Part 2

It is of the nature of both the Articles to determine or limit the thing spoken of: _a_ determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which; _the_ determines which it is, or of many which they are. The first therefore can only be joined to Substantives in the singular number[2]; the last may also be joined to plurals.

There is a remarkable exception to this rule in the use of the Adjectives _few_ and _many_, (the latter chiefly with the word _great_ before it) which, though joined with plural Substantives, yet admit of the singular Article _a_: as, _a few men_, _a great many men_;

“Told of _a many thousand_ warlike French:”— “The care-craz’d mother of _a many children_.”

SHAKESPEAR.

The reason of it is manifest from the effect which the Article has in these phrases: it means a small or great number collectively taken, and therefore gives the idea of a Whole, that is, of Unity. Thus likewise _a hundred_, _a thousand_, is one whole number, an aggregate of many collectively taken; and therefore still retains the Article _a_, tho’ joined as an Adjective to a plural Substantive: as, _a hundred years_;[3]

“For harbour at _a thousand doors_ they knock’d; Not one of all _the thousand_, but was lock’d.”

DRYDEN.

The Definite Article _the_ is sometimes applied to Adverbs in the comparative degree, and its effect is to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely: as, “_The more_ I examine it, _the better_ I like it. I like this _the least_ of any.”

SUBSTANTIVE.

A Substantive, or Noun, is the Name of a thing; of whatever we conceive in any way to subsist, or of which we have any notion.

Substantives are of two sorts; Proper, and Common, Names. Proper Names are the names appropriated to individuals; as the names of persons and places: such are _George_, _London_. Common Names stand for kinds, containing many sorts; or sorts, containing many individuals under them; as, _Animal_, _Man_.

Proper Names being the names of individuals, and therefore of things already as determinate as they can be made, admit not of Articles, or of Plurality of Number; unless by a Figure, or by Accident: as when great Conquerors are called _Alexanders_; and some great Conqueror _An_ Alexander, or _The_ Alexander of his age; when a Common Name is understood, as _The_ Thames, that is, the _River_ Thames; _The_ George, that is, the _Sign_ of St. George: or when it happens that there are many persons of the same name; as, _The_ two _Scipios_.

Whatever is spoken of is represented as one, or more, in Number: these two manners of representation in respect of number are called the Singular, and the Plural, Number.

In English, the Substantive Singular is made Plural, for the most part, by adding to it _s_; or _es_, where it is necessary for the pronunciation: as, _king_, _kings_; _fox_, _foxes_; _leaf_, _leaves_; in which last, and many others, _f_ is also changed into _v_, for the sake of an easier pronunciation, and more agreeable sound. Some few Plurals end in _en_: as, _oxen_, _chicken_, _children_, _brethren_; and _men_, _women_, by changing the _a_ of the Singular into _e_[4]. This form we have retained from the Teutonic; as likewise the introduction of the _e_ in the former syllable of two of the last instances; _weomen_, (for so we pronounce it) _brethren_, from _woman_, _brother_[5]: something like which may be noted in some other forms of Plurals; as, _mouse_, _mice_; _louse_, _lice_; _tooth_, _teeth_; _foot_, _feet_; _goose_, _geese_[6].

The English Language, to express different connexions and relations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, Prepositions. The Greek and Latin among the antient, and some too among the modern languages, as the German, vary the termination or ending of the Substantive to answer the same purpose. These different endings are in those languages called Cases. And the English being derived from the same origin as the German, that is, from the Teutonic[7], is not wholly without them. For instance, the relation of Possession, or Belonging, is often expressed by a Case, or a different ending of the Substantive. This Case answers to the Genitive Case in Latin, and may still be so called; tho’ perhaps more properly the Possessive Case. Thus, “_God’s_ grace:” which may also be expressed by the Preposition; as, “the grace _of God_.” It was formerly written _Godis_ grace; we now very improperly always shorten it with an Apostrophe, even tho’ we are obliged to pronounce it fully; as, “_Thomas’s_ book:” that is, “_Thomasis_ book;” not “_Thomas his_ book,” as it is commonly supposed[8].

