Part 4

8th Phrase: When the quality of the Substantive is expressed by adding an Adjective to it: as, “a wise man;” “a black horse.” Participles have the nature of Adjectives; as, “a learned man;” “a loving father.”

9th Phrase: An Adjective with a Verb in the Infinitive Mode following it: as, “worthy to die;” “fit to be trusted.”

10th Phrase: When a circumstance is added to a Verb, or to an Adjective, by an Adverb: as, “you read well;” “he is very prudent.”

11th Phrase: When a circumstance is added to a Verb or an Adjective by a Substantive with a Preposition before it: as, “I write for you;” “he reads with care;” “studious of praise;” “ready for mischief.”

12th Phrase: When the same Quality in different Subjects is compared; the Adjective in the Positive having after it the Conjunction _as_, in the Comparative the Conjunction _than_, and in the Superlative the Preposition _of_: as, “white as snow;” “wiser than I;” “greatest of all.”

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The PRINCIPAL PARTS of a Simple Sentence are the Agent, the Attribute, and the Object. The Agent is the thing chiefly spoken of; the Attribute is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it; and the Object is the thing affected by such action.

In English the Nominative Case denoting the Agent, usually goes before the Verb, or Attribution, and the Objective Case, denoting the Object, follows the Verb; and it is the order that determines the cases in Nouns: as, “Alexander conquered the Persians.” But the Pronoun, having a proper form for each of those cases, sometimes when it is in the Objective Case is placed before the Verb, and when it is in the Nominative Case follows the Object and Verb: as, “Whom ye ignorantly worship, _him declare I_ unto you.” And the Nominative Case is sometimes placed after a Verb Neuter: as, “Upon thy right hand _did stand the Queen_:” “On a sudden _appeared the King_.” And frequently with the Adverbs _there_ and then: as, “There _was a man_:” “Then _came_ unto him _the Pharisees_.” The reason of it is plain: the Neuter Verb not admitting of an Objective Case after it, no ambiguity of case can arise from such a position of the Noun.

_Who_, _which_, _what_, and the Relative _that_, though in the Objective Case, are always placed before the Verb; as are also their Compounds, _whoever_, _whosoever_, &c: as, “He _whom_ you _seek_.” “This is _what_, or the thing _which_, or _that_, you _want_.” “_Whomsoever_ you please _to appoint_.”

When the Verb is a Passive, the Agent and Object change places in the Sentence; and the thing acted upon is in the Nominative Case, and the Agent is accompanied with a Preposition: as, “The Persians were conquered by Alexander.”

A Noun of Multitude[45], or signifying many; and two Nouns in the Singular Number, joined together by a Conjunction Copulative; have Verbs, Nouns, and Pronouns, agreeing with them in the Plural Number: as, “When the King’s trump, the _mob are_ for the King.” Dryden. “_Socrates and Plato were_ wise; _they were_ the most eminent _Philosophers_ of Greece.”

If the Singulars so joined together are of several Persons, in making the Plural Pronoun agree with them in Person, the second Person takes place of the third, and the first of both: “_He and You and I_ won it at the hazard of _our_ lives: _You and He_ shared it between _you_.”

The Verb _to Be_ has always a Nominative Case after it; as, “it _was I_, and not _He_, that did it:” unless it be in the Infinitive Mode; “though you took it _to be Him_[46].”

The Adverbs _when_, _while_, _after_, &c. being left out, the Phrase is formed with the Participle independently of the rest of the Sentence: as, “The doors being shut, Jesus stood in the midst.” This is called the Case Absolute. And the Case is in English always the Nominative: as,

“God from the mount of Sinai, whose gray top Shall tremble, _He descending_[47], will himself, In thunder, lightning, and loud trumpet’s sound, Ordain them laws.”

Milton, P. L. xii. 227.

_To_ before a Verb is the sign of the Infinitive Mode: but there are some few Verbs, which have other Verbs following them in the Infinitive Mode without the sign _to_: as, bid, dare, need, make, see, hear; and, let, have, not used as Auxiliaries: as, “I bade him do it; you dare not do it; I saw him[48] do it; I heard him say it.”

