purposes and ends. This spirit or power we call its life, which gives to the form its existence, together with all that it possesses, as its powers, activities, energies and productions, for all are but the effects of the hidden life. If this mysterious something, termed its life, becomes in any way separated from the mechanism or organism, then as a distinct and separate organism it ceases to be; and though the mechanism may still exist for a time, yet all its powers are gone, while the organism, robbed of its very life, begins slowly to decay.
We cannot see this power; we cannot find it We may search for it, rend and tear part from part, only to find that it baffles all our skill, and laughs at our endeavours to discover the secret of its existence. We know that it is there, just as truly as we know that in these forms of ours, these living stoves, these perfect mechanisms called our bodies, there exists and dwells a spirit, a living, conscious, self-acting and controlling power. A spirit which we know is not the mechanism itself, and which by experience and observation we know to be distinct from the organism. It is this mysterious spirit which controls and governs all our acts, that rules and reigns as king of our bodies, and makes the physical mechanism, with all its wondrous parts, obey and do its bidding. That this is so, that the spirit is distinct from the body, and is the controlling and governing principle within us, is evident in a thousand ways. If, however, that spirit departs from the mechanism of our bodies, then the controlling and governing influence is gone; and the mechanism, robbed of its life, ceases to work, ceases to fulfil its functions, and ceases to exist in that particular form.
Just as it is with ourselves, so it is with the Universe. For look where we will, from the smallest atom to the great aggregation of atoms, as our earth, or even to the more stupendous orbs of heaven, the working of a secret and mysterious power or spirit meets our gaze. A spirit or power that is not the form or the mechanism, but is separate and distinct from the mechanism, while at the same time it is inseparably connected with each and all. For everything that we see, from an atom to the Universe itself, is a perfect mechanism, or complexity of mechanisms. The entire Universe is one vast, intricate, and elaborate piece of mechanism, beginning with the simple aetherial atom, ranging through all the atomic systems, graduating by successive steps through compound substances, which, in their aggregations, form meteors, satellites, planets, suns, and stars; until the ultimate whole is reached, where everything is blended into one vast whole; a perfect, infinite, complex mechanism, a Universe.
Now if philosophy teaches anything at all regarding mechanisms of human invention, it indisputably teaches that every machine or mechanism that has ever been made, implies the existence of a maker, and that the maker possessed intelligent attributes, as reason, judgment, perception, and imagination. For example, stand before some elaborate machine of human invention, as a lace machine, and watch the working of that machine in all its details. It is composed of many parts, each of which is perfect in itself. Each part may be distinct in nature and purpose, yet each and all are inseparably and unitedly connected with each other, and all work harmoniously together for the accomplishment of a definite and specific end, that is, the production of a lace curtain of exquisite design and pattern. As we watch the machine and its workings, we see therein the evidence of the existence of a spirit or power that gave it its birth. A spirit or mind that made and formed the machine, that constituted, arranged, and gave it its governing and controlling power; fitted and ordered every part, gave to each part its allotted task, and moulded all to the harmonious fulfilment of the definite end and purpose he had in view.
Thus in the machine we see evidence of contrivance and design, of method and arrangement, of conception, perception and judgment, which are all the effects and outflowings of intelligence which belong, and alone belong, to mind; and therefore we say, "The machine was made, and there was and must have been a maker." So universally is this fact accepted, that any one who seriously challenged the statement, or dared to deny it, would be at once pitied as insane or laughed at as a fool. Thus all experience proves, and philosophy testifies, that wherever we get a machine or mechanism of any kind or sort, there must have been a living, conscious being or person, who is distinct from and outside of the machine. He made it, and therefore must have existed before it, in order to make it. Wherever, therefore, we find a mechanism that bears the marks of intelligence and design, of judgment, perception and conception, it is only logical and philosophical to infer, that such a mechanism equally evidences the existence of an intelligent being. The more intricate and elaborate the mechanism, the greater the ingenuity displayed, the more complex and perfect the design, the more harmonious the working, the greater will be the wisdom, the more profound the judgment, the keener the perception, the more perfect the understanding, and the vaster, nobler, and more sublime the order of Being who originated and made it. This being so, according to philosophical reasoning, let us glance at the Universe in all its fulness and oneness, and we shall see the indisputable evidence of the existence of an Infinite Being, who made, controls and governs the infinite Universe.
