Part 4

Mr. Marten has affirmed, that the sun here, at midnight, appears with all the faintness of the moon; but his assertion has not been corroborated by the experience of subsequent voyagers. During my stay in this country, in 1806 and 1807, distinction between day and night was almost completely lost. Any perceptible difference between the splendour and radiance of the mid-day and mid-night sun, in clear weather, (if these expressions may be used,) arose only from a different degree of altitude. Some of our most experienced Greenland sailors, when called upon deck, have frequently asked me whether it was day or night; and I have often seen them obliged, even in clear sun-shine, to consult the quadrant on this head. I may add, that Captain Phipps has also contradicted Mr. Marten in the most positive manner.

The temperature here is extremely fluctuating. Sometimes the heat is so great as to melt the pitch on the decks and cordage of the vessels, and in a few minutes after, succeed high winds, snow, and frost. The sky, even in calm and serene weather, is covered with dense white clouds, the repositories of the snow so often falling.

The degree of heat experienced in these northern latitudes being so much greater than is experienced in the same latitudes in the southern hemisphere, is supposed to proceed from the greater quantity of land in the north reflecting the rays of the sun, which in the south are absorbed by the ocean. Whatever hypothesis may be adduced to account for the greater temperature of the north, the fact itself is indisputable. Terra del Fuego, situated only in fifty-five degrees south latitude, is extremely cold; and Captain Cook could not penetrate farther than the seventy-first degree of latitude, a distance far short of what the Greenland ships are every year in the habit of sailing towards the other Pole.

Thunder and lightning are unknown at Spitzbergen, or at least are extremely rare. Forster supposes that the electric exhalations in a country so much covered with snow must be very few, and these so much consumed by the frequency of the _Aurora Borealis_, that there is never collected at one time a quantity of fluid sufficient to produce thunder and lightning. That luminous appearance, so often observed during a storm in this country, he alleges to be the effect of volcanic eruptions; though this, I confess, seems to me extremely problematical. Vid. Forster’s _Hist. Voyages_, p. 486.

There is a great diversity among the accounts given by different travellers, of the forms assumed by the new fallen snow in this country. During hard frost, I always observed that the flakes closely resembled an asterisk with six points. As the temperature varied, their appearance was changed, which may, perhaps, serve to explain the differences alluded to.

The one summer day of Spitzbergen continues from about the middle of May to the middle of October, when the sun bids a long adieu to this northern region. The horrors of winter are discovered, not alleviated, by the splendour of the _Aurora Borealis_, and the pale lustre of the moon.

Here, says the energetic Thomson,--

“Here winter holds his unrejoicing court; And through his airy hall the loud misrule Of driving tempest is for ever heard; Here the grim tyrant meditates his wrath, Here arms his winds with all subduing frost; Moulds his fierce hail, and treasures up his snows, With which he now oppresses half the globe.”

Spitzbergen has no settled inhabitants. It is, however, resorted to by parties of Russians, who, in turn, continue there throughout the year for the purpose of hunting, which they practise in all weathers. These hardy adventurers have erected huts adjacent to several of the harbours and bays, and are well provided with fuel, from the immense quantities of drifted wood that is every where to be found in the different creeks. Archangel supplies them with dried fish, rye-meal, and an abundant supply of whey, similar to, if not made in the same manner, as the Shetland beverage. This last constitutes their chief drink, and is likewise used in baking their bread. Their beds are principally composed of skins of the animals which they kill, and of these they also make garments, which they wear with the fur side next their bodies. The walrusses and seals afford them a plentiful store of their favourite delicacy, _train-oil_, and the bears, deers, and foxes, fall frequent victims to the dexterity of these excellent marksmen. They are at liberty to return to their native country towards the latter end of September, if not relieved by a fresh party before that time. Some of these Arctic hunters came on board our ship, and when set down to meat, they preferred a mess of biscuit and whale oil to all the dainties placed before them. Of this coarse repast they ate with a sufficiently healthful appetite, and in their own language pronounced it good. They had the complexion of Siberians, and were dressed in bear and deer skins. They had an athletic and vigorous appearance, though somewhat stiffened and cramped by the extreme cold to which they are exposed. During the time they were on board, and particularly while at meat, they behaved with a decorum and gentleness which could hardly be expected from their grotesque appearance: and the neatness of their fowling-pieces, boat-tackling, &c. manifested a taste and ingenuity of which the inhabitants of a more refined country need not be ashamed.