The Infinitive Mode has much of the nature of a Substantive, expressing the Action itself which the Verb signifies; as the Participle has the nature of an Adjective. Thus the Infinitive Mode does the office of a Substantive in different cases; in the Nominative; as, “_to play is_ pleasant:” in the Objective; as, “boys _love to play_.” In Greek it admits of the Article through all its cases, with the Preposition in the Oblique cases: in English the Article is not wanted, but the Preposition may be used: “For _to will is_ present with me; but _to perform_ that which is good I find not[49].” “All their works they do _for to be seen_ of men[50].”

“For not _to have been dip’d_ in Lethe’s lake Could save the Son of Thetis _from to die_.”

Spenser.

Perhaps therefore the Infinitive and the Participle might be more properly called the Substantive Mode and the Adjective Mode[51].

The Participle with a Preposition before it, and still retaining its Government, answers to what is called in Latin the Gerund: as, “Happiness is to be attained, by avoiding evil, and by doing good; by seeking peace, and by pursuing it.”

The Participle, with an Article before it, and the Preposition _of_ after it, becomes a Substantive, expressing the action itself which the Verb signifies[52]: as, “These are the Rules of Grammar, by _the observing of_ which you may avoid mistakes.” Or it may be expressed by the Participle, or Gerund; “by _observing_ which:” not, “by _observing of_ which;” nor, “by _the observing_ which:” for either of those two Phrases would be a confounding of two distinct forms.

I will add another example, and that of the best authority: “The middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously situated for _the gaining of_ wisdom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon _the supplying of_ our wants, and riches _upon enjoying our_ superfluities.” Addison, Spect. Nᵒ 464.

The Participle frequently becomes altogether an Adjective; when it is joined to a Substantive merely to denote its quality; without any respect to time; expressing, not an Action, but a Habit; and as such it admits of the degrees of Comparison: as, “a learned, a more learned, a most learned, man; a loving, more loving, most loving, father.”

Simple Sentences are 1. Explicative, or explaining: 2. Interrogative, or asking: 3. Imperative, or commanding[53].

1. An Explicative Sentence is when a thing is said to be, or not to be; to do, or not to do; to suffer, or not to suffer; in a direct manner; as in the foregoing examples. If the Sentence be Negative, the Adverb _not_ is placed after the Auxiliary, or after the Verb itself when it has no Auxiliary: as, “it _did not_ touch him;” or, “it _touched_ him _not_[54].”

2. In an Interrogative Sentence, or when a Question is asked, the Nominative Case follows the Principal Verb, or the Auxiliary: as, “_was it_ he?” “_did Alexander_ conquer the Persians?” So that the Question depends intirely on the order of the words[55].

3. In an Imperative Sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the Nominative Case follows the Verb or the Auxiliary: as, “Go, thou traytor;” or, “do thou go:” or the Auxiliary _let_ with the Objective[56] Case after it is used: as, “Let us be gone[57].”

The Adjective in English, having no variation of Gender or Number, cannot but agree with the Substantive in those respects; some of the Pronominal Adjectives only excepted, which have the Plural Number: as, _these_, _those_, and _they_; which must agree in Number[58] with their Substantives.

The Adjective generally goes before the Noun: as, “a wise man; a good horse;” unless something depend on the Adjective; as, “food convenient for me:” or the Adjective be emphatical; as, “Alexander the great.” And the Article goes before the Adjective: except the Adjectives _such_ and _many_, and others subjoined to the Adverbs _so_, _as_, and _how_: as, “_such a_ man;” “_many a_ man;” “so _good a_ man;” “as _good a_ man as ever lived;” “how _beautiful a_ prospect is here!” And sometimes when there are two or more Adjectives joined to the Noun: as, “a man learned and religious.”

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Every Verb, except in the Infinitive or the Participle, hath its Nominative Case, either expressed or implied[59]; as,

“Awake, arise, or be for ever fall’n:”

that is, “Awake _ye_, &c.”

Every Nominative Case, except the Case Absolute, and when an address is made to a Person, belongs to some Verb, either expressed or implied[60]: as in the answer to a Question; “Who wrote this book; Cicero:” that is, “Cicero _wrote it_.” Or when the Verb is understood; as, “To whom thus Adam:” that is, _spake_.

Every Possessive Case supposes some Noun to which it belongs: as when we say, “St. Paul’s, or St. James’s,” we mean St. Paul’s _Church_, or St. James’s _Palace_.

