Chapter 3

Oriental Architecture--India, China, and Japan 401

Appendix 417

Glossary 429

Index of Architects 431

Index 435

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

The authorship of the original drawings is indicated by the initials affixed: A. = drawings by the author; B. = H. W. Buemming; Bn. = H. D. Bultman; Ch. = Château, _L’Architecture en France_; G. = drawings adapted from Gwilt’s _Encyclopædia of Architecture_; L. = Lübke’s _Geschichte der Architektur_; W. = A. E. Weidinger. All other illustrations are from photographs.

PAGE

FRONTISPIECE. The Parthenon Restored (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 1 Section of Great Pyramid (A.) 8 2 Section of King’s Chamber (A.) 9 3 Plan of Sphinx Temple (A.) 9 4 Ruins of Sphinx Temple (A.) 10 5 Tomb at Abydos (A.) 11 6 Tomb at Beni-Hassan (A.) 11 7 Section and Half-plan of same (A.) 12 8 Plan of the Ramesseum (A.) 14 9 Temple of Edfou. Plan (B.) 17 10 Temple of Edfou. Section (B.) 17 11 Temple of Karnak. Plan (L.) 18 12 Central Portion of Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 20 13 Great Temple of Ipsamboul 21 14 Edfou. Front of Hypostyle Hall 23 15 Osirid Pier (Medinet Abou) (A.) 24 16 Types of Column (A.) 25 17 Egyptian Floral Ornament-Forms (A.) 26 18 Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad. Plan (L.) 30 19 Gate, Khorsabad (A.) 32 20 Assyrian Ornament (A.) 34 21 Column from Persepolis (B.) 37 22 Lion Gate at Mycenæ (A.) 44 23 Polygonal Masonry, Mycenæ (A.) 45 24 Tholos of Atreus; Plan and Section (A.) 46 25 Tholos of Atreus, Doorway (after Clarke) (A.) 46 26 Greek Doric Order (A.) 48 27 Doric Order of the Parthenon. (From cast in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 49 28 Greek Ionic Order, Miletus (A.) 51 29 Side View of Ionic Capital (B.) 52 30 Greek Corinthian Order (A.) 53 31 Types of Greek Temple Plans (A.) 54 32 Carved Anthemion Ornament, Athens 57 33 Temple of Zeus, Agrigentum; Plan (A.) 61 34 Ruins of the Parthenon 63 35 Plan of the Erechtheum (A.) 64 36 West End of the Erechtheum (A.) 64 37 Propylæa at Athens. Plan (G.) 65 38 Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 67 39 Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens. Plan (A.) 68 40 Plan of Greek Theatre (A.) 70 41 Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (A.) 72 42 Roman Doric Order from Theatre of Marcellus. (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 77 43 Roman Ionic Order (A.) 78 44 Roman Corinthian Order. (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 79 45 Roman Arcade with Engaged Columns (A.) 80 46 Barrel Vault (A.) 81 47 Groined Vault (A.) 81 48 Roman Wall Masonry (B.) 83 49 Roman Carved Ornament. (Lateran Museum) 85 50 Roman Ceiling Panels (A.) 86 51 Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Plan 89 52 Circular Temple, Tivoli (A.) 90 53 Temple of Venus and Rome. Plan (A.) 93 54 Plan of the Pantheon (B.) 94 55 Interior of the Pantheon 95 56 Exterior of the Pantheon. (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 96 57 Forum and Basilica of Trajan (A.) 97 58 Basilica of Constantine. Plan (G.) 98 59 Ruins of Basilica of Constantine 99 60 Central Block, Thermæ of Caracalla. Plan (G.) 100 61 Roman Theatre, Herculanum 101 62 Colosseum at Rome. Half Plan (A.) 102 63 Arch of Constantine. (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 104 64 Palace of Diocletian, Spalato. Plan (G.) 106 65 Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii (A.) 107 66 Plan of