Part 4

The Means are obtained by dividing the sum of the daily readings of the Maximum and Minimum Self-registering Thermometers by the number of days in the month.

====================+=========================================+ | 1883 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+ | July. | Aug. | Sept. | STATIONS. +-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Mean. | Mean. | Mean. | +------+------+------+------+------+------+ | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | --------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ Bismarck, Dak. | 79.5 | 55.8 | 78.6 | 54.8 | 69.4 | 43.7 | Dayton, W. T. | 87.3 | 53.6 | 85.1 | 53.2 | 77.5 | 45.2 | Denver, Col. | 82.6 | 58.7 | 83.6 | 58.8 | 74.7 | 50.2 | Lewiston, Idaho | 90.0 | 59.1 | 87.1 | 57.6 | 76.0 | 47.7 | New Haven, Conn. | 80.3 | 62.4 | 77.6 | 57.9 | 70.4 | 50.6 | Norfolk, Virginia. | 87.9 | 71.1 | 82.4 | 68.9 | 76.4 | 63.8 | Olympia, W. T. | 76.1 | 48.2 | 71.3 | 55.1 | 67.0 | 48.1 | Portland, Oregon. | 80.0 | 57.0 | 73.8 | 54.2 | 72.3 | 52.6 | San Diego, Cal. | 75.5 | 64.0 | 75.9 | 63.5 | 78.2 | 62.9 | Sandusky, Ohio | -- | -- | 77.1 | 62.8 | 69.2 | 55.8 | San Francisco, Cal. | 64.5 | 55.0 | 64.4 | 53.9 | 69.9 | 56.3 | Sitka, Alaska | 57.9 | 48.1 | 59.3 | 48.8 | 58.9 | 48.5 | Spokane Falls, W. T.| 85.0 | 53.4 | 83.2 | 72.5 | 72.4 | 44.2 | Washington City. | 87.7 | 67.2 | 82.4 | 62.7 | 74.8 | 56.2 | ====================+======+======+======+======+======+======+

====================+=========================================+ | 1883 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | STATIONS. +-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Mean. | Mean. | Mean. | +------+------+------+------+------+------+ | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | --------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ Bismarck, Dak. | 48.3 | 33.4 | 38.7 | 15.0 | 25.0 | 4.5 | Dayton, W. T. | 57.8 | 34.7 | 51.6 | 33.3 | 35.8 | 18.5 | Denver, Col. | 57.6 | 36.8 | 56.1 | 31.1 | 36.8 | 17.4 | Lewiston, Idaho | 57.9 | 39.5 | 57.6 | 35.5 | 41.7 | 29.3 | New Haven, Conn. | 58.4 | 40.4 | 50.5 | 34.1 | 38.3 | 21.5 | Norfolk, Virginia. | 68.4 | 56.7 | 62.2 | 45.0 | 53.9 | 38.8 | Olympia, W. T. | 57.3 | 42.9 | 50.2 | 44.9 | 45.9 | 35.4 | Portland, Oregon. | 58.4 | 45.8 | 52.8 | 72.0 | 49.0 | 36.8 | San Diego, Cal. | 69.0 | 54.7 | 67.7 | 50.2 | 65.7 | 49.0 | Sandusky, Ohio | 59.2 | 47.3 | 52.5 | 37.2 | 39.8 | 27.5 | San Francisco, Cal. | 62.9 | 52.9 | 58.8 | 49.4 | 55.5 | 46.2 | Sitka, Alaska | 50.6 | 41.0 | 38.6 | 27.3 | 41.6 | 30.5 | Spokane Falls, W. T.| 53.7 | 35.0 | 46.6 | 32.0 | 35.6 | 22.4 | Washington City. | 65.5 | 49.3 | 56.2 | 39.4 | 63.1 | 45.3 | ====================+======+======+======+======+======+======+

