Part 11
Even where there is no high degree of inbreeding, the individuals of a people are much more closely related to each other than is generally assumed. Table C 115, "+theoretical number of ancestors+," shows that, assuming the duration of one generation to be 35 years, and that no marriages between relations have taken place, the number of the ancestors of a man living now would have been eighteen billions in the year 0 a.d. In reality the germanic race, wandering west, probably only numbered hundreds of thousands. This phenomenon of "+ancestral loss+," as Ottokar Lorenz calls it (that the number of real ancestors is much smaller than those theoretically possible), can be illustrated in the pedigrees of the reigning houses.
[Sidenote: C 116]
We have in Table C 116 an +analysis of pedigree of Emperor William II.+, after Ottokar Lorenz. Investigations show that twelve generations back the real number of his ancestors amounts to only one-eighth of the possible figure. Only 275 persons have actually been found because in the older lines, the bourgeois element, of which no record can be found, has had a very large share.
[Sidenote: C 117]
Very little knowledge exists concerning the effect of the crossing of races in man. On the whole it appears not to be favourable, if it is a question of crossing of races from far apart, even in purely physical respects. An example of harmful influence is given in v. d. Velden's Table C 117--"+Fertility and Health in relation to the crossings of races+."
NEOMALTHUSIANISM.
[Sidenote: C 118-122]
The next and the greatest concern of race-hygiene--much greater than the relative increase of inferiority--is, to-day, neomalthusianism, the intentional restriction of the number of births in varying degrees up to complete unproductiveness. Though conscious regulation of the production of children is absolutely necessary, it becomes fatal to a nation if under no control but the egotism of the individual. For its permanent prosperity a nation requires, in order merely to hold its own, a sufficient number of "hands" and a sufficient number of "heads" to guide those "hands." We referred to this when mention was made of sterility as a phenomenon of degeneration, but this cause of sterility during the last decades only takes a second place compared to deliberate intention. The wealthy and higher social classes were first attacked by neomalthusianism. Their progeny is becoming more and more utterly insufficient, so that under our present social conditions, particularly which give mind and talent better openings, and thereby more and more take out of the mass of the people the better elements, make the strongest demand for them and use them up, the danger of an increasing deterioration of the average quality of its progeny grows greater and greater. The baneful influence of wealth on fertility is shown by several tables. Figure C 118 "+Fertility and Wealth+," after Goldstein and Tallquist, gives the condition in the French Departments; Figure C 119, "+Number of Children and Wealth+," after Bertillon, for the Arrondissements of Paris; Figure C 120, "+Fertility and Wealth+," after Mombert, for Münich, 1901, Table C 121, "+The Number of Children in Families of Different Classes in Denmark+, 1901," after Westergaard; Table C 122, "+Fertility of Marriages, Occupation, and Wealth for Copenhagen, and Dutch Conditions+," after Rubin, Westergaard, and Verrijn Stuart.
[Sidenote: C 123]
The worst condition with regard to the fertility prevails among those with the highest mental endowment. Evidence of this is given in Figure C 123, "+Insufficient Fertility of the Highly Endowed in Holland+," after J. R. Steinmetz. It shows the rapidity with which the number of children decreases. In order to estimate the significance of these statistics, it must be noted that after taking into account the mortality among children and young persons, and the unfitness for parenthood of an appreciable fraction of the adults, a fully capable couple would have to produce at least four children to assure the necessary moderate increase in the population which is required to prevent a people from sinking into stagnation and deterioration.
[Sidenote: C 124]
The dying out of highly gifted families is shown to be more accentuated in Figure 255, after Bertillon, "+Progeny of the Highly Gifted in France+." Four hundred and forty-five of the best known Frenchmen, with their wives, have not even reproduced that number of individuals, and this in spite of the fact that repeated marriages of the same individuals have not been taken into account.