Santa Costanza, Rome (A.) 111 67 Plan of the Basilica of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, Rome (A.) 113 68 St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls. Interior 114 69 Church at Kalb Louzeh (A.) 116 70 Cathedral at Bozrah. Plan (A.) 117 71 Diagram of Pendentives (A.) 123 72 Spandril, Hagia Sophia 125 73 Capital with Impost Block, S. Vitale 126 74 Plan of St. Sergius, Constantinople (A.) 127 75 Plan of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (A.) 128 76 Section of Hagia Sophia (A.) 128 77 Interior of Hagia Sophia (full page) 129 78 Plan of St. Mark’s, Venice (A.) 132 79 Interior of St. Mark’s 133 80 Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo. Sanctuary 137 81 Mosque of Kaîd Bey, Cairo 139 82 Moorish Detail, Alhambra 141 83 Interior of Great Mosque, Cordova 142 84 Plan of the Alhambra (A.) 144 85 Tomb of Mahmûd, Bijapur. Section (A.) 147 86 The Taj Mahal, Agra 149 87 Mosque of Mehmet II., Constantinople. Plan (L.) 151 88 Exterior of Ahmediyeh Mosque, Constantinople 152 89 Interior of Suleimaniyeh Mosque, Constantinople 153 90 Interior of San Ambrogio, Milan 157 91 West Front and Campanile, Cathedral of Piacenza 158 92 Baptistery, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower, Pisa 160 93 Interior of Pisa Cathedral 161 94 Plan of St. Front, Perigueux (G.) 164 95 Interior of St. Front (L.) 165 96 Plan of Notre Dame du Port, Clermont (Ch.) 166 97 Section of same (Ch.) 166 98 A Six-part Ribbed Vault (A.) 167 99 Plan of Minster at Worms (G.) 173 100 One Bay, Cathedral of Spires (L.) 174 101 East End, Church of the Apostles, Cologne 175 102 Plan of Durham Cathedral (Bn.) 177 103 One Bay, Transept of Winchester Cathedral (G.) 178 104 Front of Iffley Church (A.) 179 105 Constructive System of Gothic Church (A.) 183 106 Plan of Sainte Chapelle, Paris (Bn.) 184 107 Early Gothic Flying Buttress (Bn.) 185 108 Ribbed Vault, English Type (Bn. after Babcock) 186 109 Penetrations and Intersections of Vaults (Bn.) 187 110 Plate Tracery, Charlton-on-Oxmore 188 111 Bar Tracery, St. Michael’s, Warfield (W.) 189 112 Rose Window from St. Ouen, Rouen (G.) 190 113 Flamboyant Detail, Strasburg 191 114 Early Gothic Carving (A.) 192 115 Carving, Decorated Period, from Southwell Minster 193 116 Plan of Notre Dame, Paris (L.) 198 117 Interior of Notre Dame 199 118 Interior of Le Mans Cathedral 200 119 Vaulting with Zigzag Ridge Joints (A.) 201 120 One Bay, Abbey of St. Denis (G.) 203 121 The Sainte Chapelle, Paris. Exterior 204 122 Amiens Cathedral; Plan (G.) 205 123 Alby Cathedral. Plan (A. after Lübke) 206 124 West Front of Notre Dame, Paris 207 125 West Front of St. Maclou, Rouen 208 126 French Gothic Capitals (A.) 210 127 House of Jacques Cœur, Bourges (L.) 215 128 Plan of Salisbury Cathedral (Bn.) 219 129 Ribbed Vaulting, Choir of Exeter Cathedral 221 130 Lierne Vaulting, Tewkesbury Abbey 222 131 Vault of Chapter House, Wells 223 132 Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral 225 133 Perpendicular Tracery, St. George’s, Windsor 226 134 West Front, Lichfield Cathedral 228 135 One Bay of Choir, Lichfield Cathedral (A.) 229 136 Fan Vaulting, Henry VII.’s Chapel 231 137 Eastern Part, Westminster Abbey. Plan (L.) 232 138 Roof of Nave, St. Mary’s, Westonzoyland (W.) 233 139 One Bay, Cathedral of St. George, Limburg (L.) 239 140 Section of St. Elizabeth, Marburg (Bn.) 240 141 Cologne Cathedral, Plan (G.) 242 142 Church of Our Lady, Treves (L.) 243 143 Plan of Ulm Cathedral (L.) 244 144 