Part 6

[Sidenote: West (not East) Washington is to be the great cattle country.]

For this reason the plateau, as will also be the case with the great plains eastward, can never carry the number of cattle that can be grazed in a grass country. A farmer told me it required fifteen acres of bunch grass to support one horse or steer, whilst in a grass country three acres are ample, and on the best sods one acre is sufficient. Still, the bunch grass is, and ought to be, utilized. And the areas of unimproved land are so vast that the herds of cattle, horses and sheep which range upon them altogether constitute a large item of wealth. And on these treeless plains the effort seems to be to train the cattle and horses to live like buffaloes and wild horses in both summer and winter.

[Sidenote: Tree-planting.]

The tree problem will, I think, work out satisfactorily, though, of course, no such trees can ever be produced there as abound in West Washington. Walla Walla is embowered in trees of artificial growth. The Lombardy poplar seems to have been most successful. At various points I saw plantations of box elder, and was told that this tree is easily grown. The cottonwood is said to grow readily. Captain John McGowan reports the successful culture of locust, walnut, maple and catalpa in Lincoln County. He says, also, that the plum, peach, apricot, apple, pear and grape succeed: and so with strawberries, raspberries and blackberries. All these fruits are grown about Spokane Falls, but I think that the grape and peach sometimes fail to mature. A good many plantations of trees have been set out under the timber-culture act of Congress, but it is thought that much imposition has been practised on the Government by the failure to take proper care of the trees after they were planted. The truth about the whole matter seems to be that, with proper care, trees of most varieties may be grown on the plateau, but that they will grow slowly and not attain large size. I might add many details concerning the products of this wonderful country, but these will suffice as illustrations.

LABOR.

[Sidenote: Good supply of labor, but more wanted.]

Under this head I will merely say that, though the laboring population of Washington Territory is very mixed and has not the settled character of labor in the old States, and though many more laborers could find employment, there does not seem to be any special deficiency of this class, and the high wages that are paid will, no doubt, bring in more workmen as they are wanted.

[Sidenote: Wages.]

Governor Squire, in his report for 1885, page 41, gives quite a detailed list of wages, which shows that the rates are at least fifty per cent. higher than in the Middle States, and double what is paid in the Southern Atlantic States. Farm laborers get from $25 to $30 a month and board. Loggers pay from $35 to $40 per month to common hands, and $65 to $70 to teamsters. Skilled labor receives high wages, and railway contractors sometimes have to pay $2 to $2.50 per day for common hands. Servant girls are scarce, and wanted, at $15 a month and board. Hotel servants get from $20 to $25 a month. Chinamen are extensively employed for family servants. Many of them are tolerable cooks, and get $30 a month and board. Indians are working more than formerly. The men "slash" the forests, pick hops, etc. Squaws always were industrious--had to be! The Sandwich Islands, as well as China and Japan, furnish some laborers. The employers are favorable to this class of immigrants, whilst the white laborers are bitterly opposed to them. Canada will continue to employ cheap Chinese labor, and thus place our Pacific States at a disadvantage, if the present policy of excluding Chinese labor is continued.

THE GEOLOGY OF WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

HISTORICAL AND STRUCTURAL.

I shall not say much about the historical geology of Washington Territory, because it contains some problems which have never been adequately studied, and which I had no opportunity to investigate. It is to be hoped that the regular work of the Government Survey may soon be extended to this important region. Hitherto it has been neglected. A few able geologists such as Joseph Le Conte, Pumpelly, Newberry, Bailey Willis, and some others, have made visits to the country on special errands; but except the treatise of Bailey Willis in Vol. XV. of the Census Reports, and some brief allusions to the country in systematic works on general geology, I had nothing to guide me as to the structure of the country, or the age of its deposits. For all practical purposes, however, I had no difficulty in understanding the work I had to do. [Sidenote: The Western Coast regions younger than the Rocky Mountains and Appalachians.]