[Sidenote: C 125-126]
Even if one has been able, up to the present, to live in the hope that the number of persons of more than average ability produced by the mass of the people is always sufficient to replace those that are used up, at the present time anxiety about the "heads" is replaced by anxiety about the "hands." The knowledge of means of preventing fertilization spreads incessantly, and is recklessly promulgated by the neomalthusians and by a shameless industry. We point to Figure C 125, "+Want of Fertility in French Towns+," after Jayle, and to Figure C 126, "+Fertility in Prussia+." In Berlin fertility is decreasing most rapidly; at the end of the sixties it still amounted to 200 in every 1,000 women of child-bearing age. In the five years, 1905-1910, only to 84; in the year 1910 only to 74. This state of things is shown also in the relative increase in numbers of the first born.
[Sidenote: C 127, 128 & 129]
Figure C 127, "+Decrease of Legitimate Fertility in Berlin--the two-children system+." The other German towns follow the example of Berlin. Berlin to-day produces 20% less children than are required to maintain its own population without immigration, and the same conditions will soon prevail in other towns. Up to now the country districts in general maintain their fertility (West Prussia on Figure C 128), but there, too, modern practices begin to make themselves felt. The town and industrial population increases so rapidly that the conditions prevailing among them have an ever increasing effect on the people as a whole. Thus we see, even at the present time, a serious decline in fertility among an overwhelming majority of European States: Figure C 129, "+Decrease of Fertility in Some European States+."
[Sidenote: D]
Exhibited by David Fairchild Weeks, M.D.,
+Director of the New Jersey State Village for Epileptics at Skillman, U.S.A.+
Explanation of Symbols used in the Charts.
Male individuals are indicated by squares and females by circles. The members of each fraternity are connected by the same horizontal line. The fraternity line is connected by a vertical line to the line joining the symbols representing the father and mother. Illegal unions and illegitimate children are shown by dotted lines. As an aid in tracing the patient's immediate family, a green line is used to connect the direct ancestors on the paternal side, and a red line on the maternal side. The red squares and circles indicate epileptics, the green the insane, the black the feeble-minded, and purple the criminalistic. The figures directly above the fraternity line indicate the rank in birth, a figure inside a square or circle shows the number of individuals of that sex. A black dot suspended from the fraternity line stands for a miscarriage or a stillbirth. A line underneath a square or circle shows that institutional care has been received. The hand points out our patient.
The following letters indicate the different conditions: A, alcoholic; B, blind; C, criminalistic; D, deaf; E, epileptic; F, feeble-minded; I, insane; M, migrainous; N, normal; P, paralytic; S, syphilitic; T, tubercular; W, wanderer, tramp; d, died; b, born; inf, infancy; Sx, unchaste.
[Sidenote: D 1]
This chart shows very clearly the dangerous results of a marriage in which both of the +parents are epileptic+. Of the four children the first three were epileptic, and the fourth, a boy, who died at the age of nine, was feeble-minded. All four of these children were cared for at public expense, two are patients at the New Jersey State Village for Epileptics, and the other two were wards of the Children's Home Finding Society. The epileptic father is dead, and the mother married again to an alcoholic man. When last heard of she had another child.
[Sidenote: D 2]
An +epileptic+ woman, married to a +feeble-minded man+, is responsible for the large number of defectives shown on this chart. The principal mating is that of one of the epileptic daughters of this woman, who, like her mother, married a feeble-minded man. Eight children resulted from this marriage; one died before two years of age, the other seven were epileptic, the five who are living are patients at the New Jersey State Village. Two of the girls in this fraternity had illegitimate children before receiving proper care. This family is undoubtedly a branch of a family of defectives, most of whom live in an adjoining State.
[Sidenote: D 3]
This is a case of +incest+, and shows plainly that the "empty germ plasm can yield only emptiness." These people lived in a hut in the woods. The feeble-minded man had by his defective sister an epileptic daughter, then by this daughter he had four children, one an epileptic, one a feeble-minded woman of the streets, who spends much of her time in jail, one an anencephalic monster who died soon after birth, and one a feeble-minded boy, who did not grow to manhood. Since the hut in the woods burned down, the epileptic woman and feeble-minded daughter live in a cellar in town, though much of their time is spent in jail.