Every Adjective has relation to some Substantive, either expressed or implied: as, “The Twelve,” that is, _Apostles_; “the wife, the elect,” that is, _persons_.

In some instances the Adjective becomes a Substantive, and has an Adjective joined to it: as, “the chief Good;” “Evil, be Thou my Good!”[61]

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ADVERBS have no Government.[62]

* * * * *

PREPOSITIONS have a Government of Cases; and in English they always require the Objective Case after them: as, “_with him_; _from her_; _to me_.”[63]

The Preposition is often separated from the Relative which it governs, and joined to the Verb at the end of the Sentence, or of some member of it: as, “Horace is an author, _whom_ I am much delighted _with_.” “The[64] world is too well bred to shock authors with a truth, _which_ generally their booksellers are the first that inform them _of_.” This is an Idiom which our language is strongly inclined to; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing; but the placing of the Preposition before the Relative is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous; and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated Style.

Verbs are often compounded of a Verb and a Preposition; as, _to uphold_, _to outweigh_, _to overlook_: and this composition sometimes gives a new sense to the Verb; as, _to understand_, _to withdraw_, _to forgive_[65]. But in English the Preposition is more frequently placed after the Verb, and separate from it, like an Adverb; in which situation it is no less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning; and may still be considered as belonging to the Verb, and a part of it. As, _to cast_ is to throw; but _to cast up_, or to compute, _an account_, is quite a different thing: thus, _to fall on_, _to bear out_, _to give over_; &c. So that the meaning of the Verb, and the propriety of the phrase, depend on the Preposition subjoined[66].

As the Preposition subjoined to the Verb hath the construction and nature of an Adverb, so the Adverbs _here_, _there_, _where_, with a Preposition subjoined, as _hereof_, _therewith_, _whereupon_[67], have the construction and nature of Pronouns.

The Prepositions _to_ and _for_ are often understood; as, “give me the book; get me some paper;” that is, _to me_, _for me_[68].

* * * * *

Two or more Simple Sentences, joined together by one or more CONNECTIVE WORDS, become a Compounded Sentence.

There are two sorts of words which connect Sentences: 1. Relatives; 2. Conjunctions.

Examples: 1. “Blessed is the man, _who_ feareth the Lord.” 2. “Life is short, _and_ art is long.” 1. and 2. “Blessed is the Man, _who_ feareth the Lord, _and_ keepeth his commandments.”

* * * * *

The RELATIVES _who_, _which_, _that_, having no variation of gender or number, cannot but agree with their Antecedents. _Who_ is appropriated to persons; and so may be accounted Masculine and Feminine only: _which_ is used of things only; and so may be accounted Neuter. But formerly they were both indifferently used of persons: “Our Father, _which_ art in heaven.” _That_ is used indifferently both of persons and things: but perhaps would be more properly confined to the latter. _What_ includes both the Antecedent and the Relative: as, “This was _what_ he wanted;” that is, “_the thing which_ he wanted[69].”

The Relative is the Nominative Case to the Verb, when no other Nominative comes between it and the Verb: but when another Nominative comes between it and the Verb, the Relative is governed by some word in its own member of the Sentence: as, “The God _who_ preserveth me; _whose_ I am, and _whom_ I serve[70].”

Every Relative must have an Antecedent to which it refers, either expressed, or understood: as, “_Who_ steals my purse, steals trash:” that is, _the man, who_ ⸺.

The Relative is of the same person with the Antecedent; and the Verb agrees with it accordingly: as, “Who is _this, that cometh_ from Edom; _this that is_ glorious in his apparel?⸺_I that speak_ in righteousness.” Isaiah lxiii. 1. “O Shepherd of Israel, _Thou that leadest_ Joseph like a flock; _Thou that dwellest_ between the Cherubims.” Ps. lxxx. 1.[71]

The Relative is often understood, or omitted: as, “The man I love;” that is, “_whom_ I love[72].”

The accuracy and clearness of the Sentence depend very much upon the proper and determinate use of the Relative, so that it may readily present its Antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader without any obscurity or ambiguity. The same may be observed of the Pronoun and the Noun, which by some are called also the Relative and the Antecedent[73].

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CONJUNCTIONS have sometimes a Government of Modes. Some Conjunctions require the Indicative, some the Subjunctive Mode after them: others have no influence at all on the Mode.

