CHAPTER XI.

GENERAL REMARKS AND CONCLUSION.

Our task is nearly completed: we have but few general remarks to make.

The decay of wooden sleepers, posts, &c., on our railways and the destruction of timber piles by worms have been the causes of directing the attention of engineers to the preservation of timber. Most of our leading engineers now have the greater portion of the timber used in their works either creosoted or injected with chloride of zinc. Architects, as a rule, do not, unfortunately, adopt any process for preserving timber from rot and decay; and have practically no guarantee that timber used in their works has been thoroughly seasoned: posterity will not thank them for this, and yet they are not solely to blame. The fault in a great measure rests with the public, who require buildings to be erected at the least cost and in the shortest possible time. Moreover, the works executed by our leading builders are so extensive, that they have no room in their yards for large piles of timber to lie and season; and even if they had room it is doubtful if they would allow so much material, representing money, to remain idle. We are acquainted with one instance where a London architect, about a dozen years ago, erected a public building. The front of the reporters’ gallery was formed of oak panelling; and within a year after the completion of the building narrow slips or tongues of wood had to be let in in several places to fill up the holes formed by the shrinkage of the panels. Similar cases to this are by no means rare. We can quote another instance of unseasoned wood. A range of workshops was erected a few years since in South London; the principals of the roof were not ceiled; almost before the building was finished the upper floor was occupied by a battalion of workwomen. The heat of the room (the ventilation being defective) soon had an effect upon the tie-beams, but one beam, which we imagine was unseasoned, in consequence of large shakes and splits, had to be taken out and replaced with new. We will (as a lawyer would say), cite one more case. A church in Surrey required some extensive repairs to the roof: an architect and a builder were employed, and the necessary works were done. Within four years dry rot has made its appearance on the new timbers of the roof (not an air-tight one). One of the churchwardens, on consulting us last year (1874) as to the best means of stopping the rot, energetically remarked, “Who is responsible to us for this, the architect or the builder?” Charles Dickens, in his edition of ‘Bleak House’ in 1868, wrote, with reference to long Chancery suits, “If I wanted other authorities for Jarndyce and Jarndyce, I could rain them on these pages.” We are able to make a similar remark with reference to any more instances of dry rot. According to the 7th chapter of the First Book of Kings, “Solomon was building his own house thirteen years:” we cannot spare so much time now-a-days over the erection of a house, but that is no reason why our timber should not be naturally or artificially seasoned.

If we cannot obtain naturally seasoned timber, by all means let us have artificially seasoned wood. Tredgold, in his Report on Langton’s system,[42] nearly arrived at the secret. We will quote a few words from his Report:

“Mr. Langton having discovered a new method of seasoning timber … by which the time necessary to season green timber, and render it fit for use, is only about twice as many weeks as the ordinary process requires years; … it is more economical, and locks up less capital than the common method.”

We believe we may say that the number of our public buildings which have been erected during the present century with artificially prepared timber can be counted on our eight fingers (without troubling our thumbs) and not exceed that number;[43] and yet we hear of dry rot in the great dome of the Bank of England and other buildings without profiting by the events. We should like to know if the wooden dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral is safe from dry rot, (the domes at the Panthéon and the Halle-au-Blé at Paris were affected,) _and plumbers fires_.

It is evident that a preservative process, thoroughly suitable for everyday use and applicable to buildings, has yet to be invented: it should be cheap, should render wood uninflammable, should preserve the wood from decay and dry rot, _should not harden the wood until some time after its application_, and should be colourless and invisible. The invention of such a process will require careful thought and experiments, for it appears to us that the whole theory of any successful plan for the prevention of the dry rot must resolve itself into the _solidifying or coagulation of albumen_: this means hardening the sap-wood, and causing increased difficulty in working the wood. We can easily illustrate our remarks, by quoting one of the latest patents for preserving timber, which has recently been made public. It is the invention of a gentleman living in England, who has discovered a means of making wood uninflammable, preventing dry rot and decay, and rendering white and yellow pine, both in hardness and appearance, like teak and oak. We have no objection to its rendering wood uninflammable, providing it does not “hurt” the wood; but can the reader believe that any architect, in erecting a moderate-sized villa, would specify that all the joiners’ work, staircases, window-frames and sashes, architraves, skirtings, doors, &c., must be formed of wood _as hard as teak_; or rather, can the reader imagine the architect’s client would be agreeable to pay the greatly increased cost for the extra labour involved. We do not think this invention will ever be used, at least to any extent, in buildings.

Much yet remains to be done with regard to uninflammable wood for buildings: we think the matter should be dealt with (with reference to joists, floor boards, partitions, doors, staircases, roof timbers, &c.) by a new Buildings Act of Parliament. Stone and iron will not burn, but they are not fire-resisting: brick, artificial stone, and incombustible wood will give us all we desire; the details may be difficult of arrangement, but builders would comply with them if they were imperatively required. At present our houses are formed of brick walls, every room being separated vertically and horizontally from the adjoining rooms by combustible wooden walls. A street built up of fire-proof buildings would be a novelty. The whole subject requires to be dealt with thoroughly, for while we have combustible wooden floors, partitions, &c., we cannot at the same time have a fire-proof building. We have not been able to spare the space, or else we should have devoted a long chapter to this subject; a superficial consideration (such as alum and water) would have been practically useless.