In the atomic world we get an illustration of the perfect mechanism that underlies all atomic systems. Our conception of an aetherial atom was based upon the analogy of our own planet, and there is every reason to believe that the little world in which all atoms live and move and have their being, is analogous to a planetary or solar system, in which we find the two essentials of matter and motion ever associated together, to form a larger and more complete mechanism. For atoms are not simply mere points; they possess real dimensions, with a determinate and fixed form, differing in their relative weights, and in the amount of motion or force with which each is endowed. The very fact that they possess atomic weights which are unalterable throughout the long periods of time that mark the history of the Universe, and that they combine in definite and fixed proportions, indisputably evidence the fact that they but do the bidding of an Eternal and Infinite Spirit, a God. Thus each molecule, or atomic system forms a perfect mechanism in itself, with its own centre of gravity, and subject to the same laws of repulsion and attraction, or pressures and tensions--due to the vibrations and motions of the universal electro-magnetic Aether.
In each of the planetary systems we get an illustration of the same perfect mechanism, which is indicative of all systems whether large or small; each system being characterised by the same beauty of order and harmony of motion which are equally characteristic of atomic systems.
Our own solar system, composed as it is of many parts, of thousands of meteors and comets, of numbers of satellites and planets, all revolving around one common centre, also forms a complete and perfect mechanism in itself. For millions and millions of years this perfect mechanism has been harmoniously working together in all its parts, as it moves in all its unity through the realms of infinite space. Yet through all the unknown ages of the past, such a phenomenon as disorder in the working of any part of the system is inconceivable and unknown. Out in stellar space there are, however, innumerable systems, similar to our own solar system, each distinct and perfect in itself; each being made up of similar parts, as meteors, comets, satellites, planets, and central sun. These systems are, however, united together into one vast aggregation of worlds, having one common controlling centre of their own, and by their unity form a constellation, a larger and grander mechanism. Throughout the whole constellation there is the same order, and harmonious working of part with part, that characterise the solar system. Then these constellations increasing in their aggregations form a still larger complexity of systems, called a Galaxy; and galaxy being added to galaxy, constellation to constellation, there is formed by such union, an ocean of suns and stars like our own Milky Way, the ultimate whole being characterised by the same mechanical order and harmonious working that characterise the solar system. It may even be, that there are numbers of these oceans of suns and stars existing in infinite space, all bound together by one common bond, the universal electro-magnetic Aether, and forming one vast ultimate whole, a Universe; with all its oceans of suns moving around one central Orb or mass of Orbs called the Throne of GOD.
Thus the whole Universe is a mechanism, complete and perfect in every detail, and forming a system, so great, so grand, so sublime, so magnificent that it puts all mechanisms of human origin to shame and scorn. Now, if a mechanism of human invention evidences the existence of intelligence and mind, and proves itself to be the production of a living, sentient, conscious, and intelligent being, how much more, incomparably more, does the Universe with its infinite complexity evidence a Maker also; and that Maker must be as infinitely greater in wisdom, knowledge, perception and judgment as the Universe is infinitely greater in mechanical perfection than any mechanism of human origin.
The Universe is God's teaching in symbol and in type. It is His great picture-book, where in living form He has portrayed Himself, and all that belongs to Him--His nature, character, wisdom; His greatness, glory, and His power. The Universe is a temple, where He sits enshrined in the things His own hands have made, and where those who have eyes to see, and hearts to learn and understand, may adore and worship Him.
Thus is it true that "the heavens declare the glory of God," _i. e._ the character of God, His infinite wisdom, His infinite knowledge, His profound judgment, and His eternal righteousness; while the firmament showeth His handiwork. "Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth (His) knowledge."
"The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth, by understanding hath He established the heavens."
"He hath made the earth by His power. He hath established the world by His wisdom, and hath stretched out the heavens by His discretion."
"Thou, Lord, in the beginning hast laid the foundations of the earth, and the heavens are the work of Thy hands; they shall perish, but Thou remainest; and they all shall wax old, as doth a garment; and as a vesture shalt Thou fold them up, and they shall be changed; but Thou art the same, and Thy years shall not fail."
To prove the validity of these statements from a scientific and philosophic standpoint, and to show the harmony that exists between the natural and the Divine revelation as given in the Word of God, will form the subject of a future work.
APPENDIX A
According to Sir Oliver Lodge the fact that electricity possesses mass or inertia has now passed out of the hypothetical stage into the realm of fact and experiment. In his Romanes Lecture recently published, he states, page 4: "My first thesis is that an electric charge possesses the most fundamental and characteristic property of matter, viz. mass or inertia; so that if any one were to speak of a milligramme or an ounce or a ton of electricity, though he would certainly be speaking inconveniently, he might not necessarily be speaking erroneously."
