Chapter 4

[Sidenote: Enumeraciõ of the causes.] Hitherto also apperteineth, wh[en] we expo[un]d a thyng not barely, but repete the causes also sumwhat before, and of what begynnynges it came of. As if not contente to haue sayd, that the Frenchmen made bataile with the Neapolitans, we rehearse also what wer the causes of theyr stryfe, who was the setter forward, and what was the occasion of the warre, what hope and truste eyther of them had to the victorye. Of these ar many examples in Saluste & Liuie. [Sidenote: Enumeraciõ of effectes, & consequ[en]tes.] From thys differeth not when we do not simplye shewe forthe the matter, but reherse also those thynges that eyther go with it, or folowe it, as thus: We thanke the of thys warre. Thus maye you dilate the matter. The treasure spente vpon the Barbariens, the youthe broken wyth laboures, the corne troden downe, the catel driuen awaye, stretes and vyllages euery where set on fyre, fieldes lefte desolate, walles ouerthrowen, houses robbed, temples spoyled, so many olde men chylderles, so manye orphanes, so manye wyddowes, so many virgins shamefully defiled, y^e maners of so many yong m[en] made worse by leude liberty, so many m[en] slayne, so great mourning, so many good artes loste, lawes oppressed, religion blotted, al thynges of god and man confounded, all good order of the citie corrupted: I say all this heape of myschiefs that riseth of war, we mai thãke the only of it, which wast y^e beginner of this war

[Sidenote: Energia.] _Enargia_, euidence or perspicuitie called also descripcion rethoricall, is when a thynge is so described that it semeth to the reader or hearer y^t he beholdeth it as it were in doyng. Of thys figure ben many kyndes.

The fyrste, called effiguracion or descripcion of a thynge, whereby the figure and forme of it is set out: as of the vniuersall flud.

The seconde, the descripcion of a personne, when a man is described, as are the noble menne in Plutarch, and the Emperours in Suetonius. Howe be it the rethoricianes vse thys worde _Prosopopeia_, that is descripcion of a personne to comprehende the sixe kyndes folowinge.

[Sidenote: Charactirismus.] The thyrde kinde is called _Charactirismus_, that is the efficcion or pycture of the bodye or mynde, as Dauus describeth Crito, & Mitio describeth Demea.

[Sidenote: Prosopographia.] The .iiii. is the fainyng of a persõ called _Prosopographia_, and is of .ii. sorts. Fyrst y^e descripciõ of a fained person, as Vyrgyl in the syxt of Eneid, faineth Sibil to be mad, & fayneth the persons in hell. An other forme is wh[en] we fayne persõ, cõmunicacion, or affecte of a man or of a beaste, to a dumme thynge, or that hath no bodye, or to a dead man: as to the Harpies, furies, deuils, slepe hongar, enuie, fame, vertue, iustice, and suche lyke, the poetes fayne a person, and communicacion. This seconde fashion the Poetes do call _Prosopopey_. [Sidenote: Aetopeia.] The fyrst kind is called _AEtopeia_, that is an expressiõ of maners or mylde affeccions, and hath thre kyndes: of the whych the fyrst is a significacion or expression of maners somewhat longer, as of wittes, artes, vertues, vices. Thus we expresse Thraso a boaster, and Demea a sowre felowe.

The seconde forme, is an expression of naturall propensitie, and inclinacions to naturall affeccions, as of the fathers loue toward the chyldren .&c. of fryendshyppe, neyghbourhod & cetr. as you maye se in hystoryes.