In conclusion, we can only summarize our remarks on the cause of dry rot, by saying, “Season and ventilate,” in every case: as to the cure, that is not so easy to deal with. If the reader has ever had a decayed tooth aching, a friend has probably said, “Have it out;” and we say, wherever there is a piece of timber decayed in a building which can be removed, “Have it out, and stop up with new;” and in so advising we are merely following the advice to be found in a good old volume, which has never yet been equalled, and which says:

“And, behold, if the plague be in the walls of the house with hollow strakes, greenish or reddish, which in sight are lower than the wall; … Then the priest shall command that they take away the stones in which the plague is, and they shall cast them into an unclean place without the city: And he shall cause the house to be scraped within round about, and they shall pour out the dust that they scrape off without the city into an unclean place: And they shall take other stones, and put them in the place of those stones; and he shall take other mortar, and shall plaister the house.”--_Leviticus_ xiv. 37, 40, 41, and 42.

This course will not, however, suit every case, for when the rot has spread in many directions, the best and cheapest course is to consult some professional man, well versed in the peculiarities of dry rot, before determining upon any remedy, for we have shown in the course of this work that the disease may arise from various causes; and it is not a difficult matter to select the wrong remedy, and thus increase the disease.

We trust the reader has found in this volume at least some hints which may be of service to him. A _new_ house affected with dry rot is an unhealthy one to live in, and an _old_ one is worse than the new; we mean the kind of house referred to in one line by an American poet, as follows:

“O’er whose unsteady floor, that sways and bends.”

LONGFELLOW.

FOOTNOTES

[1] See white faces of workmen.

[2] See London newspapers, July, 1812.

[3] ‘Fire Surveys,’ p. 58.

[4] ‘Directions to Cure the Dry Rot.’ 1807.

[5] See Report of the Officers of Portsmouth Yard, 1792.

[6] See Tredgold’s Report on this process, May 2, 1828.

[7] See No. 1, p. 3, Appendix to first volume of ‘Naval Architecture.’

[8] See paper on “Kyan’s Process” by Captain R. C. Alderson, C.E., in vol. i. ‘Papers of Royal Engineers.’

[9] See Chapman, Boydon, Jackson, and Kyan’s methods.

[10] See ‘London Journal of Arts,’ March, 1842; ‘Bull. de l’Encouragement,’ June, 1842.

[11] See ‘Repertory of Patent Inventions,’ December, 1836.

[12] See ‘Étuves de Désiccation et Appareil pour l’lnjection des Bois.’ Par MM. Dorsett et Blythé, manufacturiers, à Bordeaux. 1859.

[13] See ‘Repertory of Patent Inventions’ April, 1847.

[14] See Chap. IV., p. 97.

[15] See coating for piles, p. 161.

[16] See ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,’ v. 7, page 433; ‘Tredgold’s Carpentry’ by J. T. Hurst, 1871; ‘Histoire de l’Acad.,’ 1765, page 15; ‘Ann. des Ponts et Chaussées,’ v. 15, page 307; ‘Mem. sur la Conservation des Bois à la Mer,’ 1868, by Forestier; ‘Bois de Marine,’ by Quatrefages, 1848.

[17] There are eight kinds of _teredines_, of which three are to be found in European waters, viz. the _Teredo fatalis_, _Teredo navalis_, _Teredo bipennata_.

[18] See ‘Memoirs of Sir M. I. Brunel;’ also, for particulars of the construction of the shield designed by him for forming the Tunnel, Weale’s ‘London Exhibited,’ and ‘A Memoir of the Thames Tunnel,’ in Weale’s Quarterly Papers on Engineering.

[19] Note geometrical framing in spider’s web.

[20] ‘Reports of the Juries,’ Exhibition, 1851. ‘Reports’ by Dr. Gibson, Conservator of Forests, Bombay Presidency. ‘Reports’ by Dr. Cleghorn, Conservator of Forests, Madras Presidency. ‘Reports’ by Mr. H. B. Baden Powell, Inspector-General of the Forest Department, India, 1875. ‘Reports’ on the Teak Forests of Tenasserim, Calcutta, 1852. Papers by Mr. Mann and Mr. Heath on ‘Decay of Woods in Tropical Climates,’ Inst. C.E., 1866. Paper on ’ The Ravages of the Limnoria Terebrans,’ by Mr. R. Stevenson, Royal Society, 1862. ‘Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse,’ by Robert Stevenson, 1824. Stevenson’s ‘Design and Construction of Harbours.’ Smeaton’s ‘Reports.’

[21] See ‘Sur un Moyen de Mettre tous les Approvisionnements de Bois de la Marine de la Piqûre des Tarets’ (Compte. rend., Janv. 1848).

[22] ‘Report of German Commission relative to rendering Woodwork and Stage Materials Incombustible.’ Professor Fuchs and Dr. Pettenkofer’s Reports. Dr. Feuchtwanger’s works. M. Kuhlman’s pamphlet. ‘Reports relative to Ransome’s Process.’ Note M. Szerelmey’s patent, 21 July, 1868.