[Sidenote: D 4]
This chart shows a +feeble-minded+ man, who came from a feeble-minded family, married to an +epileptic+ woman, who descended from a tubercular epileptic father and a mother who is described as "flighty," "not too bright." This couple had six children, three feeble-minded, two epileptic, and one still-born. Since the death of the epileptic mother, the father has secured homes in institutions for all of his children except one, and then married again. As yet he has no children by the second wife.
[Sidenote: D 5]
The wife in the central mating in this case is a low grade +epileptic+, who can scarcely recognize her own children. The father is a +feeble-minded alcoholic+, who works hard, but who spends all his money for drink. There were six children; one died at the age of four, and all of the others except one six-year-old boy are epileptic. All are being cared for by the public. Before the mother and three of the epileptic children were brought to the State Village for Epileptics the family lived in a cellar, slept on rags, and depended on the neighbours for food.
[Sidenote: D 6]
This is a history which illustrates very well the source of a large number of the almshouse inmates. The central figure is an +epileptic+ woman, who spent most of her life in the poor house. No two of her seven children are by the same father. The epileptic daughter, whose father was feeble-minded, had started to lead the same kind of life as her mother; in the almshouse she gave birth to one illegitimate child before she was put under State care. The mother, when she last left the almshouse, went to live in a hut in the woods with a feeble-minded man, who had three feeble-minded sons; one of these sons married the feeble-minded sister of one of the epileptic patients at the New Jersey State Village.
[Sidenote: D 7a]
[Sidenote: D 7b]
This is the history of two patients who have been found to be related, the great grandfather of the one was the brother of the grandmother of the other. The principal mating under D 7a is that of a +feeble-minded+ man married to an +epileptic+ woman, whose mother died in the insane asylum. They had six children, the first died when only a few months old, the next and the fourth were not bright and died young, the third is an epileptic, the fifth is feeble-minded and criminalistic and he is now at the State Home for Boys, the sixth is also feeble-minded and cared for at an industrial home for children. The mother and father, at one time inmates of the almshouse, are now supported by the town. Under D 7b the father, who died of spinal meningitis, was migrainous and had many epileptic relatives, the mother is neurotic. There were four children, the first an epileptic, the second died at 20 of spinal meningitis, the third is of a very nervous temperament, the last, a girl of 16, seems to be normal.
[Sidenote: D 8]
Both of the parents in this case are +feeble-minded+. The father was the black sheep of his family, his brothers are intelligent men, and for the most part good citizens; the mother, however, was the illegitimate child of a feeble-minded woman. There were seven children, one an epileptic, the others all feeble-minded with the exception of the sixth, who is now about 11 years old; she was taken from her home and put with a very good family; she shows the effect of the changed environment, and though not up to her grade in school, is only slightly backward. There is some doubt about the parentage of the child, and it is very probable that she is by a different father. Since the father's death the mother has had one illegitimate child; her children were taken away from her except the two oldest because of the immoral conditions in the home, and she now claims to be married to a feeble-minded man, who is the younger feeble-minded brother of her imbecile daughter's husband.
[Sidenote: D 9]
The central mating in this case is that of an +epileptic, alcoholic, sexually immoral+ man, married to a +neurotic and sexually immoral+ woman, who has many insane and feeble-minded relatives. They had in all ten children; two were epileptic, three, feeble-minded, one criminalistic and sexually immoral, the sixth is the only one who has a good reputation, the last was a stillbirth. The father and mother are no longer living together.
[Sidenote: D 10]
The case illustrated on this chart is of a +feeble-minded+ woman married to an +alcoholic+ man. The wife descended from an alcoholic father, who had several epileptic relatives. The husband also descended from an alcoholic father, and had an epileptic nephew. Of their nine children, the first three died young of scarlet fever, the fourth was epileptic, and the other five are feeble-minded.