Now in view of the identity that exists between Aether and electricity, as proved by Hertz' experiments, the only logical conclusion that can be arrived at is, that Aether must also possess mass and inertia. So that the most recent experiments in relation to electricity confirm the theory of the Aether presented in this work, viz. that it also possesses mass and inertia, otherwise we should have a massless medium being composed of electrons which possess mass, and that would be a violation of all experience, and therefore an unphilosophical statement.
APPENDIX B
The hypothesis of electricity being the fundamental basis of all matter made in the last chapter on the "Unity of the Universe," receives confirmation from Sir Oliver Lodge in his _Modern Views of Matter_, where he writes, page 13: "The fundamental ingredient of which, in this view, the whole of matter is made up, is nothing more or less than electricity, in the form of an aggregate of an equal number of positive and negative electric charges. This, when established, will be a unification of matter such as has through all the ages been sought; it goes further than had been hoped, for the substratum is not an unknown and hypothetical protile, but the familiar electric charge."
APPENDIX C
The hypothesis that all elements have definite quantities of electricity in them, or a definite number of electrons, as suggested on page 335, receives added weight by the testimony of Sir Oliver Lodge in the work already referred to. Writing on the subject, he says: "It is a fascinating guess that the electrons constitute the fundamental substratum of which all matter is composed. That a grouping of say 700 electrons, 350 positive and 350 negative, interleaved or interlocked in a state of violent motion so as to produce a stable configuration under the influence of their centrifugal inertia and their electric forces, constitutes an atom of hydrogen. That sixteen times as many, in another stable grouping, constitute an atom of oxygen. That some 16,000 of them go to form an atom of sodium; about 100,000 an atom of barium; and 160,000 an atom of radium."
From these extracts, taken from _Modern Views of Matter_, the author claims that the theory of the Aether presented to the reader in _Aether and Gravitation_ receives added confirmation and support.
* * * * *
ERRATA
The author regrets that Professor J. J. Thomson's name has been incorrectly spelled in several places.
INDEX
Aberration of light, 69, 149, 218
Absorption, 104-6
Acceleration, 239
Actinic rays, 141
Action at a distance, 96, 174, 176 and re-action, 20, 251
Adams' discovery of Neptune, 25
Aether is matter, 54-8 is atomic, 59-67 is gravitative, 64-9 density of, 69, 71, 136, 243 elasticity of, 74-7 inertia of, 76, 330 its motions, 80 compressibility of, 291, 315 waves, 79-80
Aetherial basis of matter, 326
Affinity, chemical, 43
Aldebaran, 312
Aluminium, 79
Ampère, 192
Ampère's theory of magnetism, 193
Andromeda, 314
Annual magnetic variation, 208
Annular nebulae, 320
Aphelion of earth, 36
Arago, M., 321
Arcturus, 312
Areas, Kepler's law of, 36
Asten, Von, 234, 296
Asteroids, 31
Atmosphere, 68, 73, 102, 225
Atom, vortex, 45, 46, 61 what it is, 43 electron, 63 Boscovitch, 61 hard, 61 size of, 43
Attraction, electrical, 2, 286 of gravitation, 13, 24, 31 magnetic, 195
Balance, Torsion, 187
Bernoulli, 221, 341
Beta Persei, 308
Biela's comet, 296-7
Binary compound, 143 stars, 25, 309
Biot, 138
Boscovitch atoms, 44, 138
Boyle and Marriotte's law, 76, 103
Bradley's discovery of aberration, 149
Bredichin on comets' tails, 302
Brilliancy of stars, 307, 309
British Association Report, 57, 59
Calcium, 79
Canis major, 307 minor, 307
Capella, 312
Carbon, 48
Carboniferous period, 115
Carnot on heat, 116-18
Cassini, 307
Cause and effect, 14 of gravitation, 1, 282-9
Cavendish experiment, 24
Centauri, 79
Centre of gravity, 325