Hypothetical, Conditional, Concessive, and Exceptive Conjunctions seem to require properly the Subjunctive Mode after them: as, _if_, _tho’_, _unless_, _except_, _whether—or_, &c. but by use they often admit of the Indicative. Examples: “_If_ thou _be_ the Son of God.” Matt. iv. 3. “_Tho’_ he _slay_ me, yet will I put my trust in him.” Job xiii. 15. “_Unless_ he _wash_ his flesh.” Lev. xxii. 6. “No power, _except_ it _were_ given from above.” John xix. 11. “_Whether_ it _were_ I _or_ they, so we preach.” 1 Cor. xv. 11. The Subjunctive in these instances implies something contingent or doubtful; the Indicative would express a more absolute and determinate sense.

_That_ expressing the motive or end has the Subjunctive Mode, with _may_, _might_, _should_, after it.

_Lest_; and _that_ with a Negative following it; and _if_ with _but_ following it; necessarily require the Subjunctive Mode: Examples; “Let him that standeth, take heed, _lest_ he _fall_.” 1 Cor. x. 12. “Take heed, _that_ thou _speak not_ to Jacob.” Gen. xxxi. 24. “_If_ he _do but_ touch the hills, they shall smoke.” Ps. civ. 32.[74]

Other Conjunctions, expressing a Continuation, an Addition, an Inference, &c. being of a positive and absolute nature, require the Indicative Mode; or rather leave the Mode to be determined by the other circumstances and conditions of the Sentence.

When the Qualities of different things are compared, the latter Noun is governed, not by the Conjunction _than_, or _as_, (for a Conjunction has no Government of Cases,) but by the Verb or the Preposition, expressed, or understood. As, “Thou art wiser than _I_ [am.]” “You are not so tall as _I_ [am.]” “You think him handsomer than [you think] _me_; and you love him more than [you love] _me_.” In all other instances, if you complete the Sentence in like manner, by supplying the part which is understood, the Case of the latter Noun will be determined. Thus, “Plato observes, that God geometrizes; and the same thing was observed before by a wiser man than _he_:” that is, than _he was_. “It was well expressed by Plato; but more elegantly by Solomon than _him_:” that is, than _by him_[75].

The Conjunction _that_ is often omitted and understood: as, “I beg you would come to me:” “See, thou do it not:” that is, “_that_ you would;” “_that_ thou do[76].”

The Nominative Case following the Auxiliary, or the Verb itself, sometimes supplies the place of the Conjunctions _if_ and _tho’_: as, “Had he done this, he had escaped:” “Charm he never so[77] wisely:” that is, “_if_ he had done this;” “_tho’_ he charm.”

Some Conjunctions have their Correspondent Conjunctions belonging to them; so that in the subsequent Member of the Sentence the latter answers to the former: as, _although_ ⸺, _yet_, or _nevertheless_; _whether_ ⸺, _or_; _either_ ⸺, _or_; _neither_ ⸺, _nor_; _as_ ⸺, _as_; expressing a Comparison of equality; “_as_ white _as_ snow:” _as_ ⸺, _so_; expressing a Comparison sometimes of equality; “_as_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be;” that is, equal in number: but most commonly a Comparison in respect of quality; “and it shall be, _as_ with the people, _so_ with the priest; _as_ with the servant, _so_ with his master:” “_as_ is the good, _so_ is the sinner; _as_ the one dieth, _so_ dieth the other:” that is, in like manner: _so_ ⸺, _as_; with a Verb expressing a Comparison of quality; “To see thy glory, _so as_ I have seen thee in the sanctuary:” but with a Negative and an Adjective, a Comparison in respect of quantity; as, “Pompey had eminent abilities: but he was not either _so_ eloquent and politic a statesman, or _so_ brave and skilful a general; nor was he upon the whole _so_ great a man, _as_ Cæsar:” _so_ ⸺, _that_; expressing a Consequence: &c.[78]

* * * * *

INTERJECTIONS in English have no Government.

Though they are usually attended with Nouns in the Nominative Case[79], and Verbs in the Indicative Mode, yet the Case and Mode is not influenced by them, but determined by the nature of the sentence.

PUNCTUATION.

Punctuation is the art of marking in writing the several pauses, or rests, between sentences, and the parts of sentences, according to their proper quantity or proportion, as they are expressed in a just and accurate pronunciation.