[Sidenote: D 11]
On this chart we have the history of an +epileptic+ man whose attacks were of the petit-mal type. He married a choreic woman. They had four children, the eldest a man who developed epilepsy after his second marriage. His first wife was insane; by her he had two daughters, one of whom is now an inmate in an insane asylum, the other is neurotic and has been treated in a sanatorium. Of the other children two are apparently normal and one migrainous.
[Sidenote: D 12]
This chart shows an +epileptic+ man married to a normal woman; he had both epileptic and insane relatives, while she had epileptic, alcoholic, and tubercular relatives. Their first child was an epileptic, the next were twins, one of these appears to be normal while the other is of a very nervous temperament, the fourth died in infancy, and the last three were stillbirths. The mother married the second time, this time to a man who drank to excess after their marriage; by him she had two children, both of whom seem to be normal. They are both in school.
[Sidenote: D 13]
This is the history of a low grade +epileptic+. His oldest sister is normal; she was brought up by strangers after her mother's death, and is now earning her living as a saleslady. The second was a boy, who was thought to be normal until he was about sixteen, when he displayed criminalistic tendencies, and for the crime of rape was put in the Reform School. The youngest is a girl, who is of a very nervous temperament. The father was an alcoholic, and went on long sprees; he deserted his wife and family to live with a woman who also deserted a family. His brother is an alcoholic, and married the patient's mother's sister; they are now divorced. The mother was migrainous, she died of tuberculosis; her family shows a neurotic taint, while the father has several epileptic relatives.
[Sidenote: D 14]
In the central mating the father and mother are both +migrainous+. They both belong to families prominent in the community in which they reside; their homes are among the best, and they are counted as leading citizens. There were nine children; three died before four years of age, one is epileptic, one seems to be normal, and the others all show some nervous taint, though not migrainous.
[Sidenote: D 15]
This is the history of a +syphilitic and a sexually immoral couple+. They were never married, and the woman for many years supported the man, who was never sober and frequently had attacks of delirium tremens. She finally deserted him. Of their eight children two were stillbirths, three were epileptic, and the other syphilitic. One of the epileptics in a jealous rage shot the woman whom he loved, and when he found that escape was impossible, killed himself.
[Sidenote: D 15a-b]
Charts explaining the method of collecting and recording data.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: E]
Exhibited by Mr E. J. Lidbetter.
A selection by Mr. E. J. Lidbetter, from his collection of pedigrees, showing pauperism in association with mental and physical defect, justifying the inference that a high proportion of +pauperism is to be attributed to the transmission of defect+ and the perpetuation of stocks of a low type:--
[Sidenote: E 1]
Pedigree showing +mental disease and destructive eye-disease+ in the same stock. Insanity, epilepsy, feeble-mindedness and idiocy in various degrees in twelve members, several of them being also blind; partial or total blindness from detachment of the retina without mental defect in several others. Tendency to "anti-dating" or "anticipation" of the mental disease in succeeding generations or younger born offspring. The printed numbers on the diagram indicate the age of the individual on 1st attack. Prevalence of tuberculosis (three members). Neither mental nor ocular conditions attributable to syphilis. Of the 49 individuals whose history is known 26 have been, or are being, maintained in public institutions (Asylums, Workhouses, Blind Schools, or Poor Law Schools), 29 have been paupers at intervals, and two are known to have been in prison. Several marriages between mental defectives yielding large but inferior families. (Exhibited by Mr. E. T. Lidbetter. The eye-disease reported upon by Mr. E. Nettleship.)
[Sidenote: E 2]
Pedigree showing the tendency to +intermarry among pauper and defective families+. On the left "able-bodied" pauperism and on the right sickness. One hundred and fifty-seven units shown in five generations; 76 paupers shown, including 38 classed as chronic, 32 occasional and six medical only. Twenty-eight died in infancy, nine tuberculous, six insane, two epileptics, and one blind. Shows also pauper children born in lucid intervals of parent suffering from periodic insanity.