[23] See ‘Memoirs on the Use of Cast Iron in Piling,’ by Mr. M. A. Borthwick, ‘Trans. Inst. Civ. Eng.’ vol. i. No. 22.

[24] See Hurst’s ‘Tredgold’s Carpentry,’ p. 380, 1871. London.

[25] See Charlesworth’s ‘Magazine of Natural History,’ 1838, Art. _Myrmica domestica_. Also, ‘Boston Journal of Natural History,’ 1834, p. 993, Art. _Myrmica molesta_.

[26] Thunberg’s ‘Travels,’ vol. ii. p. 300.

[27] ‘Expedition to Surinam.’ By Captain Stedman. 1813. London.

[28] Kœmpfer’s ‘Japan,’ vol. ii.

[29] ‘Voyage de Spartmann au cap de Bonne-Espérance: voy. _Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ de Guérin.’ 1839.

[30] See Paper by Mr. J. B. Hartley, read before the Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 23rd June, 1840, “On the Effects of the Worm on Kyanized Timber exposed to the Action of Sea Water; and on the Use of Greenheart Timber from Demerara.”

[31] Margary’s process failed to preserve wood from rot on the Bristol and Exeter Railway, England.

[32] See Paper by Mr. Thomas Hounslow, of the Royal Engineers’ Department, published in ‘Engineering,’ p. 198, 21st September, 1866. Also, Hurst’s edition of ‘Tredgold’s Carpentry,’ page 380. 1871. London.

[33] See Maconochie’s suggestion, p. 163.

[34] ‘Insects Abroad.’ By the Rev. J. Wood. 1874. London.

[35] ‘Histoire de l’Académie,’ p. 38. 1705. See also M. Maxime Paulet’s communication to the Academy, 27th April, 1874.

[36] Their Majesties’ Commission for the Rebuilding of the Cathedral Church of St. Paul, in London. London: Printed by Benjamin Motte. 1692.

[37] Workmen would now think this clause a striking one.

[38] See lecture by Mr. W. G. Rogers, “On the Carvings of Grinling Gibbons,” delivered at the Royal Institute of British Architects, 3rd June, 1867.

[39] Paper by M. de Laperier, of the Belgian Legation, read at a meeting of the Society of Antiquaries, relative to Flemish origin of English carving.

[40] The large pulpit is not from the design of Sir Christopher Wren, nor is the carving by Grinling Gibbons.

[41] See engraving in the ‘Art Journal,’ 1866.

[42] See Tredgold’s Report on this process, May 2, 1828.

[43] See Bartholomew’s’ Specifications,’ and Professor Donaldson’s valuable work on ‘Specifications,’ which comprises many examples by modern architects. The usual clause is: “The timber to be well seasoned (is it?), free from large knots, shakes, and other defects.”

INDEX.