[Sidenote: An outlying Continent.]

[Sidenote: The rise of the West Coast.]

All agree that the country west of the Rocky Mountains proper, and including nearly all of California, Oregon, and Washington Territory, is geologically younger than the main range, and younger than the Appalachian country. At the close of the carboniferous period proper, the Rocky Mountain range constituted a separate continent, with a sea covering what is now the main Mississippi Valley, including the wide plains immediately east of the Rocky Mountains, and connecting, probably, with the polar sea, whilst the Pacific Ocean washed the western edge of this Rocky Mountain continent; so that until after that period there were no Wahsatch and Uintah mountains, no Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range, no Coast Range, and, of course, none of the intervening country. It is quite possible, however, that there was a third continent lying west of the present continent in what is now ocean, from whose waste the sediments were derived which were afterwards elevated and became the land now included in the three States bordering the Pacific, whilst the mother continent, which furnished the sediments, sank beneath the ocean. If there were such an outlying continent, additional force is given to the views of Dr. George F. Becker, endorsed by Dr. C. A. White, and to some extent anticipated by Prof. J. D. Whitney, which render it probable on other grounds that the two great lines of mountains, viz., the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range and the Coast Range, began their upward movement simultaneously during the early ages of the Juro-Trias. The rise of these mountain lines was gradual and marked by reverse movements, whereby, after appearing above the surface, they sank and rose alternately, receiving fresh sediments, which, especially in the Washington Territory region and part of Oregon and California, when above water, became clothed with an enormous vegetation which was packed into coal-beds, layer after layer. In the lapse of time these all came above the surface. The mountains grew higher and higher, attended by intense heat in the axes of the ranges, and at different periods, down almost to the present, exhibiting volcanic action on an enormous scale. At other periods, a large portion of the region was visited by ice-floods, succeeded by water-floods, which top-dressed great areas with a mingled deposit of gravel, sand and mud, and carried away vast blocks of the rocky substance of the country, and cut deep channels in all the highlands.

As Washington Territory is now presented to us, it exhibits a scene of mountains, lowlands, and elevated plateaus, which are full of interest and variety. Some general account of its topography has already been given.

[Sidenote: The rocks and minerals of the Cascade Mountains.]

The core of these high ranges is chiefly rock originally stratified, which has been metamorphosed by heat, and perhaps inside of all, with branches bursting out at various places, are plutonic rocks which have never been stratified. This is the state of things on the top of the Cascade Range, near Snoqualmie Pass, as well as on some subordinate peaks and ranges. On Mount Logan, the Denny Mountain, etc., are large bodies of syenitic granite whose age I have no means of determining. Associated with this are quartzites of fine grain, and extremely hard, porphyries, and serpentinoid and chloritic rocks of different sorts, in which are imbedded the magnetic iron ores; and also large beds of crystalline limestone, both fine and coarse grained. Crossing these, at various angles, are veins containing the precious and base metals.

[Sidenote: The metamorphic rocks of doubtful origin.]

Whether these rocks are Palæozoic or Archæan in their origin, or whether they are simply the metamorphosed strata of the upper Juro-Trias, or the lower Cretaceous, is a question for future study. These plutonic and metamorphic rocks are believed to extend through the mountainous region lying north of the Columbia River; and they are reported also in the Coeur d'Alene Mountains. It is quite certain that on both flanks of the Cascade Mountains we find in their natural state Cretaceous conglomerates, sandstones, and shales bearing coal, at least in their upper beds. The deposits on the east side of the mountain have been much grooved and denuded, until we find only small areas of the Cretaceous strata on the Yakima and the Wenatchie rivers, and the Peshastan ridge between, with a patch of the coal-bearing rocks on the Yakima, and another on the Wenatchie. On the west side of the mountain range, the Cretaceous and coal-bearing areas are much larger.

[Sidenote: The coal beds.]