The zoology is the only remaining subject of importance in the description of this country to be here considered. After giving an account of the bear, deer, and fox, I shall notice the seal and walrus, and conclude with describing a few of the birds. Afterwards I shall give a short history of its discovery; and then pursue the account of our voyage.

The _Ursus maritimus_, or Polar bear, may with great propriety be termed the sovereign of the land animals of Spitzbergen, or even of the Arctic circle. Unlike the lion of Africa, his dominion is not confined solely to the land; for, by means of the ice, he extends his ravages far from any continent, and disputes the supremacy of the ocean with the walrus himself, even in his own element. Here, says the poet just quoted,

---- “The shapeless bear, With dangling ice all horrid, stalks forlorn; Slow pac’d, and sourer as the storms increase, He makes his bed beneath the inclement drift, And, with stern patience, scorning weak complaint, Hardens his heart against assailing want.”

The Polar bear is the largest of the species, and has frequently been found of an immense size. Barentz killed one thirteen feet in length, and it is asserted they have been found of a much larger size, but not on equally good authority. The one which Captain Phipps describes was only seven feet one inch long, and the largest we got on board did not exceed seven feet six inches; though we killed one apparently much larger, but a gale coming on, we were obliged to bear away, and leave it on the ice.

The hair of this species is very long, woolly, and of a yellowish white colour. Its teeth lock into each other like those of a rat-trap, and are so remarkably strong and sharp, that it has been known to shiver lances made of steel. Its head is small, and a good deal elongated; nose black, and without hair; ears short, erect, and rounded; neck slender. Its limbs are of a vast thickness, and each foot is armed with five exceedingly strong black claws. The carcass of the one mentioned by Captain Phipps, though without the skin, head, and entrails, weighed 610 lbs. The flesh is white, and though of a coarse texture, is prized by some as equally delicious with mutton, especially when boiled; for when roasted it is of an oily taste. The liver, it would seem, is of a poisonous nature, as some Dutch sailors who ate part of one were taken so extremely ill, that, after recovering, the skin all over their bodies fell off in scales.

The fat makes good train oil, and that which is procured from the feet is sometimes used in medicine, and is commonly known by the name of bear’s grease. In some upwards of a hundred pounds of fat has been got; and Captain Fox is said to have killed one which yielded forty-eight gallons of oil. Forster’s _Hist. Voy._ p. 363.

The skins are imported into Britain, chiefly for covering coach-boxes. In Greenland the inhabitants use the flesh and fat as food; and of the skins they make seats, boots, shoes, and gloves; the tendinous parts they split into fibres for the purpose of sewing.[10]

[10] Fab. _Faun. Groenland._ edit. 1780, p. 24.

The food of the Polar bears consists chiefly of fish, of seals which they seize when sleeping, and the carcasses of whales, walrusses, &c. so often found floating in the northern seas. On land they prey on the rein-deers, young birds, and eggs; and sometimes lay hold of the Arctic fox, notwithstanding all his stratagems in order to escape. Some naturalists have maintained that the Polar bear chiefly delighted in human flesh; this, however, is expressly contradicted by Fabricius, who, from his long residence in Greenland, must be allowed to be unexceptionable authority. It will not prey on man, says he, unless pressed by hunger, and it deserves to be mentioned, that the Greenlanders feign themselves dead when they wish to avoid the pursuit. It cannot, however, be denied, that, when attacked, or hungry, they are extremely dangerous to man. Many well authenticated instances are to be met with of the courage with which they have attacked the crews of boats, or even of ships. The following is one of the many: “A few years since, the crew of a boat belonging to a ship in the whale fishery, shot at a bear at a short distance, and wounded it. The animal immediately set up the most dreadful yells, and ran along the ice towards the boat. Before it reached it, a second shot was fired, and hit it. This served to increase its fury. It presently swam to the boat; and in attempting to get on board, reached its fore foot upon the gunwale; but one of the crew having a hatchet, cut it off. The animal still however, continued to swim after them, till they arrived at the ship, and several shots were fired at it, which also took effect; but on reaching the ship it immediately ascended the deck; and the crew having fled into the shrouds, it was pursuing them thither, when a shot from one of them laid it dead upon the deck.” Vid. Bewick’s _Hist. Quadrup._ 6th edit. p. 296.