When the thing, to which another is said to belong, is expressed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of the Possessive Case is added to the last term: as, “The King of Great _Britain’s_ Soldiers.” When it is a Noun ending with _s_, or in the Plural Number in _s_, the sign of the Possessive Case is not added: as, “for _righteousness_ sake; on _eagles_ wings.” Both the Sign and the Preposition seem sometimes to be used: as, “a soldier _of the king’s_:” but here are really two Possessives; for it means, “one _of_ the soldiers _of_ the king.”

The English in its Substantives has but two different terminations for Cases; that of the Nominative, which simply expresses the Name of the thing, and that of the Possessive Case.

Things are frequently considered with relation to the distinction of Sex or Gender; as being Male, or Female, or Neither the one, nor the other. Hence Substantives are of the Masculine, or Feminine, or Neuter, that is, Neither, Gender: which latter is only the exclusion of all consideration of Gender.

The English Language, with singular propriety, following nature alone, applies the distinction of Masculine and Feminine only to the names of Animals; all the rest are Neuter: except when by a Poetical or Rhetorical fiction things inanimate and Qualities are exhibited as Persons, and consequently become either Male or Female. And this gives the English an advantage above most other languages in the Poetical and Rhetorical Style: for when Nouns naturally Neuter are converted into Masculine and Feminine[9], the Personification is more distinctly and forcibly marked.

Some few Substantives are distinguished as to their Gender by their termination: as, _prince_, _princess_; _actor_, _actress_; _lion_, _lioness_; _hero_, _heroine_; &c.

The chief use of Gender in English is in the Pronoun of the Third Person, which must agree in that respect with the Noun for which it stands.

PRONOUN.

A Pronoun is a word standing instead of a Noun, as its Substitute or Representative.

In the Pronoun are to be considered the Person, Number, Gender and Case.

There are Three Persons which may be the Subject of any discourse: first, the Person who speaks may speak of himself; secondly, he may speak of the Person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other Person.

These are called, respectively, the First, Second, and Third, Persons: and are expressed by the Pronouns _I_, _Thou_, _He_.

As the Speakers, the Persons spoken to, and the Persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these Persons hath the Plural Number; _We_, _Ye_, _They_.

The Persons speaking and spoken to are supposed to be present, from which and other circumstances their Sex is commonly known, and needs not to be marked by a distinction of Gender in their Pronouns: but the Person spoken of being absent and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by a distinction of Gender; at least when some particular Person is spoken of, who ought to be more distinctly marked: accordingly the Pronoun Singular of the Third Person hath the Three Genders, _He_, _She_, _It_.

Pronouns have Three Cases; the Nominative; the Genitive, or Possessive; like Nouns; and moreover a Case, which follows the Verb Active, or the Preposition, expressing the Object of an Action, or of a Relation. It answers to the Oblique Cases in Latin; and may be properly enough called the Objective Case.

PRONOUNS;

according to their Persons, Numbers, Cases, and Genders.

PERSONS.

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3.

Singular. Plural.

I, Thou, He; We, Ye or You, They.

CASES.

Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj.

First Person.

I, Mine, Me; We, Ours, Us.

Second Person.

Thou, Thine, Thee; Ye or You, Yours, You[10].

Third Person.

_Masc._ He, His, Him; } _Fem._ She, Hers, Her; } They, Theirs, Them. _Neut._ It, Its[11], It; }

The Personal Pronouns have the nature of Substantives, and as such stand by themselves: the rest have the nature of Adjectives, and as such are joined to Substantives; and may be called Pronominal Adjectives.

_Thy_, _My_, _Her_, _Our_, _Your_, _Their_, are Pronominal Adjectives: but _His_, (that is, _Hee’s_) _Her’s_, _Our’s_, _Your’s_, _Their’s_, have evidently the Form of the Possessive Case: and by Analogy, _Mine_, _Thine_[12], may be esteemed of the same rank. All these are used, when the Noun they belong to is understood: the two latter sometimes also instead of _my_, _thy_, when the Noun following them begins with a vowel.