Centrifugal force, 9, 13, 15, 30, 236-8
Centripetal force, 9, 12, 282
Cetus, 307
Chalk, 6
Challis, Prof., 74, 96, 100, 107, 151, 155, 214, 227, 311
Chemistry, 47, 336
Coal, 86, 88
Clairaut, 297
Clusters of stars, 314
Cohesion, 48
Colour, 138
Colours of stars, 308 seven primary, 139
Comets, 291 attracted by planets, 298 condensation of, 292
Comets and meteors, 297 short period, 293-4 long period, 293-4 tails of, 298-9 orbits of, 293 nucleus of, 298-9 coma, 298-9
Compressibility of aether, 291, 315
Condensation of gases, 47
Conservation of matter, 42 of energy, 84 of motion, 92
Constellations, 307
Corollary, 15
Corona Borealis, 309
Corpuscles, 42, 64, 136
Corpuscular theory of light, 122
Correlation of forces, 83
Coulomb Torsion balance, 185, 187
Crookes, Sir William, 42, 136, 326, 341
Current, electric, 163 magnetic, 192
Currents, 90
Curry, Prof., 284
Cycle of operations, 114, 116
Cygnus, 307
Dalton's atomic theory, 42
Davy, 99, 107
Day and night, 4
D'Arrest's comet, 296
Deimos, 38
Democritus, 44
Density of matter, 51 of aether, 69 electric, 170 of earth, 242 of sun, 27 of planets, 242
Descartes, 221-2, 341
Dewar, Prof., 47
Diameter of earth, 29 polar, 29 equatorial, 29 of sun, 280 of planets, 29
Dielectric, 168, 175
Diffusion, 49
Dip, magnetic, 199
Distances of stars, 280
Diurnal variations, magnetic, 209
Dog star (Sirius), 306
Donati's comet, 298
Double stars, 308
Draco, 307
Dynamical equivalent of heat, 114 value of light, 150
Dynamics, laws of thermo-, 114-18
Dynamo, 87, 90
Ear, 120
Earth, mass of, 235, 242 a magnet, 196-8 size of, 29 rotation of, 219 orbit of, 276 periodic time of, 251 gravity of, 29 shape of, 29 distance from sun, 242, 251 velocity in orbit, 251
Eccentricity of orbits, 268, 276
Eclipse, 145, 148
Ecliptic, plane of, 277-9
Elasticity, 46 of matter, 51 of aether, 74
Electric current, 154 potential, 170 induction, 175 radiation, 182 density, 170 energy, 179 field, 166, 179 lines of force, 173
Electricity, 64, 162 two kinds of, 175 positive, 175 negative, 175 laws of, 184 theories of, 162
Electrons, 136, 163
Electro-static, 158, 164 kinetic, 158, 164 kinetic energy, 217 magnetism, 192-5 magnets, 199 magnetic theory of light, 229 chemical equivalents, 189, 333
Elements of matter, 47
Ellipse, 34 Kepler's discovery of, 34
Elliptical nebulae, 320
Emission theory of light, 122
Encke's comet, 293, 296 resisting medium, 228
Energy, 83, 84 what it is, 83 conservation of, 84 transformation of, 86 potential, 87 kinetic, 89, 164 radiant, 109 electrical, 179 and motion, 91
Engine, Carnot's heat, 116
Envelopes of comets, 298
Epicureans, 44
Equal areas, 36 times, 36
Equator, N. and S. Poles, 29 magnetic, 202 terrestrial, 29
Equipotential surfaces, 171
Equivalents, electro-chemical, 189, 333
Euler, 123
Exchanges, theory of, 105
Experience, 4
Experiments of Rumford, 98 of Michelson and Morley, 67, 227 of Lebedew, 302 of Nichols and Hull, 153 of Hertz, 165 of Faraday, 65, 285 of M. Faye, 302 of Joule, 114
Falling stone, 21, 29
Faraday, 45, 175, 220 on matter, 56 on Lines of Force, 168, 200, 203-5 on magnetic space, 208 on gravitation, 287 on electricity, 332 on induction, 176
Faye, M., 111, 302, 319
Faye's comet, 293, 296
Field, electric, 179 magnetic, 199
Fizeau, 149, 224
Fluids, 48
Food, 89
Forbes, 121
Force, 16, 19, 90 centrifugal, 9, 13, 236 centripetal, 9, 12, 282 lines of, 200
Forces, direction of the, 26 proportion of the, 26
Foucault, 149
Franklin, 106
Fresnel, 75, 131
Frictionless medium, 17, 131, 136, 224
Fundamental medium, 54
Galaxy, 325, 346
Gaseous nebulae, 313
Gases, condensation of, 47 liquefaction of, 47 kinetic theory of, 49
Glazebrook, Prof., on aether and gravitation, 22
Globular clusters of stars, 314
Gravitation, law of, 61, 65 universal, 24 intensity of, 27 law of proportion, 26 cause of, 1, 282 and binary stars, 25
Gravity, centre of, 325
Great Bear, 307
Grove, 83
Halley's comet, 296-7