Town Hall, Louvain 247 145 Façade of Burgos Cathedral 249 146 Detail from S. Gregorio, Valladolid 251 147 Duomo at Florence, Plan (G.) 256 148 Duomo at Florence, Nave 257 149 One Bay, Cathedral of S. Martino, Lucca (L.) 258 150 Interior of Sienna Cathedral 259 151 Façade of Sienna Cathedral 261 152 Exterior of the Certosa, Pavia 262 153 Plan of the Certosa, Pavia 263 154 Upper Part of Campanile, Florence 265 155 Upper Part of Palazzo Vecchio, Florence 266 156 Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence 267 157 West Front of Doge’s Palace, Venice 268 158 Capital, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice 275 159 Section of Dome, Duomo of Florence (Bn.) 276 160 Exterior of Dome, Duomo of Florence 277 161 Interior of S. Spirito, Florence 278 162 Court of Riccardi Palace, Florence 279 163 Façade of Strozzi Palace, Florence 280 164 Tomb of Pietro di Noceto, Lucca 282 165 Vendramini Palace, Venice 285 166 Façade of Giraud Palace, Rome (L.) 290 167 Plan of Farnese Palace, Rome (L.) 292 168 Court of Farnese Palace, Rome 293 169 Bramante’s Plan for St. Peter’s, Rome (L.) 294 170 Plan of St. Peter’s, Rome, as now standing (Bn. after G.) 295 171 Interior of St. Peter’s (full page) 297 172 Library of St. Mark, Venice 301 173 Interior of San Severo, Naples 302 174 Church of Santa Maria della Salute, Naples 303 175 Court Façade, East Wing of Blois 311 176 Staircase Tower, Blois 313 177 Plan of Château of Chambord (A.) 314 178 Upper Part of Château of Chambord 314 179 Detail of Court of Louvre, southwest portion 315 180 The Luxemburg Palace, Paris 318 181 Colonnade of the Louvre 321 182 Dome of the Invalides, Paris 322 183 Façade of St. Sulpice, Paris 323 184 Burghley House 327 185 Whitehall Palace. The Banqueting Hall 329 186 Plan of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London (G.) 330 187 Exterior of St. Paul’s Cathedral 331 188 Plan of Blenheim (G.) 332 189 St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London 333 190 Renaissance Houses, Brussels 335 191 The Castle, Hämelschenburg 341 192 The Friedrichsbau, Heidelberg Castle 344 193 Pavilion of Zwinger Palace, Dresden 345 194 Marienkirche, Dresden 346 195 Portal of University, Salamanca 349 196 Court (Patio) of Casa de Zaporta 350 197 Palace of Charles V., Granada 351 198 Façade of British Museum, London 357 199 St. George’s Hall, Liverpool 358 200 The Old Museum, Berlin 359 201 The Propylæa, Munich 360 202 Plan of the Panthéon, Paris (G.) 361 203 Exterior of the Panthéon 362 204 Arch of Triumph of l’Étoile, Paris 363 205 The Madeleine, Paris 364 206 Door of École des Beaux-Arts, Paris 365 207 St. Isaac’s Cathedral, St. Petersburg 366 208 Plan of Louvre and Tuileries (A.) 371 209 Pavilion Richelieu, Louvre 372 210 Grand Staircase, Paris Opera House 373 211 Fountain of Longchamps, Marseilles 374 212 Galliéra Museum, Paris 375 213 Royal Theatre, Dresden 376 214 Maria-Theresienhof, Vienna 377 215 Houses of Parliament, London 379 216 Assize Courts, Manchester 380 217 Natural History Museum, South Kensington 381 218 Christ Church, Philadelphia 386 219 Craigie House, Cambridge (Mass.) 387 220 National Capitol, Washington 389 221 Custom House, New York 390 222 Trinity Church, Boston 394 223 Public Library, Woburn (Mass.) 395 224 Times Building, New York 396 225 Country House (Mass.) 398 226 Porch of Temple of Vimalah Sah, Mount Abu. 406 227 Tower of Victory, Chittore 407 228 Double Temple at Hullabîd: Detail 410 229 Shrine of Soubramanya, Tanjore 412