Beside the foregoing there are several other Pronominal Adjectives; which tho’ they may sometimes seem to stand by themselves, yet have always some Substantive belonging to them, either referred to, or understood: as, _This_, _that_, _other_, _any_, _some_, _one_, _none_; these are called Definitive, because they define and limit the extent of the thing, to which they either refer, or are joined. The three first of these are varied to express Number; as, _These_, _those_, _others_; the last of which admits of the Plural form only when its Substantive is not joined to it, but referred to, or understood: none of them are varied to express the Gender or Case. _One_ is sometimes used in an Indefinite sense (answering to the French _on_) as in the following phrases; “_one_ is apt to think;” “_one_ sees;” “_one_ supposes.” _Who_, _which_, _that_, are called Relatives, because they more directly refer to some Substantive going before; which therefore is called the Antecedent. They also connect the following part of the Sentence with the foregoing. These belong to all the three Persons; whereas the rest belong only to the Third. One of them only is varied to express the three Cases; _Who_, _whose_[13], (that is, _who’s_[14]) _whom_: none of them have different endings for the Numbers. _Who_, _which_, _what_, are called Interrogatives, when they are used in asking questions. The two latter of them have no variation of Number or Case.

_Own_, and _self_, in the Plural _selves_, are joined to the Possessives _my_, _our_, _thy_, _your_, _his_, _her_, _their_; as, _my own_ hand; _myself_, _yourselves_; both of them expressing emphasis, or opposition; as, “I did it _my own self_,” that is, and no one else: the latter also forming the Reciprocal Pronoun; as, “he hurt _himself_.” _Himself_, _themselves_, seem to be used in the Nominative Case by corruption instead of _his self_, _their selves_: as, “he came _himself_;” “they did it _themselves_;” where _himself_, _themselves_, cannot be in the Objective Case. If this be so, _self_ must be in these instances, not a Pronoun, but a Noun. Thus Dryden uses it:

“What I show, Thy _self may_ freely on thy self bestow.”

_Ourself_, the Plural Pronominal Adjective with the Singular Substantive, is peculiar to the Regal Style.

_Own_ is an Adjective; or perhaps the Participle (_owen_) of the obsolete verb _owe_; to possess; to be the right owner of a thing.

All Nouns whatever in Grammatical Construction are of the Third Person: except when an address is made to a Person; then the Noun, answering to the Vocative Case in Latin, is of the Second Person.

ADJECTIVE.

An Adjective is a word joined to a Substantive to express its Quality[15].

In English the Adjective is not varied on account of Gender, Number, or Case. The only variation it admits of is that of the Degrees of Comparison.

Qualities admit of _more_ and _less_, or of different degrees: and the words that express Qualities have accordingly proper forms to express different degrees. When a Quality is simply expressed, without any relation to the same in a different degree, it is called the Positive; as, _wise_, _great_. When it is expressed with augmentation, or with reference to a less degree of the same, it is called the Comparative; as, _wiser_, _greater_. When it is expressed as being in the highest degree of all, it is called the Superlative; as, _wisest_, _greatest_.

So that the simple word, or Positive, becomes Comparative by adding _r_ or _er_; and Superlative by adding _st_, or _est_, to the end of it. And the Adverbs _more_ and _most_ placed before the Adjective have the same effect; as, _wise_, _more wise_, _most wise_[16].

Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by _er_ and _est_; and Dissyllables by _more_ and _most_: as, _mild_, _milder_, _mildest_; _frugal_, _more frugal_, _most frugal_. Dissyllables ending in _y_ easily admit of _er_ and _est_; as _happy_, _lovely_. Words of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of _er_ and _est_.

In some few words the Superlative is formed by adding the Adverb _most_ to the end of them: as, _nethermost_, _uttermost_, or _utmost_, _undermost_, _uppermost_, _foremost_.

In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common use that are irregular in this respect: as, _good_, _better_, _best_; _bad_, _worse_, _worst_; _little_, _less_[17], _least_; _much_, _or many_, _more_, _most_; and a few others.

VERB.

A VERB is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer.

There are three kinds of Verbs; Active, Passive, and Neuter Verbs.

A Verb Active expresses an Action, and necessarily implies an agent, and an object acted upon: as, _to love_; “I love Thomas.”