Hamilton, Sir W. R., 247
Head of comets, 298
Heat is motion, 98 a mode of motion, 107 radiant, 109 dynamical equivalent of, 116 effects of, 107 nature of, 98 radiation of, 109 transformation of, 87
Heat engine, Carnot's, 116 of sun, 109 and matter, 100 and work, 114 refraction of, 121
Helmholtz, Von, 45, 86
Hercules, 257, 271, 307
Herschel, Sir J., 3, 4, 7, 226, 228, 281, 299, 301, 310, 321 Sir W., 109, 271-2, 313
Hertz, 138, 159, 182
Hicks, Prof., 13
Hodograph of planets, 247
Hot springs, 90
Huggins, 313-14
Huyghens, 54, 123, 125, 128
Hydrogen, 40, 42, 44, 60, 93, 314, 333
Hypotheses, 3, 338
Ice, 42
Identity of heat and light, 119 light and electricity, 156, 160, 165 aether and electricity, 331
Imponderable, 71
Impressed force, 20
Impressible aether, 78
Induction, electric, 174-5 magnetic, 199 Faraday's theory of, 175
Inertia of matter, 52 of aether, 330
Intensity of light, 28, 146 of heat, 28, 113 of electricity, 184 of gravity, 28
Iron, 42 expansion by heat, 101 contraction by cold, 102
Joule, 85, 114
Jupiter, 26, 68 mass of, 235 satellites of, 149, 178 rotation of, 219 orbital velocity of, 251, 265 size of, 235 distance from sun, 242, 251 density of, 242 and comets, 305
Kant, 317
Kelvin, Lord, 43, 71, 77, 80, 95, 216, 227 on aether, 56-7 on vortex atom, 63 on compressible aether, 291, 315 on light, 151
Kepler's laws, 32 first, 33, 256-9 second, 36, 260-2 third, 37, 263-5 on vortex motion, 221-2
Kinetic energy, 89 electro, 217
Kirchhoff, 43
Laplace, 317 nebular hypothesis, 317
Larmor, Dr., 22, 44, 56, 63, 93, 163 on electrons, 284 on aetherial physics, 22, 327-9
Lavoisier, 42
Law of gravitation, 24 of inverse squares, 27
Laws of electricity, 184 of light, 145 of heat, 113 of motion, 9, 15, 233
Lead, 88, 333
Lebedew, 32, 76, 153
Le Verrier, 25 discovery of Neptune, 25
Leyden jar, 157
Liebnitz, 223
Light, 75 a mode of motion, 122 corpuscular theory of, 123 undulatory theory of, 123, 136 electro-magnetic theory of, 156 path of a ray of, 144 intensity of, 145 reflection of, 136 refraction of, 135 aberration of, 149 composition of, 139 velocity of, 148 zodiacal, 277 transverse vibration of, 130
Lines of force, electric, 173 magnetic, 201-3
Liquefaction of gases, 47
Liquid air, 47
Liquids, 48
Little Bear, 307 Dog, 307
Lockyer, 109
Lodge, Dr., 219 on aether density, 69 on aether, 284, 289, 328, 332 on electric inertia, 330 on electricity, 64, 69, 284, 285 on force, 17 on gravitation, 283
Lorentz on light, 154
Lyra, 307
MacLaurin, 2, 10, 17
Magnesium, 79
Magnet, 21
Magnets, bar, 199 moving, 211
Magnetic axis, 202 field, 199 lines of force, 200 shells, 205 equator, 202 induction, 199 variation, 208 molecules of, 193 polarity, 194
Magnetism of earth, 207-12 of planets, 211 cause of solar, 211 Ampère's theory of, 193
Mars, 68, 79 a magnet, 196 rotation of, 219 size of, 236 orbital velocity of, 251 satellites of, 178 orbit of, 33
Mass, 27, 53, 187 of earth, 235, 242 of planets, 235, 242 of sun, 190
Matter, elements of, 40 properties of, 42, 50 and motion, 41, 322 conservation of, 42 divisibility of, 44 four states of, 48 aetherial basis of, 48, 333 physical constitution of, 334
Maxwell, J. C., 43, 73, 85, 151, 211 on physical lines of force, 168, 203-5, 288 on aether, 59, 206 on magnetism, 205 on electro-kinetic energy, 180, 217 on aether, 58
Mayer, 84, 86, 114, 118
McCullagh, 75
Mechanical energy, 87
Medium, Descartes on a, 221 Kepler on a, 222
Mercury, 68, 79 a magnet, 196 rotation of, 219 eccentricity of orbit, 33 mass of, 242 orbital velocity of, 251
Meteorites, 95, 118
Meteors, 31, 85, 118
Michelson and Morley, 7, 67
Milky way, 79, 309, 314
Molecules, 44
Momentum, 20
Moon, 61
Motion of stars, 310 planetary, 253 of sun, 274 of aether, 80 and work, 95 modes of, 92, 122, 163 first law of, 15, 16, 239 second law of, 19, 244 third law of, 20, 251
Multiple stars, 308
Natural philosophy, 4