¶ The thyrd kynde is the expression of lighter affeccions, as when wee go about by fayre meanes to gette the mery affeccions of menne to vs ward or to other, & when the mynd is lyft vp into hope, myrth, & laughter, and as be louyng salutations, promises, & cõmunynges together in familiar epistles and dialogues, and the getting of loue and fauour in the begynnynges, and finallye thys figure doth teach, that Rethorique is a part of flattery. [Sidenote: Pathopeia.] The sixt kynde of rethoricall descripcion is _Pathopeia_, that is expressyng of vehement affeccions and perturbacions, of y^e whych ther be two sortes. The fyrste called _Donysis_, or intencion, and some call it imaginacion, wherby feare, anger, madnes, hatered, enuye, and lyke other perturbacions of mynde is shewed and described, as in Ciceros inuectiues. Another forme is called _Oictros_, or cõmiseracion, wherby teares be pyked out, or pyty is moued, or forgeuenes, as in Ciceros peroraciõs, and complaintes in Poets: And to be shorte ther is gotten no greater admiracion or commendacion of eloquence then of these two, _AEtopeia_, and _Pathopeia_, if they be vsed in place. [Sidenote: dialogismus] The .vii. kind is _Dialogismus_ whych is how often a short or long communicacion is fayned to a person, accordyng to the comelines of it. Such be the concious in Liuie, & other historians. [Sidenote: Mimisis.] The .viii. kynd is called _Mimisis_, that is folowing eyther of the wordes or manoures whereby we expresse not onlye the wordes of the person, but also the gesture: and these foresayd sixe kindes Quintiliane dothe put vnder _Prosopopeia_. The .ix. kynde is the descripcion of a place, as of Carthage in the fyrst of Eneid. Referre hither Cosmographie and Geographie. The .x. kynd is called _Topotesia_, that is ficcion of a place, when a place is described such one peraduenture as is not, as of the fieldes called Elisii in Virgil: refer hither _Astrothesiam_, that is the descripciõ of starres. The .xi. kinde is _Chronographia_, that is the descripcion of the tyme, as of nyght, daye, and the foure tymes of the yere.