The walrus is the most dangerous enemy the bear has to contend with, and his immense tusks often give him a decided superiority. What the bear, however, wants in strength, he supplies by cunning, as he takes huge fragments of ice in his paws, and, dashing them against the head of the walrus, attacks and kills him after he is stunned by these blows. The one and the other often fall in this desperate fray.[11]

[11] Fabr. _loc. cit._

According to Fabricius, their time of parturition is in the winter, and their number of young at a birth seldom exceeds two. At this period, if on land, they make large dens in the snow; but they frequently bring forth in some of those vast caverns, so often found in the huge masses of _packed_ ice. Their attachment to their offspring is remarkably great. When mortally wounded, they will take their little cubs under their paws, embrace, and bemoan them with their latest breath.

Polar bears are equally at home by land and by sea, where they swim with great strength and agility; they also dive, but cannot remain long under water. As if impatient of rest, they are frequently seen passing from one island of ice to another, and are often met with at a great distance from land. They are frequently drifted into Iceland and Norway, where, from the extreme hunger they suffer in their passage thither, they make dreadful ravages among the cattle, but are soon dispatched by the inhabitants, who rise in a body as soon as they learn that one of them has approached their shores. The government of Iceland encourages the destruction of these animals, by paying a premium of ten dollars for every bear that is killed.

That these animals are possessed of considerable sagacity is evident from the account we have given of their combats with the walrus, and may be farther elucidated by the following fact:--The Captain wounded one in the side, and immediately the animal, as if conscious of the styptic nature of snow, covered the wound with it, and made off. We did not perceive any blood in its tract.

The sight of the bear is rather defective, but its senses of smelling and hearing are very acute, and compensate for any feebleness in the other.

Some writers have affirmed that Polar bears lie in a state of torpor through the long winter night, and appear only with the return of the sun; but this is denied by Fabricius, who says, they are equally on the hunt summer and winter.[12]

[12] _Tam brumali, quam aestivo tempore occurrit extra praedans._ Fab. _loc. cit._

The _Cervus tarandus_, or rein-deer, comes next in order. This useful and beautiful animal is found in every part of Spitzbergen. It has long, slender, branched horns, bending forwards, and palmated at the top, and broad palmated brow antlers.

Its body is thick, and rather square; tail short; legs not so long as those of a stag; hoofs large, concave, and deeply cloven; hair very thick, and under the neck long and pendent: before the first coat is shed it is of a dark cinereous colour, but after that period it changes to white, except a large space round each eye, which is always black.[13] Some rein-deer are four feet six inches high; and a pair of their horns has been found which were three feet nine inches long, two feet six inches from tip to tip, and weighed nine pounds and three quarters. The horns of the females are less than those of the male, and not altogether of the same form. She has six teats, four of which only give milk.

[13] _Hieme etiam barbam albam, ut hircus habet._ Fab. _de Cerv. Tarand_.

The principal food of the rein-deer is the _lichen_ (or liverwort) which it frequently raises from below great depths of snow by means of its feet and antlers. The female goes about eight months with young, and seldom brings forth more than one at a time. Her attachment to her offspring is remarkably strong.