Nebulae and aether, 313 structure of, 314 spiral, 322 annular, 320 elliptical, 320 planetary, 321 spectrum of, 314 irregular, 319
Nebular hypothesis, 317
Nebulous stars, 311
Neptune, 68 discovery of, 25 mass of, 235 orbital velocity of, 251, 265 distance from sun, 242 a magnet, 196
Newton's coloured rings, 107 _Optics_,72, 98, 122 letter to Bentley, 2, 96 Rules of Philosophy, 3 _Principia_, 3, 7, 38 emission theory, 123 law of gravitation, 24 atoms, 44 on aether, 98
Nichols and Hull, 32, 153
Ocean, 81, 90
Operations, cycle of, 114
_Optics_, Newton's, 2, 122
Orbital motions of planets, 266
Orbit of earth, 33 of Venus, 33
Orbits of satellites, 34 of planets, 33-4, 266 moon, 267 stars, 310 sun, 270
Origin of sun's heat, 95
Orion, 79, 307, 314, 319
Oxygen, 40, 44, 60, 93
Parallelogram of forces, 15
Pendulum, 88
Periodic times, 37
Perpetual motion, 93, 220
_Phil. Mag._, 58, 67, 71, 73, 74, 80
_Phil. Trans._, 58, 62, 64, 75
Philosophy, Rules of, 3
Phobos, 38
Physical lines of force, 203-6
Pitch of Sound, 105, 120, 139
Plane of ecliptic, 277-9
Planetoids, 31
Planets, minor, 31 origin of, 240 orbits of, 33, 266 electrified bodies, 177 masses of, 242 relative distances of, 242 orbital velocities of, 251 periodic times of, 251
Platinum, 48
Pleiades, 79
Polarization, 176
Potential energy, 87
Potential, electric, 170 magnetic, 194
Pouillet, M., 109
Poynting, 91
Pressure, aetherial, 181
Preston, Prof., 283
Prevost, theory of exchanges, 105
Primitive impulse, 9, 10, 12, 319
_Principia_, Newton's, 3, 7, 38-9, 122
Properties of matter, 42
Quantity of sun's heat, 109
Query, 18-19 _Optics_, 72, 122
Radiant heat, 109 energy, 115
Radiation, 104
Radius Vector, 26
Rankine, 103
Rays, actinic, 141 dark heat, 140 infra-red, 141 ultra-violet, 140 Rontgen, 341 X, 341
Rectilinear propagation of light, 144 of heat, 111
Reflection, 160
Refraction, 160
Relative motion of aether and matter, 224-6
Resistance to motion, 17
Resisting medium, 228
Reversible cycle, 116, 118
Rings, vortex, 45
Rival theories, 8
Rivers, 89-90
Roemer, and velocity of light, 148
Rotation of earth, 219 of planets, 219 of sun, 246
Rotatory motion, 93
Rucker, Prof., 59
Rules of Philosophy, 3 first, 3 second, 4 third, 3, 7
Rumford, 98
Running water, 95
Satellites of Mars, 38, 178 Jupiter, 149, 178 Uranus, 254 Neptune, 254
Saturn, 26-7, 68 mass of, 235, 242 orbital velocity of, 251, 265 rotation of, 219 density of, 242 a magnet, 196 satellites of, 178
Schuster, Prof., 8, 218, 311
Sirius, 306, 308-9
Sodium, 43
Solar system, motion of, 257, 271 spectrum, 79, 139 magnetism, 211
Sound, 75 waves, 104, 120
Space, interstellar, 310, 313
Spectroscope, 47, 79
Spectrum analysis, 50, 139
Spiral nebulae, 322
Stars, fixed, 58 number of, 11, 306 binary, 309 distances of, 280 magnitude of, 306, 309 colour of, 79, 308 motion of, 310-11 nebulous, 320 proper motions of, 312 variable, 307 double, 308 clusters of, 314 orbits of, 310 are magnets, 307
Stokes, Sir G., 69, 152, 218
String, 21
Sun, diameter of, 280 constitution of, 79 a magnet, 164, 198-9 mass of, 190 heat of, 109 motions of, 270 orbital velocity of, 35 rotation of, 246 centre of two forces, 186
Tails of comets, 300, 304 straight, 300 curved, 301 multiple, 300
Tait, Prof., 18, 40-1, 88, 247
Telescope, 79
Temperature, 104-5
Terrestrial magnetism, 207-12 gravity, 29
Theory, atomic, 44 rules for making, 3 undulatory, 123 of exchanges, 105
Thermodynamics, first law of, 87, 114 second law of, 116
Thomson, J. J., Prof., 43, 326, 335
Tidal water-power, 88
Tides, 89, 96
Torsion balance, 185
Trade winds, 96, 249
Transformation of energy, 86 of motion, 93
Transverse vibration of light, 130
Tuning-fork, 104
Tympanum, 120
Tyndall on radiation, 104, 106 on light, 71 on Lines of Force, 174 on aether, 77 on atoms, 106 on aether waves, 112
Ultra-violet rays, 140 red rays, 140
Unity of universe, 322-9
Universal gravitation, 24 aether, 58
Universe, 313, 322, 347