====================+=========================================+ | 1884 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Jan. | Feb. | March. | STATIONS. +-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Mean. | Mean. | Mean. | +------+------+------+------+------+------+ | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | --------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ Bismarck, Dak. | 14.5 | 7.6 | 8.9 | 9.8 | 29.9 | 10.5 | Dayton, W. T. | 31.0 | 11.5 | 24.9 | 4.8 | 35.6 | 19.6 | Denver, Col. | 25.7 | 5.3 | 30.8 | 10.8 | 43.0 | 25.7 | Lewiston, Idaho | 39.1 | 25.9 | 35.1 | 18.8 | 53.6 | 34.7 | New Haven, Conn. | 32.6 | 15.8 | 40.8 | 24.3 | 42.4 | 26.6 | Norfolk, Virginia. | 46.7 | 29.9 | 59.0 | 41.0 | 58.1 | 42.1 | Olympia, W. T. | 44.7 | 35.2 | 42.1 | 27.5 | 52.5 | 34.4 | Portland, Oregon. | 46.2 | 33.3 | 44.4 | 29.4 | 55.6 | 37.8 | San Diego, Cal. | 64.5 | 45.6 | 62.9 | 48.6 | 62.9 | 50.4 | Sandusky, Ohio | 26.9 | 12.9 | 39.0 | 24.4 | 41.6 | 28.7 | San Francisco, Cal. | 54.7 | 46.6 | 55.9 | 45.6 | 59.2 | 49.8 | Sitka, Alaska | 43.8 | 34.2 | 37.8 | 25.8 | 42.5 | 33.3 | Spokane Falls, W. T.| 32.6 | 17.5 | 30.2 | 12.7 | 46.4 | 27.8 | Washington City. | 49.7 | 31.8 | 65.6 | 47.0 | 67.8 | 51.6 | ====================+======+======+======+======+======+======+

====================+=========================================+ | 1884 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+ | April. | May. | June. | STATIONS. +-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Mean. | Mean. | Mean. | +------+------+------+------+------+------+ | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | Max. | Min. | --------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ Bismarck, Dak. | 47.6 | 30.2 | 67.1 | 44.1 | 81.2 | 54.8 | Dayton, W. T. | 43.9 | 29.6 | 59.5 | 40.7 | 73.7 | 51.8 | Denver, Col. | 58.2 | 39.6 | 71.5 | 50.2 | 81.2 | 61.3 | Lewiston, Idaho | 66.6 | 42.1 | 79.3 | 48.9 | 80.8 | 57.3 | New Haven, Conn. | 54.1 | 37.2 | 65.8 | 47.2 | 78.2 | 55.4 | Norfolk, Virginia. | 61.9 | 47.0 | 76.9 | 58.8 | 81.8 | 64.6 | Olympia, W. T. | 61.7 | 41.6 | 70.1 | 43.9 | 71.5 | 48.9 | Portland, Oregon. | 65.1 | 45.3 | 73.6 | 48.7 | 74.9 | 53.7 | San Diego, Cal. | 64.4 | 51.1 | 67.5 | 56.1 | 72.1 | 58.4 | Sandusky, Ohio | 52.1 | 39.3 | 68.8 | 51.3 | 77.9 | 62.7 | San Francisco, Cal. | 61.2 | 50.7 | 65.3 | 53.4 | 65.2 | 55.3 | Sitka, Alaska | 51.7 | 37.7 | 51.9 | 40.8 | 57.9 | 46.4 | Spokane Falls, W. T.| 62.2 | 39.0 | 74.5 | 46.0 | 78.7 | 53.9 | Washington City. | 73.6 | 54.8 | 81.4 | 63.0 | 87.4 | 68.5 | ====================+======+======+======+======+======+======+

TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE PRECIPITATION AT STATIONS OF THE SIGNAL SERVICE,

COMPUTED FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF OBSERVATIONS AT EACH, TO AND INCLUDING DECEMBER, 1883.

TAKEN FROM THE REPORT OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER TO THE WAR DEPARTMENT FOR 1884.