The coal deposits of all the Cretaceous regions of the West are regarded as belonging to the Laramie period which closed the Cretaceous age, and constitutes a transition period between the Cretaceous and Tertiary. But I do not regard this question as settled. The inferior lignites of the Rocky Mountains, and the semi-lignites which constitute the upper beds of the Washington Cretaceous coal properly belong to the Laramie period; but to include the underlying bituminous coals in the same group may be a matter of question. More will be said in reference to these coal beds under the next head. The Western coal-bearing rocks begin on outlying mountains, standing at the west foot of the main Cascade Range. These outlyers are irregular in size, height and direction; but many of them are 1,000 to 1,500 feet in height, and they are found in groups, separated by denuded spaces, from the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and from the Canada line nearly to the Columbia River. The largest and most important field, however, lies south of the Snoqualmie River and between Puget Sound and the Cascade Mountains. Some of the coals found in the most southern part of the field, and on the Coast Range, are referred to the Tertiary period.

A smaller and wholly undeveloped field lies on the Skagit River, and another on, and west of Bellingham Bay. Similar beds are found on Vancouver's Island. Coal-bearing strata are found also on the Chehalis, Des Chutes, Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers. Whilst some of these southern and western strata are referred to the Tertiary period, there has been no systematic study of their geologic relations.

[Sidenote: The volcanic mountains and their great activity.]

It seems to be settled, however, that the lofty volcanic mountains which form conspicuous features in the scenery of the Cascade Range, were active in the Tertiary period, and not only built their own crests 9,000 to 15,000 feet high, but inundated much of the surrounding country with lava to an amazing breadth and depth. In this region, Mount Baker, Mount Ranier (also called Mount Tacoma), Mount St. Helens and Mount Adams in Washington Territory, and Mount Hood in Oregon, were the centres of the grandest operations; and so continued for ages.

[Sidenote: The wonderful cañon of the Columbia River.]

We see gigantic results of this activity in the cañon 1,000 to over 3,000 feet deep, which the Columbia River has cut through this volcanic matter in its passage through the Cascade Mountains. This volcanic deposit consists of brown basalt, which in cooling crystallized into vertical, polygonal prisms, or columns, which have been sculptured by the weather into endlessly varied forms, beautiful, fantastic, and grand; altogether presenting a scene, or succession of scenes, for twenty-five miles, such as can nowhere else be equaled on the American continent, unless it be near by, on a tributary of the Columbia, the Des Chutes River of Oregon.

[Sidenote: The great sheets of basalt.]

This great pile of basalt was built up by a succession of overflows of lava, the joints of which are plainly visible. The basaltic area, though perhaps thickest here, continues with a thickness of 1,000 to 1,500 feet up the Columbia for hundreds of miles; indeed the whole plateau, or prairie country of East Washington, which is a quadrilateral of some 200 miles in diameter, is but a continuation of the great lava-sheet seen at the Cascades and the Dalles. Through it the Columbia and Snake rivers have cut deep channels; and other, though shallower channels, have been cut across the surface of the plateau by departed streams.

[Sidenote: Origin of the rich soil of East Washington.]

Whether the extremely fertile soil which overlies the basalt in East Washington is a top-dressing of volcanic ashes, or is decomposed basalt, cannot readily be determined. It cannot be referred to the Glacial period, as I observed no appearance of drift anywhere except in the valley of Spokane River. Such a wide spread of lava is not unexampled in view of somewhat similar overflows now occurring at intervals in the Sandwich Islands, where lava runs and spreads itself like water. These Hawaiian flows are mentioned by Captain C. F. Dutton in his report of the Zuni Plateau.

A ledge of sandstone belonging to the Meiocene Tertiary is visible under the basalt at the lower cascade in the Columbia River; and a stratum of iron ore and vegetable matter is found on the Willamette at Oswego, lying horizontally between great masses of basalt, showing a long interval between overflows.

[Sidenote: The volcanoes not wholly extinct.]