Uranus, 68 mass of, 235 density of, 242 orbital velocity of, 265 a magnet, 196
Ursa Major, 307 Minor, 307
Vapour, 49
Variation, magnetic, 209-11
Velocity of light, 148 of electric waves, 182 of heat waves, 148 of falling bodies, 21 of wave motion, 76
Velocity, angular, 250
Venus, 33, 68, 79 a magnet, 197 mass of, 235 rotation of, 219 orbital velocity of, 251 periodic time of, 251
Vibration, atomic, 75
Vibrations, transverse, 130 longitudinal, 130 of sound, 123
Vibratory motion, 91
Vogel, Prof., 308, 312
Vogt, Prof., 332
Volume of sun, 27
Von Asten, 234, 296
Vortex theory, 92, 337 motion, 221-4 atom, 93, 126, 337 rings, 125, 337
Vortices, molecular, 103
Water waves, 124 currents, power of, 95 composition of, 141 power, 88
Wave front, 128 motion, 124, 160
Wave lengths, 120 envelope, 112
Waves, chemical, 141 sound, 104, 120, 124 light, 126 heat, 141 electric, 159 spherical, 112 electro-magnetic, 165
Weight, 29, 69, 84 variation of, 29 pound, 30
Whewell, 3, 221
Winds, 81, 90 energy of, 90 trade, 225
Work, 96 and energy, 84 from heat, 116
Young, Thomas, 54, 64, 67, 123 on aether, 58 fourth hypothesis, 70 Prof., of America, on electric space, 166
Zinc, 88
Zodiacal light, 277-9
_Richard Clay & Sous, Limited, London & Bungay._
Some New Publications
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MR. H. G. WELLS'S NEW WORK.
MANKIND IN THE MAKING. By H. G. WELLS, author of "Anticipations," etc. Crown 8vo, _7s. 6d._
In this new and important work Mr. Wells attempts to deal with social and political questions in a new way and from a new starting-point, viewing the whole social and political world as aspects of one universal evolving scheme, and placing all social and political activities in a defined relation to that; and it is to this general method and trend that the attention of the reader is especially directed.
DR. ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE'S NEW BOOK.
MAN'S PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE. A study of the results of scientific research in relation to the unity or plurality of worlds. By ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, LL.D., D.C.I., F.R.S., author of "Natural Selection," "Darwinism," etc., etc. With Diagrams. Demy 8vo, _12s. 6d. net_.
This volume is an amplification and extension of the much-discussed article contributed by Dr. Wallace to the _Fortnightly Review_ for March 1903, and presents the whole subject in a more complete and systematic manner, besides containing many new and forcible arguments which a more careful consideration of the whole problem has suggested.
In the course of the work the various astronomical and other criticisms of the article are considered and replied to.
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This work seeks to offer an acceptable solution of the greatest scientific problem that has puzzled scientists for the past 200 years. Ever since the discovery of universal gravitation by Sir Isaac Newton, the question has arisen, over and over again, as to what is the physical cause of the attraction of gravitation. Is it due, as Newton himself suggested, to the properties and qualities of the universal aether, or is it due to some still unknown and undiscovered medium?
By the theory propounded in this work, the author has for the first time brought aetherial physics into harmony with all observation and experiments; so that the inertia, the density, and the elasticity of the aether are brought into harmony with all experience by philosophical reasoning based on Newton's Rules of Philosophy.
LIFE AND TOPOGRAPHY OF DICKENS.
THE REAL DICKENS LAND. With an outline of Charles Dickens's life. By H. SNOWDEN WARD and CATHARINE WARD, authors of "Shakespeare's Town and Times." With a Steel Plate Portrait of Dickens, Three Photogravures, and nearly 300 full-page and other Illustrations. Crown 4to, _10s. 6d. net_.