[Sidenote: E 3]
Pedigree illustrating stock of a +low type in which very little physical defect appears+. The total includes 61 individuals, of whom 42 are or have been paupers, eight have died in workhouse or infirmary, and two in asylums for lunatics; one child is an imbecile. On the whole the stock may be described as mentally sub-normal (not strongly so), but with a marked non-moral tendency. Of the 34 children in the last generation, ten are certainly illegitimate; 15 were, or are, being brought up in Poor Law Institutions, and nine received out-door relief with their parents. The collective period of pauperism in this case exceeds 115 years and the cost to the ratepayers is estimated at about £2,400.
[Sidenote: E 4]
Showing the case of a woman who had two husbands. With the first her children were consistently defective (deaf and dumb). With the second, one died in infancy and three are doing well. All the children of the first are, or have been, paupers.
[Sidenote: E 5]
A series showing the intimate +relation between tuberculosis infant mortality and pauperism+:--
[Sidenote: E 5a]
Showing a +tuberculous family with apparently normal parents+, both of whom come from tuberculous stocks. Of their 14 children only two are normal; six are consumptive; four died in infancy. The father was one of a family of 8 of whom only he and one other survived--and that other became insane, and his wife and children became paupers in consequence.
[Sidenote: E 5b]
Showing +insanity, consumption and infant mortality+; also the transmission of insanity through the apparently normal.
[Sidenote: E 5c]
Showing the +survival of tuberculous+ stock by accession of strength from the normal. Only the illegitimate children and their non-sick father survive in this group.
[Sidenote: E 5d]
Showing the case of a +normal woman who had two consumptive husbands+. Survival of defective strain by accession of strength from the normal.
[Sidenote: E 5e]
+Consumption+ in three generations. +Male infant mortality+. Query, transmission (?) through the normal.
[Sidenote: E 6]
A series showing +transmission of mental defect through the apparently normal+.
[Sidenote: E 6a]
Insanity, blindness, epilepsy and feeble-mindedness.
[Sidenote: E 6b]
Insanity in three generations. Transmission through the normal in each case.
[Sidenote: E 6c]
Insanity through the normal twice removed.
[Sidenote: E 6d]
Insanity, epilepsy, and infant mortality--a Mendelian suggestion.
[Sidenote: F]
EXHIBITED BY PUBLIC HEALTH DEPARTMENT, CITY OF LIVERPOOL.
E. W. Hope, M.D., M.O.H.
[Sidenote: F 1]
One large model of +insanitary property+ dealt with in Liverpool, built to scale, etc., with glass cover.
[Sidenote: F 2]
Charts showing the +decline in mortality from phthisis+:--
[Sidenote: F 2a]
One showing rate for England and Wales.
[Sidenote: F 2b]
One " " England and Ireland.
[Sidenote: F 2c]
One " " Scotland.
[Sidenote: F 2d]
One " " Liverpool.
[Sidenote: F 3 b c d e f]
Six framed and glazed photographs illustrating insanitary property which has been demolished in Liverpool, and the new dwellings which have been erected to house the dispossessed tenants.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: G]
AN EXHIBIT OF A SYSTEM OF MAKING PEDIGREE RECORDS.
Exhibited by Dr. Raymond Pearl,
+Biologist of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine.+
This exhibit consists of a series of blank record forms designed to +illustrate the method of keeping pedigree records+ which has been in use at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station for a period of five years, in connection with its work in the experimental study of inheritance in poultry and in various plants. The advantages which have been found by experience to inhere in this system of pedigree record keeping are (_a_) simplicity; (_b_) ease of operation; (_c_) small chance for error in the keeping of large masses of pedigree records; (_d_) uniformity of the system, such that records of all kinds, in any way pertaining to the work, may be brought together with great ease for consultation or study.
In addition to the record blanks there are exhibited also various marking devices and other apparatus connected with the proper working of the plan.
It should be noted that while the blanks here exhibited are devised particularly for work with poultry and plants, the same system, with slight modifications, may be successfully applied to the keeping of human pedigree records; indeed it is a pleasure to state that the system here exhibited is an outgrowth and development of a scheme for the keeping of pedigree data in general and particularly human pedigree records suggested many years ago by the late Sir Francis Galton.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: H]