The rein-deer species do not bound, but run with an even pace, and with considerable rapidity; in running, they make a clattering noise with their hoofs. They swim very well, crossing in their way narrow arms of the sea. Their senses of smelling and hearing are extremely acute; and it has been observed, that they are more cautious when in flocks, than when living in a solitary manner.

The camel is not more useful to the Arabians, than the rein-deer to the Laplanders, and northern Asiatics; it, in fact, constitutes their whole riches; and on this valuable animal they may be said entirely to depend. An attention to rearing and preserving them, forms the sole business of their lives, and to that alone their agricultural economy is confined.

“The rein-deer forms their riches. These, their tents, Their robes, their beds, and all their homely wealth, Supply their wholesome fare, and cheerful cups: Obsequious at their call, the docile tribe Yield to the sled their necks, and whirl them swift O’er hill and dale, heap’d into one expanse Of marbled snow, as far as eye can sweep, With a blue crust of ice unbounded glaz’d.”

The _Canis lagopus_, or Arctic fox, is found in all parts of Spitzbergen. Its nose is sharp and black; eyes black, with yellow iris; ears short, erect, round, and almost hidden in the fur; legs short, with the toes furred like those of a hare; tail long and bushy. The male is generally larger than the female; but neither reach the size of the common British fox. In summer, its hair is of a greyish colour, which in winter changes to white, when it also becomes longer, softer, and a good deal thicker than it is in the former period.

The Arctic fox is monogamous, and brings forth twice a year, in the months of March and June. It has several pups at a time.

This species feeds chiefly on young water fowl and eggs, and when very hungry, will eat any kind of shell or other fish. In the northern parts of Asia, and in Lapland, they prey on the _lemming_, or _Lapland marmont_, (_Mus Alpinus_,) which are often seen there in surprising numbers.

They generally burrow in the ground, but in Spitzbergen and Greenland, where the intensity of the frost renders this impracticable, they lie in caverns, and in the cliffs of rocks, two or three together. They are so remarkably hardy, that the most rigorous severity of winter in these regions, never stops their search of prey. They are excellent swimmers, and are often seen passing from one island to another, especially at the time when bird-nests are to be found. Some zoologists have affirmed, that they are harmless, simple, and easily taken; but Fabricius assures us that they possess all the wildness and cunning of the _vulpes_, or fox of these kingdoms. Fabricius says, the Arctic fox has three different kinds of voices[14]. Its smell is not so fetid as that of the common fox. Its flesh is not only eaten by the Greenlanders, but some voyagers have esteemed it as being good food. Vid. _Phipps_, p. 184.

[14] _Vocem habet triplicem: esurientis ejulando: coire volenti clamando, periclitantis murmurando._

Their skins are of little value in traffic, especially the white furred ones, as the fur easily comes off.

It was formerly supposed that there were two species of Arctic foxes, but this is denied by Fabricius on very satisfactory grounds.

These three quadrupeds constitute the entire of that great division of animals which belong to Spitzbergen. In warmer climes, the species are more numerous; but the individual animals do not there seem to possess more vigour or animation than these are imbued with. The climate of Spitzbergen being an extreme of cold, the animals of a more genial country cannot exist there. These species are indigenous to the regions of frost; cold is their element, and in it alone they thrive.

The amphibious animals come next in order; and as the accounts of them, given by different voyagers and naturalists are extremely confused, I have been more circumstantial than would otherwise have been necessary.

The _Phocæ_[15] are the most numerous class of animals which frequent Spitzbergen, where they are found in vast numbers. Though the specific characters of each particular tribe are distinctly marked, their general resemblance is, upon the whole, so very striking, that the following observations may be applied to them all indiscriminately. In the scale of nature, the Phocæ hold an intermediate station between amphibia and perfect fish; but nearer the latter than the former. The organization of other amphibious animals, such as the beaver, castor, otter, &c. fits them better for living on the land than the water. In this genus the contrary takes place. The arms and legs of the Phocæ, (if we may employ these terms,) are wholly enveloped in the flesh of the animal, the hands and feet being alone protruded; these too are webbed, and are instruments evidently more calculated for swimming than moving on land.