As the several articulate sounds, the syllables and words, of which sentences consist, are marked by Letters; so the rests and pauses between sentences and their parts are marked by Points.

But, tho’ the several articulate sounds are pretty fully and exactly marked by Letters of known and determinate power; yet the several pauses, which are used in a just pronunciation of discourse, are very imperfectly expressed by Points.

For the different degrees of connexion between the several parts of sentences, and the different pauses in a just pronunciation, which express those degrees of connexion according to their proper value, admit of great variety; but the whole number of Points, which we have to express this variety, amounts only to Four.

Hence it is, that we are under a necessity of expressing pauses of the same quantity, on different occasions, by different points; and more frequently of expressing pauses of different quantity by the same points.

So that the doctrine of Punctuation must needs be very imperfect: few precise rules can be given, which will hold without exception in all cases; but much must be left to the judgement and taste of the writer.

On the other hand, if a greater number of marks were invented to express all the possible different pauses of pronunciation; the doctrine of them would be very perplexed and difficult, and the use of them would rather embarass than assist the reader.

It remains therefore, that we be content with the Rules of Punctuation, laid down with as much exactness as the nature of the subject will admit; such as may serve for a general direction, to be accommodated to different occasions, and to be supplied where deficient by the writers judgement.

The several degrees of Connexion between Sentences, and between their principal constructive parts, Rhetoricians have considered under the following distinctions, as the most obvious and remarkable: the Period, Colon, Semicolon, and Comma.

The Period is the whole Sentence, compleat in itself, wanting nothing to make a full and perfect sense, and not connected in construction with a subsequent Sentence.

The Colon, or Member, is a chief constructive part, or greater division, of a Sentence.

The Semicolon, or Half-member, is a less constructive part, or subdivision of a Sentence or Member.

A Sentence or Member is again subdivided into Commas, or Segments; which are the least constructive parts of a Sentence, or Member, in this way of considering it; for the next subdivision would be the resolution of it into Phrases and Words.

The Grammarians have followed this division of the Rhetoricians, and have appropriated to each of these distinctions its mark, or Point; which takes its name from the part of the Sentence which it is employed to distinguish; as follows:

The Period } { . The Colon } is thus marked { : The Semicolon} { ; The Comma } { ,

The proportional quantity or time of the Points with respect to one another is determined by the following general rule: The Period is a pause in quantity or duration double of the Colon; the Colon is double of the Semicolon; and the Semicolon is double of the Comma. So that they are in the same proportion to one another as the Semibrief, the Minim, the Crotchet, and the Quaver, in Music. The precise quantity or duration of each Pause or Note cannot be defined; for that varies with the Time; and both in Discourse and Music the same Composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slower Time: but in Music the proportion between the Notes remains ever the same; and in Discourse, if the Doctrine of Punctuation were exact, the proportion between the Pauses would be ever invariable.

The Points then being designed to express the Pauses, which depend on the different degrees of connexion between Sentences, and between their principal constructive parts; to understand the meaning of the Points, and to know how to apply them properly, we must consider the nature of a Sentence, as divided into its principal constructive parts; and the degrees of connexion between those parts, upon which such division of it depends.

To begin with the least of these principal constructive parts, the Comma. In order the more clearly to determine the proper application of the Point which marks it, we must distinguish between an Imperfect Phrase, a Simple Sentence, and a Compounded Sentence.

An Imperfect Phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a Proposition or Sentence.

A Simple Sentence has but one Subject and one finite Verb.

A Compounded Sentence has more than one Subject or one finite Verb, either expressed or understood; or it consists of two or more simple Sentences connected together.

In a Sentence, the Subject and the Verb may be each of them accompanied with several Adjuncts; as the Object, the End, the Circumstances of Time, Place, Manner, and the like; and this either immediately, or mediately, that is, by being connected with some thing, which is connected with some other; and so on.

If the several Adjuncts affect the Subject or the Verb in a different manner, they are only so many Imperfect Phrases, and the Sentence is Simple.

A Simple Sentence admits of no Point, by which it may be divided, or distinguished into parts.

If the several Adjuncts affect the Subject or the Verb in the same manner, they may be resolved into so many Simple Sentences: the Sentence then becomes Compounded, and it must be divided into its parts by Points.