==========================+================+======+======+======+ STATIONS. | ESTABLISHED. | Jan. | Feb. |March.| | | | | | --------------------------+----------------+------+------+------+ Bismarck, Dak. | Sept. 15, 1874 | 0.57 | 0.66 | 1.21 | Dayton, Wash. Terr. | July 1, 1879 | 4.11 | 3.64 | 2.04 | Denver, Colorado | Nov. 19, 1871 | 0.69 | 0.43 | 0.86 | Lewiston, Idaho | July 1, 1879 | 2.45 | 1.53 | 1.16 | New Haven, Conn. | Dec. 10, 1872 | 4.20 | 4.22 | 5.29 | Norfolk, Virginia | Jan. 1, 1871 | 3.89 | 3.85 | 4.35 | Olympia, Wash. Terr. | July 1, 1877 | 9.36 |10.67 | 6.20 | Portland, Oregon | Nov. 1, 1871 | 7.34 | 8.11 | 7.27 | San Diego, Cal. | Nov. 1, 1871 | 1.85 | 2.07 | 0.97 | Sandusky, Ohio | Aug. 2, 1877 | 2.19 | 3.13 | 2.90 | San Francisco, Cal. | March 8, 1871 | 5.10 | 3.95 | 2.88 | Sitka, Alaska | March 30, 1881 | 9.44 |11.64 | 9.76 | Spokane Falls, Wash. Terr.| Feb. 5, 1881 | 3.34 | 3.02 | 0.85 | Washington City | Nov. 1, 1870 | 3.16 | 2.85 | 4.04 | ==========================+================+======+======+======+

==========================+======+======+======+======+======+ STATIONS. |April.| May. | June.| July.| Aug. | | | | | | | --------------------------+----------------+------+------+---+ Bismarck, Dak. | 2.94 | 3.31 | 3.64 | 2.21 | 2.71 | Dayton, Wash. Terr. | 3.26 | 2.02 | 0.86 | 0.79 | 0.49 | Denver, Colorado | 1.71 | 3.05 | 1.60 | 1.89 | 1.54 | Lewiston, Idaho | 1.28 | 1.12 | 0.94 | 0.76 | 0.36 | New Haven, Conn. | 4.32 | 3.71 | 3.80 | 4.86 | 5.62 | Norfolk, Virginia | 4.29 | 3.54 | 4.15 | 5.39 | 6.11 | Olympia, Wash. Terr. | 4.34 | 2.76 | 0.88 | 0.86 | 0.83 | Portland, Oregon | 3.48 | 2.44 | 1.82 | 0.71 | 0.81 | San Diego, Cal. | 0.68 | 0.26 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.23 | Sandusky, Ohio | 2.79 | 3.34 | 5.06 | 4.06 | 4.27 | San Francisco, Cal. | 1.80 | 0.71 | 0.16 | 0.01 | 0.01 | Sitka, Alaska | 4.40 | 3.23 | 3.13 | 5.82 | 5.82 | Spokane Falls, Wash. Terr.| 1.99 | 1.38 | 1.00 | 1.04 | 0.25 | Washington City | 3.07 | 2.98 | 4.23 | 4.08 | 4.97 | ==========================+======+======+======+======+======+

==========================+======+======+======+======+=======+ STATIONS. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |TOTAL | | | | | |INCHES.| --------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+ Bismarck, Dak. | 1.34 | 1.33 | 0.71 | 0.72 | 21.35 | Dayton, Wash. Terr. | 0.67 | 2.64 | 2.55 | 4.95 | 28.02 | Denver, Colorado | 0.96 | 0.79 | 0.74 | 0.71 | 14.97 | Lewiston, Idaho | 0.52 | 1.93 | 1.66 | 3.40 | 17.11 | New Haven, Conn. | 4.15 | 3.85 | 4.15 | 3.38 | 51.55 | Norfolk, Virginia | 5.23 | 3.96 | 3.58 | 3.80 | 52.14 | Olympia, Wash. Terr. | 2.98 | 5.60 | 8.16 |10.17 | 62.81 | Portland, Oregon | 1.62 | 4.95 | 7.34 | 8.27 | 54.16 | San Diego, Cal. | 0.05 | 0.40 | 0.70 | 2.12 | 9.40 | Sandusky, Ohio | 3.54 | 3.50 | 3.68 | 2.97 | 41.43 | San Francisco, Cal. | 0.15 | 1.13 | 2.70 | 4.72 | 23.32 | Sitka, Alaska | 9.97 | 9.33 |11.87 |12.87 | 97.28 | Spokane Falls, Wash. Terr.| 1.14 | 2.90 | 2.22 | 2.06 | 21.19 | Washington City | 4.42 | 3.00 | 2.84 | 2.92 | 42.56 | ==========================+======+======+======+======+=======+