[15] Under this general appellation, I include the seal, walrus or morse, dugon, &c.

This unaptness of organization is strongly displayed in the painful motion of the animal, which, from the shortness of its legs, has to rest at every step on its belly, until it prepares for a new advance. Its agility, considering these defects, is indeed astonishing, and is certainly the effect of great exertion.

The eloquent and ingenious Buffon was of opinion that the Phocæ approached to fish by a still more decisive criterion. “They are the only animals,” says he, “which have the _foramen ovale_ open, and which can therefore live without respiring, and to whom water is as proper and suitable an element as air.” Theoretic views appear to have here led this excellent writer into an error, as it is now well known that the Phocæ cannot remain long in the water without coming to the surface to breathe.

The _Phoca vitulina_, by the English termed _seal_, and by the French, _phoque_, is the most common species of those animals in the north, and is dispersed with some variety throughout the rest of the ocean. Its head is large and flat; the teeth strong, and so sharp that I have seen it bite in two the handspikes with which the men were attempting to kill it; the tongue is forked; and it is well furnished with whiskers around the mouth; has almost no external appearance of ears, but merely an aperture to convey the sound to the _sensorium_; the eyes are small, and have a haggard appearance; the neck thickens as it approaches the shoulder, the thickest part of the animal; from whence the body gradually tapers in a cylindrical form, to the extremity, where the hind legs are placed, between which is a very short tail; the fore paws consist of five fingers, joined together by a membrane, and furnished with very strong cylindrical nails; the hind paws are formed in the same way, except that the fingers are longer than in the fore paws, and that the shortest of them are in the middle, and the longest on the outside of the paw. The length of an ordinary full grown seal is about seven or eight feet; and its thickness at the shoulder four or five. It is covered with short coarse thick hair, which varies in its colour with the different ages of the animal.

The flesh of the seal is of a reddish colour, and is, by the Greenlanders, accounted excellent food. Our sailors esteemed the entrails of a young one which they dressed, as equal to those of a hog. A seal will yield about twelve or fourteen gallons of good oil; their skins are very valuable, serving for covers to trunks, vests, &c. and are now used to a very considerable extent in the manufacture of shoes. The Greenlanders, who depend almost entirely for subsistence on this animal, make their boots, and other articles of dress, as well as the inside of their huts, of its skin.

The seal is a gregarious and polygamous animal. It is never met with at a great distance from land, but frequents the bays and seas adjacent to the shore. It feeds promiscuously on most sorts of small fish, but chiefly on the spawn of the salmon.

Fabricius differs from both Buffon and Pennant in asserting, that the seal brings forth but one at a time, while they maintain that it brings forth two.[16] At the time of parturition, it comes on shore, and suckles its young there for about six weeks before it takes them to the water, where it instructs them in swimming. Though naturally timid, the female defends her young with great boldness and spirit; on other occasions they generally place their safety in flight; but I have sometimes seen them throw back stones and pieces of ice on the sailors who pursued them.

[16] Perhaps Pliny has hit the truth, “_Parit nunquam geminis plures_.” _Nat. Hist._ lib. 9. § 13.

Seals delight to lie upon the ice, or on the shore, exposed to the sun[17]; they there sleep very profoundly, and fall an easy prey to the sailors, who dispatch them by a blow on the nose.

[17] _Sternunt se somno diversæ in littore Phocæ._ Georg. lib. 4.

Their voice has been not unaptly compared by Buffon to the barking of a hoarse dog; when attacked, they make a more doleful kind of noise.

Pliny expressly states this animal to be of a docile and tractable nature, and in this he is supported by the more enlarged experience of modern times. The seal described by Dr. Parsons[18] was taught to come out of his tub, and return to the water at the command of its keeper, to stretch out its neck to kiss him, and to perform several other motions.

[18] Pennant’s _Quadrupeds_, vol. ii. p. 272.