A Verb Passive expresses a Passion, or a Suffering, or the receiving of an Action; and necessarily implies an Object acted upon, and an Agent by which it is acted upon: as, _to be loved_; “Thomas is loved by me.”

So when the Agent takes the lead in the Sentence, the Verb is Active, and the Object follows: when the Object takes the lead, the Verb is Passive, and the Agent follows.

A Verb Neuter expresses Being, or a state or condition of being; when the Agent and the Object acted upon coincide, and the event is properly neither Action nor Passion, but rather something between both: as, _I am_; _I walk_; _I sleep_.

The Verb Active is called also Transitive, because the Action _passeth over_ to the Object, or hath an effect upon some other thing: and the Verb Neuter is called Intransitive, because the effect is confined within the Agent, and doth _not pass over_ to any object.

In English many Verbs are used both in an Active and a Neuter signification, the construction only determining of which kind they are.

In a Verb are to be considered the Person, the Number, the Time, and the Mode.

The Verb varies its endings to express, or agree with, the different Persons: as, “I _love_, Thou _lovest_, He _loveth_, or _loves_.”

So also to express the different Numbers of the same Person: as, “Thou _lovest_, ye _love_; He _loveth_, they _love_[18].”

So likewise to express different Times: as, “I _love_, I _loved_; I _bear_, I _bore_, I have _born_.”

The Mode is the _Manner_ of representing the Action or Passion. When it is simply _declared_, or a question is asked concerning it, it is called the Indicative Mode; when it is _bidden_, it is called the Imperative; when it is _subjoined_ as the end or design, or mentioned under a condition, a supposition, or the like, for the most part depending on some other Verb, and having a Conjunction before it, it is called the Subjunctive; when it is barely expressed _without any limitation_ of person or number, it is called the Infinitive; and when it is expressed in a form in which it may be joined to a Noun as its quality or accident, _partaking_ thereby of the nature of an Adjective, it is called the Participle.

But to express the Time of the Verb the English uses also the assistance of other Verbs, called therefore Auxiliaries, or Helpers; _do_, _be_, _have_, _shall_, _will_: as, “I _do_ love, I _did_ love; I _am_ loved, I _was_ loved; I _have_ loved, I _have been_ loved; I _shall_, or _will_, love, or _be_ loved.”

The two principal auxiliaries, _to have_, and _to be_, are thus varied according to Person, Number, Time, and Mode.

Time is Present, Past, or Future.

To HAVE.

Indicative Mode.

Present Time.

Person. Sing. Plur.

1. I have, We } 2. Thou hast[19], Ye } have. 3. He hath, or has; They }

Past Time.

1. I had, We } 2. Thou hadst, Ye } had. 3. He had; They }

Future Time.

1. I shall, or will, } We } shall, 2. Thou shalt, or wilt, } have; Ye } or will, 3. He shall, or will, } They } have.

Imperative Mode.

1. Let us have, 2. Have thou, or, Do thou have, Have ye, or, Do ye have, 3. Let him have; Let them have.

Subjunctive Mode.

Present Time.

1. I } We } 2. Thou } have; Ye } have. 3. He } They }

Infinitive Mode.

Present, To have: Past, To have had.

Participle.

Present, Having: Perfect[20], Had: Past, Having had.

To BE.

Indicative Mode.

Present Time.

1. I am, We } 2. Thou art, Ye } are. 3. He is; They }

Or,

1. I be, We } 2. Thou beest, Ye } be. 3. He is; They }

Past Time.

1. I was, We } 2. Thou wast, Ye } were. 3. He was; They }

Future Time.

1. I shall, or will, } We } shall, 2. Thou shalt, or wilt, } be; Ye } or will, 3. He shall, or will, } They } be.

Imperative Mode.

1. Let us be, 2. Be thou, or, Do thou be, Be ye, or, Do ye be, 3. Let him be; Let them be.

Subjunctive Mode.

Present Time.

1. I } We } 2. Thou } be; Ye } be. 3. He } They }

Past Time.

1. I were, We } 2. Thou wert[21], Ye } were. 3. He were; They }

Infinitive Mode.

Present, To be: Past, To have been.

Participle.