_b._ ALLUVIUM. This includes the transported matter of the bottom-lands, the swales, and the tidal flats. Here we have humus, not only as a top-dressing, but also intermixed, and sometimes constituting a large proportion of the soil for a considerable depth. No land could be richer than this, and its relative proportion to the whole is larger than would be inferred even from the great number of streams, for it includes the lowlands about Puget Sound and the lakes. The mountain streams have, with some exceptions, but little alluvial land. There are areas of swale, or wet bottom-lands, which may be drained to advantage. The tidal flats along the Sound are peculiarly fertile, because enriched by both vegetable and animal matter, including calcareous shells and fish bones. Owing to this great fertility, and the ease with which large areas are reclaimed by dykes, their convenience to transportation, and, it may be added, the labor of clearing the forest lands, the work of dyking these flats has been commenced, especially in Snohomish and Skagit counties, and it is thought that two hundred thousand acres may thus be redeemed from the water. Alluvial lands constitute but a small feature in East Washington.

_c._ DRIFT. The origin of these gravel soils is given hereafter, under the head of Geology. They constitute the hill lands, as distinguished from the bottom lands and Sound flats on the one hand, and the mountain lands on the other. They are composed of sand, clay, gravel, and some large boulders. Rarely the gravel predominates so as to render the land unfit for cultivation. Sometimes there are only clay and sand, and sometimes chiefly clay. This soil, though not equal to the alluvium, or to the basaltic land, is much better than glacial precipitate usually is. It gave all the indications of a fertile soil, resembling the best hay lands of Massachusetts, which have the same glacial origin. Its natural growth is luxuriant, and when cleared it inclines to clothe itself in white clover and the grasses. It is said to be specially adapted to fruits and vegetables.

_d._ LOAM. I mean by this a clay soil containing fine-grained sand enough to make it friable. This is the soil made by the slates and sandstones of the coal measures, and is generally found on the highlands above the drift. It is a medium land as to quality, but valuable for the tendency to grass, which characterizes all the lands of West Washington. Much of it will make good cropping land. There is a great deal of it. It is found high on the cretaceous hills and mountains, often extending to the top.

[Sidenote: A remarkable soil.]

_e._ BASALT. This is the magic soil of the Great Plain (or plateau) of the Columbia. And it is found also in large areas on the Cascade Mountains. It has an ashy look and texture; sometimes black, but generally of ashen hue. Rarely it is compact and clayey. There are perhaps twenty thousand square miles of this basaltic land; enough of itself to make a medium-sized State. Of course there are inequalities in the productiveness of this land. The basaltic rock in many places crops out, as mentioned under the head of Topography, and there are coulées and galled spots. I cannot say what proportion of the surface is rendered valueless by these irregularities. The outcropping basalt does not destroy the value of the land; for the soil spaces between the rocks may be greater than the rock spaces, and whilst unfit for the plough, they may be suited to trees, or cattle range. But, judging by all that I saw and heard, I should think that the smooth land considerably predominates over the rough. Certainly there is more smooth, comparatively level, fertile, productive, and easily cultivated land here in proportion to the whole area than I have ever seen elsewhere. The great plain of East Colorado is a vast and beautiful stretch of country, but it is unproductive without irrigation. Taking everything into consideration, the plateau of East Washington seems to me to be unequaled in combined extent and productiveness.

This subject of soils will be incidentally continued in connection with the next two heads.

NATURAL VEGETATION.

[Sidenote: Vast vegetation.]

Here the two sides of the Cascade Mountains must again, as under other heads, be considered separately. The natural vegetation of the west side is vast rather than varied. Wherever the sun touches the ground, one may expect to see grass; chiefly white clover and green sward, which seem to be indigenous to the country. There are, of course, many herbs and shrubs which need not be mentioned in a report like this. The ferns of the Snoqualmie bottoms, for size, remind one of the tree ferns of the carboniferous period, though, of course, not so large. Many of them were seven feet high, which is five feet higher than I ever saw elsewhere. The Sal-al is a low shrub, almost herbaceous, and semi-procumbent, of brown foliage, bearing a berry and belonging to the wintergreen family, though much larger than the wintergreen of the Alleghenies. The Sal-al abounds on the little prairie which bears its name. The mosses are most abundant and luxuriant in the deep, moist shades of the evergreen forests, and I noticed that the Cayuse ponies fed upon them as eagerly as reindeer upon the Iceland mosses.