Abel’s silicate of soda process, 160

Academy of Sciences, Holland, report on sea-worms, 235

Acetate of lead, 226

” iron and wood tar, 130

Acid, carbolic, 257, 276

” fluoric, 287

” hydrochloric, 286

” hydro-fluo-silicic, and other substances, 166

” nitric, 98, 285

” pyroligneous, 111, 144, 263

” sulphuric, 161, 285

” vegetable, 111

Age of trees, how to ascertain, 9

Air, admission of, to prevent or cure rot, 27, 171, 187, 284, 292

Alberti (L. B.), on seasoning wood, 66, 75

Alcohol, in corrosive sublimate, 263, 265, 266, 279

Alderson’s (Captain), experiments with woods, 127

Alkali, caustic, 122

Alum, to prevent combustion, 118

” experiments with, 119

” and other substances, 156, 166, 167

American method of preserving ships’ masts, 111

” oak, inferior to English, 40

Ammonia, to cure rot, 118, 137

” and other substances, 131, 286

Amsterdam, built on piles, 23

Annual rings in wood, 8

Ants, black, how to destroy, 287

” white, description of, 240

” ” how to destroy, 251, 286

” ” in Australia, Bahia, and Pernambuco, 245

” ” in Batavia, 247

” ” in Brazil, 244

” ” in Ceylon and the Philippine Islands, 246

” ” in France and Japan, 248

” ” in India, 251

” ” in Jamaica, 241

” ” in Spain, Senegal, and Surinam, 248

” ” woods which resist, 249

Armstrong’s (J.), account of rotten floor, 43

Arsenic, 224, 252, 287

” experiments with, 167

” and other substances, 253

Asphalte, to keep out damp, 179

Australian method of seasoning Jarrah wood, 115

Baker’s (J.), case of dry rot in Baltic wood, 177

Ballast for railway sleepers, 48, 138

Bank of England, dry rot in dome, 42

Banks (Sir J.), on growth of fungi, 44

Barium sulphide, to preserve wood, 156

Barlow’s patent process, 102

” on seasoning wood, 78

Barnacles on timber piles, 223, 226

Barry (Sir C.), on steaming wood, 90

Baryta, and other substances, 166

Basement stories with damp, 23, 181, 182, 187

Bayonne, girder in church at, 174

Beams, advantage of sawing, 32

Bees, carpenter, destroy wood, 240, 259

” wax, and other substances, 156

Beetles, in wood, 262, 275

” how to destroy, 286

Belgian engineers prefer charred sleepers, 96

Belidor, on felling trees, 54

Belton House (Earl Brownlow’s), beetles in carvings at, 268, 281

Bentham (Sir S.), on drying oak, 91

Benzine, to destroy wood beetles, 266, 277, 286

Berkeley, on fungi, 21

Bethell’s (J.), patent creosoting process, 130, 155, 224, 234, 286

” ” drying stoves, 86

Binmer, on steaming and charring, 99

Biot, on pressure process, 144

Blenheim, state of carvings at, 281

” carvings in yellow deal at, 273

Blood, and other substances, 167

Bond timber, decay of in walls, 45, 174

Borax, a receipt for black ants, 287

” and other substances, 156

Boucherie’s (Dr.), sulphate of copper process, 146

Bourne’s (J.), experiments with wood, 254

Bowring’s (Sir J.), account of ants in Obando, 247

Boyden’s (A.), remedies for dry rot, 95, 112, 122

Brande (Dr.), on preserving woods, 139, 142, 155

Bréant’s patents, 145

Brick dust, tar, &c., to preserve piles, 228

Brimstone, bees-wax, &c., to preserve wood, 156

Brochard and Watteau’s process, 80

Browne’s (Sir S.), experiments with piles, 229

Brunei (Sir M. I.), 138, 139, 215, 228

Buffon, 144, 198

Builders, bad, 182, 202

Building, hints on, 180

Burnett’s (Sir F.), patent zinc process, 140, 224, 254, 255, 286

Burt’s experience of creosoted sleepers, 137

Cadet de Gassicourt’s process for dry rot, 144

Calomel, composition of, 264

Calvert’s caoutchouc process, 162

Camphor disliked by ants, 287

Canadian white spruce deals liable to warp, 65

” yellow wood liable to rot in damp situations, 36, 43

Caoutchouc, solution of, 162

” and other substances, 163

Carbolic acid, for wood beetles, 257, 276

Carbonate of soda (Payne’s process), 154

Carbonization by gas, 97, 164

Carpenter bees destroy wood, 240, 259

Carpenter (Dr.), on growth of fungi, 43

Carvers, wood, 280

Carvings destroyed by worms, 266

” how to clean, 270

” to destroy worms in, 286

Cashiobury, carvings at, destroyed by beetle, 269

Cement, to protect piles, 227, 228

Ceylon, ants in, 246

Chalk, and other substances, 161

Champy’s tallow process, 144

Chapman (W.), on dry rot, 25, 73, 112, 119, 122, 165, 167

Charcoal--_see_ Oils, Whale, and Fish--to preserve wood, 121

” and other substances, 157

Charpentier’s hot air patent, 80

Charring wood, 95

” when useful, 100

” and pitching, 96

Chassloup Lambat’s suggestion to prevent rot, 163

Château of the Roques d’Oudres, girders at, 174

Chatsworth, Gibbons’ carvings at, 281

Chelura terebrans destroy piles, 219

Chemists prefer thin creosote, 131

Chinese method of preserving wood, 167

Chippendale’s carvings, 281

Chloride of calcium, 146

” of manganese, 154

” of sodium, 164

” of zinc--_see_ Burnett’s Process

Chlorine gas, and other substances, 123

Chloroform, for wood beetles, 277

Chunam, and cocoa-nut oil, 107

Church at Bayonne, fir girders in, 174

” of Holy Trinity, Cork, rot in vaults, 39

” in London, rot in roof, 184

” in Surrey, 289

” of St. Mark, Venice, rot in curb, 176

” of Old St. Pancras, London, rot in vaults, 40

Cleghorn (Dr.), on creosoted sleepers, 47, 136, 142

Coal Exchange, flooring of, 81

” tar, 170, 233, 246, 256, 262

” ” and other substances 123, 284, 285

” vessels last long, 117

Cobley’s patent lime process, 166

Colocynth and quassia, 263

” and other substances, 285

Colouring woods, 108

Commission, report of, on carvings, 266, 274

Cooke’s (M. C.) instance of fungi, 43

Copal varnish, 191, 197

” in linseed oil, 285

Copper, red oxide of, 161

” prussiate of, 146

” sulphate of--_see_ Sulphate of Copper

” nitrate of, 226

” sheathing against sea-worms, 228

” ” and tarred felt, 285

Copperas, and coal tar, 284

” to preserve ships, 112, 226

Cork, for ends of brestsummers, 174

Corrosive sublimate, 123, 226, 264, 265, 285, 286

” and other substances, 130, 155, 263, 265, 266, 279, 285

Covent Garden Theatre, dry rot in bond, 175

Cow-dung mortar, and oils, 251

Creosote (Bethell’s patent), 118, 130, 133, 142, 165, 230, 236, 255, 257, 285, 287

” vapour, 145

” and chloride of zinc, 133

Crepin (M.), on creosoted wood, 139, 236

Cryptogamia, or fungi, 15

Cullen’s process for dry rot, 157

Dammer oil, and other substances, 255

Damp, 176, 177, 178, 181

” a cause of decay in wood, 22

” rooms, how to ascertain, 24

Darwin’s process for dry rot, 156

Daviller (A. C.), on felling trees, 54

Davison and Symington’s process, 81

Davy (Sir H.), on corrosive sublimate, 127, 263

Deals require long seasoning, 64

” how sometimes imported, 35

Deane’s (Sir T.), account of dry rot case, 39

Decay of trees, symptoms of, 33

De Lapparent’s processes, 73, 97, 163

Desiccating processes, 81

Dickson (Dr.), on Kyan’s process, 130

” (J.), on seasoning wood, 75

Ditton Park, carvings destroyed at, 269

Donaldson’s (Prof. T. L.) account of dry rot case, 42

Dondeine’s paint, 165

Dorsett and Blythé’s copper process, 151

Doswell’s report on timber piles, 232

Dram battens liable to rot, 8

Dry rot, wet rot, and rot.