[Sidenote: Amplificacio] A greate parte of eloquence is set in increasing and diminyshing, and serueth for thys purpose, that the thyng shulde seme as great as it is in dede, lesser or greater then it seemeth to manye. For the rude people haue commonly a preposterous iudgem[en]t, and take the worst thynges for the beste, and the beste for the worst. Al amplificacion and diminucion is taken eyther of thinges, or of wordes. Of thynges ryse effeccions, of words those fashions that nowe I wyll shewe. The first waye of increasyng or diminishing is by chaungynge the worde of the thynge, when in encreasynge we vse a more cruell worde, and a softer in diminyshynge, as when we call an euyll man a thiefe, and saye he hathe kylled vs, when he hathe beaten vs. And it is more vehem[en]te if by correccion we compare greater wordes wyth those that we put before: As thou haste broughte not a thyefe, but an extorcioner, not an adulterer, but a rauysher. &c. ¶ Lyke vnto this is _Hyperbole_, whyche say the more then the truthe is in deede, as when we saye: The crye was hearde to heauen, meanyng it was a greate crye. An other kynde is by increase, whyche is when the thynges goyng before beynge exaggerate, we come from them to the hyeste: As agaynste Verres. It is a myscheuous deede to bynde a Citizen of Rome, haynous to beate hym, what? shall I saye to hange hym? An other waye of increase is, when wythoute distinccion in the context and course of the oracion, the circumstaunces sette in order, somewhat alwayes is added bygger then the fyrste, and that we come to the hyest by a swyfte pace. As he was not ashamed to playe at dyce wyth iesters in the common cokerye, beynge a prieste, a Person, a Diuine, and a Monke. There is another kynde of amplyfienge that is by comparison contrary to increase. For as in increase the thynges that go before beyng exaggerat, we go from them to the hyest, so comparison taketh increase of the lesser, whych if they be greater in all mens opinions, that must nedes appeare verie greate that we wyll haue amplified: And comparison is made by ficcion, & by puttynge to an example. By ficcion, eyther in one degree, or in many. As in the fyrst part of the amplifiyng of Antonies vomite, for he fayneth it had happened vnto hym at supper beyng but a priuate person. If at supper in these great bowles of thine thys happened vnto thee, who wolde not haue counted it a shame: But now in y^e syght of the people of Rome beynge a cõmon officer, master of the horse, to whom it was shame once to belch, he wyth hys gobbets of meat that stanke al of wyne, fylled al his lap, and the iudgement seate. Here amplificacion is taken of smaller thinges, and is made by one degree of many degrees, this maye be an example. If a mã gaue the euery yere .xl. po[un]d, woldest y^u not thanke him? If a friend had redemed the out of prison w^t hys money, woldest thou not loue hym? If eyther in battell or shypwracke a man by hys valiantnes had saued the, woldest thou not worshyp hym as God, and saye thou were neuer able to make hym amendes? What ingratitude is it then that Christ God & man, which hathe made the, to whom thou dost owe al that thou hast, &c. so to dispyse hym, so wyth dayely fautes to anger him, & for so great beniuol[en]ce to geue hym agayn so great contumelye and despyte? Neyther skylleth it that we haue rehearsed ficcion and comparicion amonge argumentes, for there is no cause why that amplificacion and oruacion shuld not be taken out of the same places from whence ther commeth probacion. Nor it is no newes the selfe same thynges to be applyed to diuerse vses. As of all circumstaunces both of the thyng, and of the person are taken argumentes, but euen oute of the selfe same are set affeccions and exaggeracions, whych is manifest in the kynde demonstratiue: As when we prayse chastitie in a yonge man, we go not aboute to perswade that he was chaste, but that that vertue shulde appeare greater in floryshyng age. To lyke vse serue examples and similitudes, as in Esaye: The Oxe knewe hys owner, and the Asse the maunger of hys master, but Israel hathe not knowen me. The example of the Oxe & the Asse is not vsed for this to proue that the Hebrewes dyd not knowe their God, but that the impietie and folishnes of that nacion shulde be amplified. The same may be applied to profe after thys maner. If the Oxe and Asse knowledge theyr masters, of whõ they are norished and do serue them, how much more conueniente is it, that mã shuld knowledge hys maker and norisher, and serue him bothe in bodye and mynd. Contrarye, when Paul sayth: no man serueth in warre on his owne wages, he proueth by similitudes, that it is not comelye, that they that war vnder the gospell, shulde be compelled to be carefull for their liuynge. He shuld haue applied it to amplifiyng, if he had propouned it thus. They that serue vnder a capteine be not careful for their liuyng, but lokinge for the sustenaunce of their capteine, only studye for thys to do hym faythful seruice, howe muche more shame is it that some menne that haue promised to fyght vnder Christ in the gospel, to distrust such a capteyne, and studye all they can to gather riches. Cõparison by puttyng to example is, wh[en] by setting out as it were a lyke example, wee brynge to passe that that we exaggerate may be thought either very lyke, eyther equal, either bygger. ¶ And in this kynd both the whole is cõpared to the whole, & the partes to partes: as in the oracion of Cicero for Milo. Did I pray you y^t noble mã Scipio being a priuat persõ kil Tiberius Gracchus whych shaked the cõmõ wealthe but a lytle, & shall wee beynge consulles suffer Catiline, that gothe aboute to wast the whole worlde wyth murther and fyre? Here both Catiline is compared to Gracchus, and the estate of the common wealthe to the whole world, & a lytle shakyng to slaughter, fyer and wastyng, and a priuate person to the consuls. ¶ Ther is an amplificacion also wh[en] contraries be set together, wherby bothe the partes seme bygger, and more euidente. As when exhorting men to liberalitie, we shewe howe foule a faute couetousenes is, that the foulnes of the faute being exaggerate, the goodlines of the vertue shulde be more encreased. There is another kynd of amplifiyng called reasonynge, when of those thinges that eyther folowe or go before, the hearer doth gather how great that thynge is that we wolde to be amplified. By thynges that go before, as when Homer armeth Achylles, or Hector to batayle, by the greate preparacion, we gather how sore y^e sight shal be. Of thinges y^t folowe: How much wyne Antony dranke, when y^t hauyng such a strong body he was not able to digeste it, but spewed it vp the nexte daye after. Of thynges ioyned to: as wh[en] Maro sayeth to Poliphemus: He had the bodye of a pineapple tree for a staffe in hys hande. Manye other kyndes ben there of amplifiynge, which who so wyl se more at large, may read that right excellent boke of the famouse doctor Erasmus, whych he intituled the preacher.

The inuencion of many proposicions is, when the chyefe state or principal proposion of the cause is declared and proued by manye other proposicions and argum[en]tes, so set in iuste order that there be no confusion of proposions. And proposicions be taken partely of those that be cõmon, and partly of those thynges that belonge properlye to the cause: As if a man wolde counsell Tullye not to take the condicion offered of Antony, that is, that by burnynge of hys bookes called philippia, he shulde haue hys lyfe, hy myght vse commonly these proposicions. Fyrste y^t no man oughte to by his life so dere, that therby he shulde lose hys immortall name. ¶ To thys generall may serue a perticuler taken oute of circumstaunces, that it oughte not to be done, inespecialy of Cicero, whych by so many laboures hathe gotten vnto hym selfe an excellente and euerlastyng name, and that hath shewed moste eloquently by putting out so manye noble workes that deathe ought to be despised, inespeciallye seynge that now he hath not much tyme to lyue beynge an olde man. ¶ Agayn, another principall proposicion shall be taken of the circ[um]sta[un]ces. That nothynge is worse, then that Cicero beyng a very good mã shulde owe his lyfe to Antonye the worst man of the world. The third proposicion shal be cõiectural: how that Antony craftely goeth about that the bookes beynge burned, in the whych he perceiueth bothe hys owne immortal infamye to be, and the immortal glory of Cicero, wh[en] he hath afterwardes taken awaye hys lyfe, he maye vtterlye extinguyshe Cicero.