These eruptions probably continued with diminishing force until near the present time. It is reported that Mount Hood has sent out smoke or steam since the settlement of Oregon. The crater of Mount Ranier was visited by two gentlemen within a few years, and a night spent in its bottom by the side of a jet of steam. Such, at least, is the account given by one of them, Mr. Stevens.

[Sidenote: Glacial drift.]

The Quaternary or Drift Period has left abundant, though by no means universal, traces of its presence. As before intimated, I saw no relics of it in East Washington, except a deposit of rather small, generally very small, and well-rounded quartz gravel, thickly strewing, and really forming, the flats bordering Spokane River. This gravel macadamizes the streets of the City of Spokane Falls, and the neighboring roads, so as to make them firm at all seasons. These gravelly bottoms are not tillable except in a few spots.

The undulating country north and east of Puget Sound is in many places deeply covered with drift material which shows the effect of both ice and water. Blocks of partially rounded granite several feet in diameter are found on the hills around Seattle. This gravel deposit is not often found on high points, but there is a ridge in the Cascade Mountains, near Salal Prairie, which is thickly bestrewed at an elevation of 1,000 feet. This, however, was quite exceptional, and may be the lateral moraine of a local glacier. The deposit around Seattle is not only easy to cultivate (its soil being a light blue loam), but seems fertile. The bottom lands are free from gravel.

So much for the general geology.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.

NOTE.--The location of the coal-fields and collieries mentioned in the following pages may be seen on an accompanying map.

Under the head of Economic Geology, I shall describe with more detail the mineral beds which have a commercial value, and in the following order:--I. Coal; II. Iron Ore; III. Granite, Limestone, and Marble; IV. Precious and Base Metals.

[Sidenote: Thickness of the Coal Measures.]

I. COAL.--The thickness of the Coal Measures of the Puget Sound basin is estimated by Bailey Willis at something like 14,000 feet, though he admits the obvious possibility of error in the calculation by reason of undiscovered faults. We may fairly expect them, however, to be thicker than the same group in the Rocky Mountains, which measure about 9,000 feet. As heretofore remarked, the sediments become thinner from west to east. Of course, the maximum thickness is not to be expected in every locality. Mr. Willis's estimate was made in the Wilkeson and Green River fields, and really did not reach the limit of the coal-bearing rocks. The coal rocks of the Cedar River and Snoqualmie basin have never, so far as I know, been estimated, but probably this group is equal in thickness to that of any other part of the field. The difficulty of measurement arises from the numerous fractures and changes of strike which exist.

[Sidenote: Fifteen workable seams.]

The number of distinct workable seams of coal of three feet and upwards, belonging to the measures, may safely be put down at not less than fifteen.

[Sidenote: Different kinds of coal described.]

Before considering the quality of these coals, I will, for better understanding, make some prefatory statements in regard to the character of coals generally. Charcoal has greater purity than mineral coals usually have, because there is nothing in the charcoal except what naturally belongs to the woody matter. Mineral coal, however, having been buried in water, mud, and sand, must, almost of necessity, have some mixture of foreign matter, either slate, which is simply hardened mud; silica, which may have been derived from sand; iron and sulphur, some of which may have been in the wood, but most of it, probably, introduced in solutions; to which should be added, unexpelled oxygen, which is not only useless as fuel, but which combines with a portion of the contained hydrogen, and forms water in the substance of the coal.

The proportion of ash in coals of the same class is usually determined by the amount of slate in the coal, in addition to the mineral matter which belonged originally to the vegetable material from which the coal was formed. In the pure state, the proportion of ash increases as the transformation of woody fibre goes on from peat to anthracite.

[Sidenote: The chemical changes in coal beds.]