” appearances of, 31, 35

” causes of, 24

” danger of, 34

” how different from wet rot, 14

” proceeds according to temperature 29, 187

” caused by bad building, 182

” ” mortar, 44, 173, 177

” ” damp brickwork, 44, 182

” ” ” ground, 20, 21

” ” ” stone, 44

” ” heat and moisture, 23

” ” insufficient areas, 178

” ” ” tarpaulings, 184

” ” joining different woods, 176

” ” kamptulicon, 187

” ” Keene’s cement, 188

” ” oiled cloth, 185

” ” old trees, 183

” ” partial leaks, 23

” ” want of air, 171, 172, 186, 187, 188

” ” ” proper drains and spouts, 41

” increased by stoves, 172

” _in ground_, under house at Hampstead, 20

” _under foundations_, Norfolk House, 176

” ” ” Grosvenor Place, 176

” ” _floor_, Stanmore Cottage, 183

” ” _hearthstone_, 43

” ” _pavement_ at Basingstoke, 43

” _on paved floor_, Westminster Hall, 44

” _in vaults_, Old St. Pancras Church, 40

” _on vaults_, Holy Trinity Church, Cork, 39

” in cask in cellar, 43

” ” _basement floor_ of house, Greenwich, Frontispiece

” ” _ground floor_ of houses, 43, 177, 185, 186, 187

” ” _first floor_ of house, No. 29, Mincing Lane, 187

” ” _second floor_ of house, No. 79, Gracechurch Street, 187

” ” _barn floor_, 42

” _on floor_ of house, No. 106, Fenchurch Street, London, 186

” _in wood bond_, Covent Garden theatre, 175

” ” _damp closet_, or pantry, 16

” ” _wood lining_ to walls--basement, 125

” ” floor of house in the Temple, London, 124

” ” _brestsummer_ of shop, 42

” ” _girder_ of house (Earl of Mansfield’s), 32

” ” ” building at Malta, 32

” ” _partition_, No. 16, Mark Lane, London, 188

” ” _roof_, church in London, 184

” ” ” ” Surrey, 289

” ” _curb of dome_, St. Mark’s, Venice, 176

” ” _dome_, Bank of England, 42

” ” ” Halle-au-Blé, Paris, 42

” ” ” Panthéon, Paris, 42

” ” Society of Arts building, Adelphi, 42

” ” _field gates_, 183

” ” _foreign timber_, 35

” ” _paling_ 125

” _in ships_, 23, 26, 73, 93, 112, 114, 172

” prevented by seasoning, 63

” good, cheap, and easy remedy required, 291

Du Hamel, 66, 72, 144

Duke of Devonshire’s house, dry rot at, 40

D’Uslaw’s, Meyer, steam process, 102

Dutch method of coating piles, 221

Earl Brownlow’s house, beetles in carvings at, 268

” of Mansfield’s house, rotten yellow fir girder at, 32

Emerson’s boiled oil process for rot, 110

Endogenous stems, grow from within, 4

Engineers, English, 139, 288

” foreign, rules for sulphate of copper, 151

” ” ” creosote, 131, 133

Evelyn (Sir J.), on seasoning wood, 53, 73, 75

Exogenous stems, grow from without, 4

Faraday (Prof.), on corrosive sublimate, 129, 263

Felt, tarred, and copper sheathing, 285

Fences, how to prevent them rotting, 46, 161

Fenchurch Street, No. 106, dry rot on floor, 186

Feuchtwanger’s (Dr.), water-glass for piles, 226

Field gates, dry rot in, 183

Fire-proof houses, cost of, 143

” ” necessity of, 291

Flemish carvings in England, 280

Flockton’s wood tar process to preserve wood, 130

Floor-cloths, injurious effects of, 185

Floors, how to protect from worms, 266

” dry rot in, 20, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 125, 176, 182, 183, 186, 187