¶ A copious heaping of probacions.

[Sidenote: Proues.] So when proposicions be found, remaineth argum[en]taciõ or proues, called in Greke _Pistis_, because they make suretye of a doutefull thyng. [Sidenote: Two sortes of proues.] Of proues some be artificiall, some vnartificial. Vnartificial be, foreiudgementes, rumoures, tormentes, tabelles, othe, wytnesses, diuinacion, oracles. [Sidenote: Signes be referred to proues vnartificial, & why?] To these be referred whych the Greekes cal _Symeia_ or sygnes: For they also commonlye are not set by the wytte of hym that disputeth, but are ministred otherwyse. [Sidenote: Signes wherfore.] They be called signes properlye, whyche rysynge of the thynge it selfe that is in question come vnder the sences of menne, [Sidenote: Signes be referred to tyme.] as threatninges, whych be of the time that is paste, cryinge herde oute of a place, whyche is of the tyme presente, palenesse of hym whyche is axed of the murther, whyche is of the tyme folowynge, or that bloud leapte oute of the bodye latelye slayne, when he came that dyd the murther. [Sidenote: Two maner of signes.] Also of signes some bee necessary, as that he liueth whiche dothe breathe, and some probable, as bloude in the garmente, whych myghte also come oute of the nose, or otherwyse. [Sidenote: Proues tak[en] oute of circ[um]stauces.] Also proues and argumentes are taken oute of circ[um]staunces, partly of the person, partlye of the cause or thyng it self, and be called also of the Rethoricians places, neyther cleane contrarie to those that Aristotle hath taughte, neyther the very same: for some agree wyth them, some be all one, and some diuerse. [Sidenote: How proues of circ[um]sta[un]ces differ frõ Aristotels places.] Onlye differeth the manour of teachynge, because the Rethoricianes do teache a patrone, the philosopher generally helpeth iudgement. [Sidenote: Circ[um]stãces of person.] Circumstaunces of the person ben these. Kinred, nacion, contrey, kynde, age, bryngynge vp, or discipline, hauioure of the body, fortune, condicion, nature of the mynde, studies, affectacion, wordes forespoken, & deedes done before, commocion, counsell, name. [Sidenote: Kynred.] Kynred monisheth vs to cõsider of what progeny a man dothe come. For it is semely, and happeneth cõmonlye that the sonnes be lyke the forefathers, and thereof procedeth causes to lyue well or euyll: [Sidenote: Nacion] Naciõ sheweth what disposicion and maners euery nacion hath peculiarly of theyr owne. [Sidenote: Kynd.] The difference of kynde is knowen to euerye man: [Sidenote: Age.] To diuerse ages diuerse thyngs be conueniente. [Sidenote: Educacion.] It skylleth more by whom, and by what wayes men be brought vp, then of whom they be begotten. [Sidenote: Hauiour of the bodie.] The hauioure of the bodye comprehendeth fayrnes or foulnes, strength or weaknes: For more credible is the accusacion of lecherye in a fayre body then in a foule, and violence more probable in the strong, then in the weake. [Sidenote: Fortune] Fortune perteineth to ryches, kynred, friendes, seruitures, dignities, honours. [Sidenote: Condicion.] Condicion comprehendeth manye thynges: as whether he be noble or not noble, an officer, or a priuate person, a father or a sonne, a citizen or a straunger, a fre man, or a seruaunt, a maried manne, or a single man, a father or none, hauinge had but one wyfe, or two. [Sidenote: The nature of the mynd] The nature of the mynde hath manifold varieties in men. Some be fearful, some strong, some gentle, some vehem[en]t, chaste, lecherous, glorious, modeste &c. [Sidenote: Studies] Studies, for other be the maners of the rustical, then of the lawyer, of the marchaunte, then of the Soldier, of the shipman then of the phisicion. [Sidenote: Affectacion.] To these they adde affectacion: For it skylleth muche what maner man euerye one wolde seme to be, whether he be y^e same or not: as ryche, or eloquent, iuste or mightie, mery or sad, a fauorer of the people, or of the great men. [Sidenote: Wordes spoken, & deedes done before] Both wordes that be spoken before time, and dedes that be done, be also considered. For of thynges that be paste, the present be estemed, & also thinges that be to come. [Sidenote: Commocion] Cõmocion in thys differeth from the nature of the mynde, because that one is perpetuall, that other for a whyle: as anger is commocion, rancour the nature of the mynde, and feare a cõmocion, fearefulnesse nature.