Charles Dickens's understanding of the human character is apparent to every good reader of his works; but his intimate knowledge of the "character" of places, and of the important effect of place upon the human being, is not so apparent, because the reader has not the necessary knowledge of the places upon which to base an estimate.
In "The Real Dickens Land" the authors have attempted to supply this necessary knowledge, not only by literary identification, but by presenting one of the fullest collections of photographic views thus identified ever got together.
LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD.
CARLYLE'S LIFE AND TOPOGRAPHY.
THE CARLYLE COUNTRY. With a study of Carlyle's life. By J. M. SLOAN. With a Foreword by SIR JAMES CRICHTON-BROWN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. With a Photogravure of the Whistler Portrait of Carlyle, Two other Photogravures, and about 100 Portraits, full-page and other Illustrations. Crown 4to, _10s. 6d. net_.
This new Carlyle Book deals with the Carlyles in all their multiform relations to the Carlyle Country, and casts much valuable light upon the complex problems raised by Carlyle's earlier and later life.
It forms a most useful and instructive Guide to the Carlyle Country, and will appeal to old Carlylean Readers by its careful grouping of biographical events around the places with which they are inextricably identified.
A valuable Carlyle Chronology is appended, together with an Index and Map.
HISTORY OF CHINA.
CHINA, PAST AND PRESENT. By E. H. PARKER, Professor of Chinese at the Owens College, Manchester; formerly H.B.M. Consul at Kiungchow; Author of "China," "John Chinaman," etc., etc. With a Map of China. Demy 8vo, _10s. 6d. net_.
Mr. Parker is one of the great authorities on all that concerns China and the Chinese, and has been writing upon every phase of the subject for many years past. In this work he deals with the whole history of the nation from the earliest times to the present day. His volume is divided into nine books: I. Historical and Statistical; II. The "Boxer" Wars; III. Religious; IV. The Imperial Power; V. The Foreigner in China; VI. Mandarin or Official; VII. Celestial Peculiarities; VIII. Political; IX. The Seamy Side.
Each of these books is divided into chapters dealing comprehensively with the whole subject.
NEW WORK ON PAGAN IDOLATRY.
THE WORSHIP OF THE DEAD. The Origin, Nature, and History of Pagan Idolatry. By COLONEL J. GARNIER, R.E. With Four full-page Illustrations and numerous Pictures in the text. Demy 8vo, _16s. net_.
The intimate relation of the ancient Paganism to the early history of mankind and its influence on the fate and fortunes of the human race gives no little interest and importance to any inquiry into its origin and nature, and the facts collected and compared in the present work will be found, not only to throw a remarkable light on the early history of Egypt and Babylonia but to have an especial bearing on important questions of the present day.
EVERYDAY LIFE IN CHINA.
LIFE AND SPORT IN CHINA. By OLIVER G. READY, B.A. With Thirteen Illustrations and a Map. Demy 8vo, _10s. 6d. net_.
In this work the author, who has resided in various parts of the country for upwards of twelve years, has endeavoured to place before readers an account of things and events as he saw them, and to convey to their minds an idea of how Europeans live there, of their amusements, of their work, and of those things which are matters of daily interest to them, so that the work may serve as a kind of preface to that enthralling volume, the current history of China, as it is daily revealed in the Press, in Magazines, and in learned works.
IZAAK WALTON.
IZAAK WALTON AND HIS FRIENDS. By STAPLETON MARTIN, M.A., Christ's College, Cambridge, Barrister-at-Law. With Portraits and Illustrations. Demy 8vo, _10s. 6d. net_.
Mr. Stapleton Martin has written this book with the primary object of bringing out the spiritual side of Walton's character. He traces carefully the inner workings of Walton's mind, and aims at setting forth the man as he was best known to the circle of intimates with whom he shared his confidences.
The better to indicate this aspect, the volume also contains brief biographical sketches of Walton's: poet and ecclesiastic friends, together with a fine collection of portraits and illustrations of places connected with Walton's life. There is also a selection from the poetical works of Walton, Cotton, Donne, Herbert, Wotton, Duport.
LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD.
* * * * *
Transcriber's note:
ART. 41 is missing from the book.
In several instances changed S, W, E into italics to be consistent with the rest of the book.
Page 194: Fixed typographical error for demonstated
Changed Figure captions so that all are of the form "Fig: number."
Left unknown/misspelled word protile in appendix b
Page 148: ... and the Index, The surname of Ole Christensen Rømer is spelled multiple times Roemer and once as Römer in the index. Changed Römer to the English spelling "Roemer."