It is worth while to note what are the changes which take place in the vegetable matter during the process. It may be described in a word as a progressive loss of oxygen, and by this loss the coal becomes richer, for the reason just given. The deoxidizing process is carried on by means of chemical changes in the substance of the coaly matter. The oxygen combining with a certain proportion of the carbon, forms carbon di-oxide, or carbonic acid gas; and a certain other portion, combining with hydrogen, forms water. Both of these are volatile in their character, and gradually escape. Another loss is effected by the combination of hydrogen and carbon, forming marsh gas. We have deadly proof that these combinations are in progress in all coal mines by the occurrence of "choke-damp" and "fire-damp," which are the miners' names for these gases.

[Sidenote: Deficient nomenclature.]

Unfortunately, we have no settled nomenclature for the varieties of coal, excepting the broad names lignite or brown coal, bituminous coal, and anthracite. Even the term "bituminous" is scientifically inaccurate, there being, in fact, no bitumen in any coal. But it is applied to such coals as contain more oxygen and volatile combustible matter and water than anthracite, and less of these elements than lignite. The term lignite is made to include a great variety of substances, covering the lignites of the Juro-Trias of James River (Dutch Gap), which retain not only the structure, but the appearance of decaying wood; the lignites of the State of Mississippi, which are of the same geologic age as those of the Rocky Mountains, but which, owing to their watery and crumbly character, are unfit for market; the lignites of the Grand and Moreau rivers of Dakota, which are reported to have no commercial value; the lignites of Bozeman, Montana, which are really valuable, but soon break down into chips and grits; the lignites of Green River, Wyoming, which are firm, bright, lump coals; and the lignites of King County, Washington Territory, many of which are hard, bright, steam and shipping coals. And when brought to the laboratory, it is found that chemically these lignites vary even more than they do optically.

[Sidenote: Lignite an unsuitable name for the coals of Washington Territory.]

This want of a varied nomenclature is to be regretted, because it sometimes handicaps a good coal with an inferior name. It is only of late that the Laramie or Cretaceous coals of Washington Territory have been divided into lignites, bituminous coals, and anthracites. These grade into each other so insensibly that it would be impossible to classify them sharply. None of the lignites which I saw were as low in grade as the typical lignite. The woody structure was quite discernible in some samples of the Franklin coal, and less in the Newcastle and Green River; but in respect to the two latter, I could not with the naked eye discern more of the woody structure than I have seen in some of the West Virginia coals, which belong to the Carboniferous period. I sat by fires of Newcastle and neighboring coals for a month, and observed no unusual amount of smoke, and no peculiar odor. By analysis, these coals show a larger percentage of oxygen than the typical bituminous coal, but decidedly less than is found in the brown coal of Germany, or in some of the lignites of Montana. They need a new name. Their heating power is not so great as that of the bituminous coals of the same region. Their streak and powder are less black, and their fracture more conchoidal, but not decidedly so.

The bituminous coals have the usual cubical fracture. The Wilkeson readily breaks down into small cubes. The lignites are black and lustrous. They come out as lumpy as ordinary coal, and, when exposed to weather, do not break up into powder and grits like ordinary lignite. This is true, at least, of the Newcastle coal.

[Sidenote: The coking quality not general in these coals, but found in some.]

The coking quality of these coals cannot be determined by calculating the proportion between the fixed carbon and the volatile, combustible matter. I am not sure that Professor Fraser's fuel ratio tables are a safe guide in any case. So far as now known, only a few of the Washington Territory coals can be made into good coke. On this point, however, we have only laboratory and rough field tests, excepting at the Wilkeson mines, where twenty-five ovens were turning out a superior quality of coke, as proved by every test save the use of it in high furnace stacks, in which there had been no opportunity for trial. It is claimed by many persons that seams on Green River, Skagit, Yakima, and Snoqualmie will furnish good coking coal. The coal on Snoqualmie Mountain, near Hop Ranch, has not been studied, but it certainly has the external characteristics of good coking coal, and Mr. Peter Kirke made a rough trial of it in an earth-pit with decidedly encouraging results.