Present, Being: Perfect, Been: Past, Having been.

The Verb Active is thus varied according to Person, Number, Time and Mode.

Indicative Mode.

Present Time.

Person. Sing. Plur.

1. I love, We } 2. Thou lovest, Ye } love. 3. He loveth, or loves; They }

Past Time.

1. I loved, We } 2. Thou lovedst, Ye } loved. 3. He loved; They }

Future Time.

1. I shall, or will, } We } 2. Thou shalt, or wilt, } love; Ye } shall, or will, love. 3. He shall, or will, } They }

Imperative Mode.

1. Let us love, 2. Love thou, or, Do thou love, Love ye, or, Do ye love, 3. Let him love; Let them love.

Subjunctive Mode.

Present Time.

1. I } We } 2. Thou } love; Ye } love. 3. He } They }

And,

1. I may } We } may love; 2. Thou mayst } love; Ye } and 3. He may } They } have loved[22].

Past Time.

1. I might } We } might love; 2. Thou mightest } love; Ye } and 3. He might } They } have loved[22].

And,

I could, should, would; Thou couldst, &c. love; and have loved.

Infinitive Mode.

Present, To love: Past, To have loved.

Participle.

Present, Loving: Perfect, Loved: Past, Having loved.

But in discourse we have often occasion to speak of Time not only as Present, Past, and Future, at large and indeterminately, but also as such with some particular distinction and limitation; that is, as passing, or finished; as imperfect, or perfect. This will best be seen in an example of a Verb laid out and distributed according to these distinctions of Time.

Indefinite, or Undetermined, Time:

Present, Past, Future, I love; I loved; I shall love.

Definite, or Determined, Time:

Present Imperfect: I am (now) loving. Present Perfect: I have (now) loved.

Past Imperfect: I was (then) loving. Past Perfect: I had (then) loved.

Future Imperf. I shall (then) be loving. Future Perf. I shall (then) have loved.

To express the Present and Past Imperfect of the Active and Neuter Verb the Auxiliary _do_ is sometimes used: I _do_ (now) love; I _did_ (then) love.

Thus with very little variation of the Principal Verb the several circumstances of Mode and Time are clearly expressed by the help of the Auxiliaries, _be_, _have_, _do_, _let_, _may_, _can_, _shall_, _will_.

The peculiar force of the several Auxiliaries is to be observed. _Do_ and _did_ mark the Action itself, or the Time of it[23], with greater force and distinction. They are also of frequent and almost necessary use in Interrogative and Negative Sentences. _Let_ does not only express permission; but praying, exhorting, commanding. _May_ and _might_ express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing; _can_ and _could_, the power. _Must_ is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity. _Would_ expresses the intention of the doer; _should_ simply the event. _Will_ in the first Person singular and plural promises or threatens; in the second and third Persons only foretells: _shall_ on the contrary, in the first Person simply foretells; in the second and third Persons commands or threatens[24].

_Do_ and _have_ make the Present Time; _did_, _had_, the Past; _shall_, _will_, the Future: _let_ the Imperative Mode; _may_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_, the Subjunctive. The Preposition _to_ placed before the Verb makes the Infinitive Mode. _Have_, through its several Modes and Times, is placed only before the Perfect Participle; and _be_, in like manner, before the Present and Passive Participles: the rest only before the Verb itself in its Primary Form[25].

The Passive Verb is only the Participle Passive, (which for the most part is the same with the Indefinite Past Time Active, and always the same with the Perfect Participle) joined to the Auxiliary Verb _to be_ through all its Variations: as, I _am loved_; I _was loved_; I _have been loved_; I _shall be loved_: and so on through all the Persons, Numbers, Times, and Modes.

The Neuter Verb is varied like the Active; but, having somewhat of the Nature of the Passive, admits in many instances of the Passive form, retaining still the Neuter signification; chiefly in such Verbs as signify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition: as, I _am come_; I _was gone_; I _am grown_; I _was fallen_[26]. The Verb _am_ in this case precisely defines the Time of the action or event, but does not change the nature of it; the Passive form still expressing, not properly a Passion, but only a state or condition of Being.

IRREGULAR VERBS.