” ” Frontispiece

Fluoric acid, for the black ant, 287

Fontenay’s metallic soap, to preserve wood, 165

Forestier’s experiments with creosoted piles, 139, 236

Foundations, how to build, 179

Fraser’s (Capt. A.) paint for white ants, 253

Fungi differ according to situation, 22

” explanation of the term, 15

” forms and strength of, 31, 43

” production of, 15, 18, 19, 20

” rapid growth of, 44

Gambir composition for white ants, 255

Garlic and vinegar for worms, 106

Gas, carbonization of wood by, 97, 164

” chlorine, and other substances, 123

Gibbons’ (Grinling), carvings, 260, 280

Glue, solution of, to preserve ships, 112

” and other substances, 112, 122, 130

Gracechurch Street, No. 79, dry rot in second floor, 187

Graham (Prof.), on Burnett’s process, 140

Grease, how to take it out of floor, 191

Greenwich, rot in floor of house at, Frontispiece

Greville’s (Dr.) description of fungi, 21

Groo-groo worms in Surinam, 247

Grosvenor Place, rotten planking in houses, 176

Guibert’s smoke process, 93

Hales’ (Dr.) oil and creosoting processes, 111, 118

Halle-au-Blé, Paris, dry rot in dome of, 42

Haller’s (Dr.) analysis of a fungus, 31

Hampstead, dry rot in ground of house at, 20

Hancock’s caoutchouc and oil process, 162

Hartley’s experiments with fire-proof house, 120

Hawkshaw’s opinion of Payne’s process, 155

Higgins’ (Dr.) ammonia remedy for rot, 118

House, fire-proof, 120

” ” cost of, 143

” badly erected, 182, 202

Howe’s experiments with posts, 45

Humboldt, Baron, on damp rooms, 24

Indestructible Paint Company, 195

Indian Woods, 47, 134, 223, 250

Ingredients for preserving wood, 168

Iron, cast, effect of sea-water on, 230

” muriate of, 157

” prussiate of, 146

” pyrolignite of, 130, 146, 151, 156, 234

” sulphate of, 154, 157, 284

Jackson’s preserving processes, 111

” (G.) experiments with white ants, 254

Jagherry, or coarse Indian sugar, for mortar, 253

Japanese method of treating graining, 194

Jarrah wood, how seasoned, 115

Johnson’s (B.) account of rot in floor, 42

Jones’ (Major, R. E.) report on rotten beams, 32

Kamptulicon causes dry rot in floors, 187

Kenwood, rotten fir girder at, 32

Kidlington, carvings in yellow deal at, 273

Kirthington Park, Gibbons’ carvings at, 281

Knabb’s sulphate of copper process, 152

Kœnig’s opinion of sulphate of copper, 152

Kyan’s corrosive sublimate patent, 123, 205, 223, 233

Lampblack, and fish oil, 108

Langton’s extraction of sap process, 101

Lead, 173, 179, 200

” and tarred rope for piles, 228

” oxide of, and other substances, 123

Légé and Fleury-Pironnet’s copper patent, 149

Le Gras’ manganese, zinc, and creosote patent, 164

Lepisma worm destroys boats, 221

Letellier’s preserving processes, 130, 165

Lewis’ lime process, 112, 116

Liebig (Baron) on decay of wood, 19

Lime, to preserve wood, 112, 116, 253, 286

” and other substances, 107, 117, 156, 157, 166, 255, 285

” re-carbonated, injurious to wood, 116

” water, to preserve ships, 116, 122

” ” ” basement joists, 116

” ” and sulphuric acid, 156

” vessels last long, 116

Limnoria terebrans, description of, 217

” ” how it destroys piles, 218

Linseed oil--_see_ Oils

Litharge ” ”