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

(This includes the leading architectural works treating of more than one period or style. The reader should consult also the special references at the head of each chapter. Valuable material is also contained in the leading architectural periodicals and in monographs too numerous to mention.)

DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS.

Agincourt, _History of Art by its Monuments_; London.

Architectural Publication Society, _Dictionary of Architecture_; London.

Bosc, _Dictionnaire raisonné d’architecture_; Paris.

Durm and others, _Handbuch der Architektur_; Stuttgart. (This is an encyclopedic compendium of architectural knowledge in many volumes; the series not yet complete. It is referred to as the _Hdbuch. d. Arch._)

Gwilt, _Encyclopedia of Architecture_; London.

Longfellow and Frothingham, _Cyclopedia of Architecture in Italy and the Levant_; New York.

Planat, _Encyclopédie d’architecture_; Paris.

Sturgis, _Dictionary of Architecture and Building_; New York.

GENERAL HANDBOOKS AND HISTORIES.

Bühlmann, _Die Architektur des klassischen Alterthums und der Renaissance_; Stuttgart. (Also in English, published in New York.)

Choisy, _Histoire de l’architecture_; Paris.

Durand, _Recueil et parallèle d’édifices de tous genres_; Paris.

Fergusson, _History of Architecture in All Countries_; London.

Fletcher and Fletcher, _A History of Architecture_; London.

Gailhabaud, _L’Architecture du Vme. au XVIIIme. siècle_; Paris.--_Monuments anciens et modernes_; Paris.

Kugler, _Geschichte der Baukunst_; Stuttgart.

Longfellow, _The Column and the Arch_; New York.

Lübke, _Geschichte der Architektur_; Leipzig.--_History of Art_, tr. and rev. by R. Sturgis; New York.

Perry, _Chronology of Mediæval and Renaissance Architecture_; London.

Reynaud, _Traité d’architecture_; Paris.

Rosengarten, _Handbook of Architectural Styles_; London and New York.

Simpson, _A History of Architectural Development_; London.

Spiers, _Architecture East and West_; London.

Stratham, _Architecture for General Readers_; London.

Sturgis, _European Architecture_; New York.

_Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects_; London.

Viollet-le-Duc, _Discourses on Architecture_; Boston.

THEORY, THE ORDERS, ETC.

Chambers, _A Treatise on Civil Architecture_; London.

Daviler, _Cours d’architecture de Vignole_; Paris.

Esquié, _Traité élémentaire d’architecture_; Paris.

Guadet, _Théorie de l’architecture_; Paris.

Robinson, _Principles of Architectural Composition_; New York.

Ruskin, _The Seven Lamps of Architecture_; London.

Sturgis, _How to Judge Architecture_; New York.

Tuckerman, _Vignola, the Five Orders of Architecture_; New York.

Van Brunt, _Greek Lines and Other Essays_; Boston.

Van Pelt, _A Discussion of Composition_.

Ware, _The American Vignola_; Scranton.

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.

INTRODUCTION.

A history of architecture is a record of man’s efforts to build beautifully. The erection of structures devoid of beauty is mere building, a trade and not an art. Edifices in which strength and stability alone are sought, and in designing which only utilitarian considerations have been followed, are properly works of engineering. Only when the idea of beauty is added to that of use does a structure take its place among works of architecture. We may, then, define architecture as the art which seeks to harmonize in a building the requirements of utility and of beauty. It is the most useful of the fine arts and the noblest of the useful arts. It touches the life of man at every point. It is concerned not only in sheltering his person and ministering to his comfort, but also in providing him with places for worship, amusement, and business; with tombs, memorials, embellishments for his cities, and other structures for the varied needs of a complex civilization. It engages the services of a larger portion of the community and involves greater outlays of money than any other occupation except agriculture. Everyone at some point comes in contact with the work of the architect, and from this universal contact architecture derives its significance as an index of the civilization of an age, a race, or a people.

It is the function of the historian of architecture to trace the origin, growth, and decline of the architectural styles which have prevailed in different lands and ages, and to show how they have reflected the great movements of civilization. The migrations, the conquests, the commercial, social, and religious changes among different peoples have all manifested themselves in the changes of their architecture, and it is the historian’s function to show this. It is also his function to explain the principles of the styles, their characteristic forms and decoration, and to describe the great masterpieces of each style and period.

+STYLE+ is a quality; the “historic styles” are phases of development. _Style_ is character expressive of definite conceptions, as of grandeur, gaiety, or solemnity. An _historic style_ is the particular phase, the characteristic manner of design, which prevails at a given time and place. It is not the result of mere accident or caprice, but of intellectual, moral, social, religious, and even political conditions. Gothic architecture could never have been invented by the Greeks, nor could the Egyptian styles have grown up in Italy. Each style is based upon some fundamental principle springing from its surrounding civilization, which undergoes successive developments until it either reaches perfection or its possibilities are exhausted, after which a period of decline usually sets in. This is followed either by a reaction and the introduction of some radically new principle leading to the evolution of a new style, or by the final decay and extinction of the civilization and its replacement by some younger and more virile element. Thus the history of architecture appears as a connected chain of causes and effects succeeding each other without break, each style growing out of that which preceded it, or springing out of the fecundating contact of a higher with a lower civilization. To study architectural styles is therefore to study a branch of the history of civilization.