¶ [Sidenote: Name.] To these they adde the name of the person, of whence many tymes an argument is tak[en]: as Cicero iesteth muche vpon Verres, or sweepers name, because beyng a strong thief, he swepte altogether. Thus haue we shewed that much matter may be taken of thynges belongyng to a personne, so maye be also of those that belonge to a thynge or cause, whiche places bee so handeled of Quintiliane, that he myngleth th[em] wyth the places whyche Aristotle hathe comprehended in hys eyghte bookes of Topyckes. [Sidenote: Circ[um]staunces of things be these.] Circumstances of the thynges be these: Cause, place, tyme, chaunce, facultie, instrumente, manour. And fyrste of euerye thinge there be foure causes, efficient, materiall, formall and finall. Matter is the receptacle of al formes. The forme causeth it to be thys, and not another thynge: as the reasonable soule geueth to the body that it is a man, and the soule because it is a substaunce hathe her vnnamed forme, whereby she is a soule, and not an aungel. [Sidenote: Fine or ende.] And what soeuer is made, is made to a certen ende, and one thynge maye haue diuerse endes: as nature hathe geuen brestes vnto women to geue milke, and also for comlynesse of theyr bodies, neyther doth any man that is of a sounde mynde take vpon hym anye businesse, but for that he desyreth to haue some thynge: nor there is nothynge desyred, but vnder the consideracion of good or profite. ¶ So the ende whyche is laste in effecte, and fyrste in intencion, loketh vpon the gettinge of profites, increase, and cõfirmacion of them, and also vpon them, eschuynge of disprofites, diminyshynge, or puttyng them awaye. But in chosyng them, false perswacion deceyueth manye, whylest by errour they beleue that to be good y^t is naughte. ¶ This place therfore serueth for many thynges, to make more or lesse. ¶ Greatly happy shulde men be, if euerye man wolde looke vpon the marke, not the whych desyre hathe sette before hym, but whyche God and honest reason hath prefixed. ¶ And of such strengthe is the ende, that hereof is taken the felicitie of euery thyng. To fast that the body maye obeye the mynde, to do good workes is an holy deede. To fast to be counted holye, is hypocrisie. To faste to encrease thy good, is couetousenesse. To faste to be whole in thy bodie is phisycke, and so of praiynge, almose, and other laudable workes. After lyke maner must be wayed the secondarie endes. [Sidenote: Place.] An other circumstaunce of a thynge, is the place, whose qualitie oftentimes maketh the faute either greter or lesser: as to steale an holye thing out of an holy place, is worse then some other kynde of theft. [Sidenote: Tyme.] No lesse matter of argumentacion ministreth the qualitie of time, which signifieth two thynges. [Sidenote: Time hathe two significacions.] Fyrst it is taken playnly for the time present, past, or to come: Seconde it signifieth oportunitie to do a thynge, and so when a man cometh as we wold haue it, we saye he cometh in time. And in the seuenth of Ihon, when Christ sayth: My tyme is not yet come, tyme is taken for oportunitie of tyme. And lykewyse in the syxt to the Galat. Therfore whyle we haue tyme. &c. [Sidenote: Chaunce.] The Rethoricianes put chaunce vnder tyme, because the ende of a thynge perteyneth to the time that foloweth: but of thys wyll we speke in the place called Euent. Facultie is a power to do the thynge that is taken in hand: and in coniectures two thinges speciallye be considered: whether he could or wold. Wyll is gathered of hope to performe it, and is made more probable wh[en] the nature of the mynde is ioyned to it: as it is not like he wyl abide in his glorye, because he is enuious and ambicious. Also when we counsell one to leaue of vayne mournynge, when it is not in his power to get agayne that is gone.