Logs, state of, on arrival in England, 37

Lowestoft Harbour, creosoted piles in, 230

Lukins’ stove process, 121

Lycoris fucata, destroys the Teredo navalis, 237

Lyme Hall, carvings at, 281

Maconochie’s suggestions for preserving wood, 121, 145, 163

McMaster (B.), on decay of railway sleepers, 47

McWilliam, on fungi, 20, 22, 29

Makinson, on creosoted piles, 231

Malta, rotten girders in building at, 32

Manganese, and other substances, 163, 165

Mann’s (Capt.) and McPherson’s (Capt.) experiments, 255

Margary’s patent sulphate of copper process, 130, 150, 254

Mark Lane, No. 16, dry rot in partition at, 188

Marshall (G.), on seasoning oak, 69

Maun (G. O.), on sleepers, Pernambuco railway, 138

Mecquenem’s desiccating process, 80

Mellis (J. C.), on creosoted wood, 256

Melseun’s experiments with ammonia, 137

Mercer’s Hall, decay of carvings at, 267

Mercury, deuto-chloride of, 165

” bi-chloride--_see_ Corrosive Sublimate

Merulius lachrymans, dry rot fungus, 21

Methods for seasoning wood, 168

Methylated spirits of wine for carvings, 279

Michigan Central Railroad bridge, dry rotten, 185

Migneron’s process, 144

Miller’s hot air process, 102

Mincing Lane, No. 29, dry rot in first floor at, 187

Moll’s vapour of creosote process, 145

Moon, age of, a guide for cutting trees, 56

Mortar made with sea sand objectionable, 113, 181

” cow-dung and castor oil, 251

Mud and other substances to preserve wood, 253

Müenzing’s manganese process, 154

Mundic, to preserve wood, 118

Muriate of iron (Toplis’ process), 157

Nails, scupper, for piles, 228, 286

Neamann, on seasoning wood, 79, 117

Nichols (T.), on sand bath, 116

Nitrate of copper for piles, 226

Nitric acid, for worms, 285

Norfolk House, rotten planking at, 176

Norway white lowland deals warp, 65

Nystrom’s process, to prevent combustion, 166

Oak, American, liable to rot, 40

” different qualities of, 71

” good and bad, 25

” seasoning, 69, 70, 90, 91

” panelling, if not seasoned, shrinks, 288

” how to prevent splitting, 106

Ohio fire-proof paint, 185

Oil, Arracan, to protect wood from ants, 252

” boiled, to preserve planks of ships, 111

” castor, with cow-dung mortar, 251

” cajeput, to protect wood from ants, 247, 286

” of cedar, to protect wood from worms, 106

” cocoa-nut, to preserve wood, 107

” ” and other substances, 107

” dammer, and other substances, 255

” fish, 108

” ” experiments with, 108

” ” and other substances, 108

” linseed, 106

” ” and other substances, 106, 165, 268, 284, 285

” olive, 106

” of juniper, to prevent worms, 285

” of mustard, to preserve wood, 107

” of spikenard, 106, 285

” of tar; and other substances, 123, 155, 162

” of tar--_see_ Coal Tar

” palm, to preserve wood, 106, 107

” ” and other substances, 123

” paraffin, to cure dry rot, 285

” petroleum, to preserve wood, 109, 157, 169, 262, 287

” ” and sand, 109

” vegetable, best to preserve wood, 106

” whale, 286

” ” renders wood brittle, 106

” ” and other substances, 106, 107

” and other substances, 156, 167

Oils, animal, render wood brittle, 107

Oxford’s patent, 123

Painting, house, described, 199

” ” causes rot, 183, 185, 269

” how to remove from carvings, 270

Paling, rot in, 185

Pallas’ iron and lime process, 117

Panthéon, Paris, dry rot in dome, 42

Parkes’ caoutchouc process, 162

Parry’s (Dr.) suggestion to prevent rot, 156

Passez’s caoutchouc in sulphur process, 162

Pasteur, researches of, 17

Patents, most successful patents, 169

Payne’s patent process, 144, 154, 156, 223, 254

Peat moss, for seasoning wood, 116

Penrose’s report on carvings, St. Paul’s Cathedral, 271

Pepys, Memoirs of, account of rot in ships in, 24

Pering on dry rot, 25

Petersburgh deals, white and yellow, 38, 66

Petroleum oil to prevent rot, 109, 157, 169, 262, 287

Phillips (R.), on seasoning oak, 70

Piles, timber, 23, 96, 219, 221, 223, 226, 228, 285

” ” cased in iron, 229

Pine, yellow, liable to rot, 43

Pitch, 96, 174, 224

” and other substances, 107, 159

Pith of tree, formation of, 4

Pliny, on salt-water seasoning, 72

Polyporus hybridus fungi, 21

Porcher (Dr.), on seasoning wood, 75

Posts, experiments with, 45

” in Norway, how preserved, 173

” burning ends to preserve, 96, 98

” where they decay, 24

” coating, to preserve, 161

Potash, and other substances, 166, 167

Price and Manby’s drying stove, 88

Pringle (Sir J.), on the strength of alum, 119

Pritchard’s report on sea-worms, 156, 233

Processes, rules for successful, 110

” pressure and vacuum, 168

Prussiate of copper (Boucherie’s process), 146

” of iron ” ” 146

Pyroligneous acid, 111, 144, 263

Pyrolignite of iron, 130, 146, 151, 234

” ” and oil of tar, 156

Quassia, 266, 285

” and colocynth, 263

Quatrefages’ experiments, 225, 242

Quicklime, if dry, preserves wood, 116

Railway sleepers, 47, 49, 74, 101, 103, 125, 134, 136, 138, 140, 143, 149, 151, 152, 251, 254