Technically, architectural styles are identified by the means they employ to cover enclosed spaces, by the characteristic forms of the supports and other members (piers, columns, arches, mouldings, traceries, etc.), and by their decoration. The +plan+ should receive special attention, since it shows the arrangement of the points of support, and hence the nature of the structural design. A comparison, for example, of the plans of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (Fig. 11, h) and of the Basilica of Constantine (Fig. 58) shows at once a radical difference in constructive principle between the two edifices, and hence a difference of style.

+STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.+ All architecture is based on one or more of three fundamental structural principles; that of the _lintel_, of the _arch_ or _vault_, and of the _truss_. The principle of the +lintel+ is that of resistance to transverse strains, and appears in all construction in which a cross-piece or beam rests on two or more vertical supports. The +arch+ or +vault+ makes use of several pieces to span an opening between two supports. These pieces are in compression and exert lateral pressures or _thrusts_ which are transmitted to the supports or abutments. The thrust must be resisted either by the massiveness of the abutments or by the opposition to it of counter-thrusts from other arches or vaults. Roman builders used the first, Gothic builders the second of these means of resistance. The +truss+ is a framework so composed of several pieces of wood or metal that each shall best resist the particular strain, whether of tension or compression, to which it is subjected, the whole forming a compound beam or arch. It is especially applicable to very wide spans, and is the most characteristic feature of modern construction. How the adoption of one or another of these principles affected the forms and even the decoration of the various styles, will be shown in the succeeding chapters.

+HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.+ Geographically and chronologically, architecture appears to have originated in the Nile valley. A second centre of development is found in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, not uninfluenced by the older Egyptian art. Through various channels the Greeks inherited from both Egyptian and Assyrian art, the two influences being discernible even through the strongly original aspect of Greek architecture. The Romans in turn, adopting the external details of Greek architecture, transformed its substance by substituting the Etruscan arch for the Greek construction of columns and lintels. They developed a complete and original system of construction and decoration and spread it over the civilized world, which has never wholly outgrown or abandoned it.

With the fall of Rome and the rise of Constantinople these forms underwent in the East another transformation, called the Byzantine, in the development of Christian domical church architecture. In the North and West, meanwhile, under the growing institutions of the papacy and of the monastic orders and the emergence of a feudal civilization out of the chaos of the Dark Ages, the constant preoccupation of architecture was to evolve from the basilica type of church a vaulted structure, and to adorn it throughout with an appropriate dress of constructive and symbolic ornament. Gothic architecture was the outcome of this preoccupation, and it prevailed throughout northern and western Europe until nearly or quite the close of the fifteenth century.

During this fifteenth century the Renaissance style matured in Italy, where it speedily triumphed over Gothic fashions and produced a marvellous series of civic monuments, palaces, and churches, adorned with forms borrowed or imitated from classic Roman art. This influence spread through Europe in the sixteenth century, and ran a course of two centuries, after which a period of servile classicism was followed by a rapid decline in taste. To this succeeded the eclecticism and confusion of the nineteenth century, to which the rapid growth of new requirements and development of new resources have largely contributed.

In Eastern lands three great schools of architecture have grown up contemporaneously with the above phases of Western art; one under the influence of Mohammedan civilization, another in the Brahman and Buddhist architecture of India, and the third in China and Japan. The first of these is the richest and most important. Primarily inspired from Byzantine art, always stronger on the decorative than on the constructive side, it has given to the world the mosques and palaces of Northern Africa, Moorish Spain, Persia, Turkey, and India. The other two schools seem to be wholly unrelated to the first, and have no affinity with the architecture of Western lands.

Of Mexican, Central American, and South American architecture so little is known, and that little is so remote in history and spirit from the styles above enumerated, that it belongs rather to archæology than to architectural history, and will not be considered in this work.

NOTE.--The reader’s attention is called to the Appendix to this volume, in which are gathered some of the results of recent investigations and of the architectural progress of the last few years which could not readily be introduced into the text of this edition. The General Bibliography and the lists of books recommended have been revised and brought up to date.