Rance’s experiments with chloride of sodium, 164

Randall (J.), on oxidating wood, 98

Ransome’s silicate of soda process, 156, 227

Rats, how to get rid of, 173

Reid’s vegetable acid process, 111

Remedies for white ants, 286

” for black ants, 287

” for dry rot, 284

” worms in carvings, 286

” ” in piles, 285

Renwick’s vapour of creosote process, 146

Resin, and other substances, 122, 159, 161, 285

Robins, oleaginous vapour process, 157

Rogers (W. J.), the wood carver, 72, 268, 274

Rot, internal causes of, 32

” in timber, how to ascertain, 33, 185

” ” to prevent, 283

” ” to cure, 284

Salt, bay, to preserve ships, 114

” common, to preserve ships, 112

” ” to preserve railway sleepers, 74

” water, lime, &c., to preserve wood, 73, 111

” vessels last long, 114

Saltpetre, to preserve ships, 114

Salts, deliquescent, corrode metals, 112

Sand and coal tar, 284

” and petroleum, 109

” bath, 116

” sea, 113, 181

Sapwood in different woods, 3

Saturating woods to resist beetles, 279

Scott’s (Col.) paint for ants, 253

Sea salt and copperas, 166

” sand, 113, 181

” water, effect of, on iron, 230

” weed, 113

” worms, 203

Seasoning by air, and exposure in stacks, 64

” ” heated, 80

” by extraction of sap, 101

” ” water, fresh, 71

” ” ” salt, 73, 113

” ” ” ” sea-weed, and sea-sand, 115

” ” ” lime, 73, 111

” ” smoke, 91

” ” steaming and boiling, 77

” ” ” charring, 99

” ” gas, 97, 164

” ” sand bath, 116

” ” scorching and charring, 95,97

” ” baking, 79, 81, 86, 88, 94

” oak, 69, 70, 72, 289

” second, 103

Sea-worms, woods which resist, 223

Selenite, experiments with, 119

Shakes in wood, 10, 249, 250

Shaw (Capt. E. M.), on admission of air, 120, 171

Shield’s remedy for white ants, 245, 256

Ships, 99, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 194, 251

” dry rot in, 23, 26, 73, 93, 112, 114

Silicate of potash, 155

” of soda, 156, 160, 227

” ” and lime, 160

Silloway (T. W.), on seasoning wood, 75, 92

Silver grain, 6

Size for wood, why required, 197

” and corrosive sublimate, 266

Slating wall to keep out damp, 177

Sleepers, _see_ Railway Sleepers

Smirke (Sir R.), on dry rot, 20, 123

Smith’s solution for wood beetles, 264

Soap, experiments with, 122

” metallic, to preserve wood, 165

” yellow ” ” 165

” and other substances, 253

Society of Arts building, dry rot in, 42

Soda, carbonate of, 155

Soluble glass, 155

Southend pier, attacked by sea-worms, 209

Spores, description of, 15

Stains for woods, 189, 197

Stanmore Cottage, dry rot in floor at, 183

Steam, 145, 168

” --_see_ Seasoning by Steam

Stephenson (Sir M.), on creosoted wood, 134

Stevenson (R.), on timber piles, 205, 217

St. James’s Church, Piccadilly, carvings at, 272, 281

St. Helena, experiments with woods at, 256

St. Mark’s, Venice, rotten curb of dome at, 176

St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, 42, 271, 290

St. Preuve’s steam process, 80

Stove drying, 79, 81, 86, 88, 94

Strength of timber, 11

Strontia, and other substances, 166

Sublimate--_see_ Corrosive Sublimate

Sulphate of copper, 122, 146, 149, 150, 151, 161, 226, 284

” ” and sulphuric acid, 285

” of iron, 154, 157, 284

” ” and other substances, 117, 166, 284

Sulphur, 163

” in other substances, 163, 285

Sulphuric acid, 161, 285

Surinam, groo-groo worms in, 247

Swift’s, Dean, recipe for beetles, 282

Tallow bath for wood, 144

Tar, and other substances, 106, 130, 159, 228, 251, 284

Tarred rope, and lead for piles, 228

Teak oil, to preserve wood from ants, 259

” chips, distilled, 163

Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, built on charred piles, 98

” buildings, London, dry rot in, 124

Tennant’s (Sir E.) account of ants in Ceylon, 246

” ” bees ” 260

Teredo navalis, description of, 212

” --_see_ Worms, Sea

Termites--_see_ Ants, White

Tie-beam, instance of unseasoned, 289

Timber depreciates by keeping too long, 64

Tissier’s hot air process, 102

Toplis’ sulphate of iron process, 157

Tredgold (T.), on seasoning wood, 78, 101, 290

Treenails, 26, 110, 118

Trees, symptoms of decay in, 52

” how to prepare for felling, 61

” when to fell, 53, 54, 55, 58

Trinity College, Cambridge, carvings at, 269, 273

” Oxford ” 269, 273

Truman’s brewery, seasoning casks at, 84

Turpentine prevents rot, 36, 257, 263, 285

” in corrosive sublimate, 115

Uninflammable wood, good process required for, 170, 291

Unseasoned oak panelling, 288

” roof principal, 289

Vaporizing woods, 276

Vapour of creosote process, 145

Venice, built on piles, 23

Vernet’s fire-proof method, 167

Vessels in coal trade last long, 117

” in lime ” 116

” in salt ” 114

Vinegar--_see_ Garlic

Vitriol, blue--_see_ Sulphate of Copper

” green--_see_ Sulphate of Iron

Vitruvius on seasoning wood, 75

Vulliamy (G.), on charring posts, 96

Wade’s suggestions for preserving wood, 119, 122

Wainscot, Crown Riga, 90

” dry rot in, 35, 125

” how to cut oak for, 70

” unseasoned oak for, 289

Wallis’ experiments with beetles, 276

Walnut juice for worms, 263

Warburton’s (H.) opinion of American oak, 40

Warping of boards, 66, 67

Water in wood, 39, 67, 180

” in church, 29

” glass to preserve piles, 226

Watson’s (Dr.) experiments with wood, 67

Westwood’s (Prof.) report on wood beetles, 262

Wet rot, how caused, 14, 28

Wimpole, carvings at, 273

Wood bond decays, 175, 176

” progress of decay in, 19

” (Rev. J.), on worms and ants, 211, 265

Woods best when not painted, 189

” experiments with, 46, 58, 67

” french polished, 192

” white, improved by water seasoning, 72

” which resist beetles, 273

” ” sea-worms, 223

” ” white ants, 249

Woodcutters, 55

” tricks of Indian, 11

” tricks, of, in Ceylon, 114

Woody fibre, formation of, 2, 7

Worms, sea, 203

” how to prevent in wood, 285

Wren (Sir C.), 23, 98, 221, 271

Zinc, chloride of--_see_ Burnett’s Process

” sulphate of, 122

” white oxide of, 226

” and other substances, 165

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