[Sidenote: Deciduous trees.]

Deciduous trees are rare, but not wholly wanting. The cottonwood grows to rather extra size. The alder, which is only a large bush in the Alleghenies, here becomes a tree, perhaps thirty feet high. I saw some small maples. It is said that there are groves of oak and maple of sufficient size to cut for lumber.

[Sidenote: Larch.]

The Larch (tamarack) is interspersed among the evergreens on the Cascade Mountains, and attains good size. The American larch is rather more slender in habit than the European variety, but it has a heavy, close-grained wood, and is regarded as specially suited for railroad ties--an important point in this country. It is also reported to make durable fence-posts and ground sills. In Europe its bark is valued for tanning next to oak bark, and the two are used together. The Venice turpentine comes from the resinous sap of the larch. The older trees are better than the younger ones for durability. But with regard to this class of trees, results depend much on incidental circumstances. Larch is one of the woods used in Europe for making gas. These are the only deciduous trees I know of in Washington Territory, except fruit trees.

[Sidenote: Extraordinary evergreen forests.]

Evergreens constitute the bulk of the great forests, and I shall name these in the order of their importance: Douglas (or red) fir, white cedar, hemlock spruce, white pine, balsam (or white) fir and yew.

[Sidenote: Douglas fir, or Oregon pine.]

[Sidenote: The best of ship timber.]

The Douglas Fir constitutes the greater part of the forests, but not so large a proportion as seven-eighths, as stated in the Census report, but more than one-third, which is the proportion given in Hough's Forestry Report. The wood of this tree is yellow when young, and hence some persons make two varieties out of the same tree. When older, it becomes an orange color, but not red like the heart of the sweet gum and red cedar. It is, however, usually called the red fir. The tree yields a clear yellow resin, which is not at present collected. Its timber is of the best quality, greatly superior to that of the fir tribe generally, probably superior to that of any other fir-tree in the world. The firs shade into each other by an almost insensible gradation, and are much modified by soil and climate, and names have been multiplied unnecessarily. The fir, like the larch, must be studied in each locality in order to determine its value. The firs of Sweden and Norway make good masts and spars, and soft, light boards; but the boards are apt to split and are not strong enough for ship-work. But the timber of the Douglas fir is heavy, strong and firm, and well suited to ship-building, as has been abundantly demonstrated on Puget Sound. For all ordinary building purposes this timber has a world-wide reputation. It is often called the "Oregon Pine." Its growth as a tree is luxuriant on good soil, and often gigantic. I saw many single specimens which I estimated at 300 feet in height and 10 to 12 feet in diameter. When disconnected, they have the usual conical shape of the firs, with limbs branching from the ground, but it is rare to see such specimens in Washington Territory, as the forests are so dense there is no room for limbs, except near the top. The trunks stand as straight and regular as posts set with a plumb-line. This crowding often prevents the full development of the trunk also, except on the most moist and fertile lands. The absence of lower branches insures a great length of lumber free from knots.

[Sidenote: White cedar.]

[Sidenote: Beautiful house lumber.]

The White Cedar is a variety of the well-known arbor vitæ of the Eastern States, but there is a wonderful difference in the size and habits of the tree on the two sides of the Continent. On the Atlantic side it may, under very favorable circumstances, reach fifty feet in height, but usually it is dwarfish and crooked. But in Washington Territory the white cedar is the peer of the Douglas fir, and its largest specimens perhaps exceed the latter somewhat in diameter. It is also next in abundance and value. Its wood is soft, light and cream-colored. It splits with remarkable ease and regularity, so that the pioneer with axe and frow can prepare all the timbers needed for his house. For shingles it is fully equal to its congener, the cypress; and for house-facings and some kinds of furniture it is the favorite wood.

[Sidenote: Hemlock spruce.]

[Sidenote: Tanners wanted.]

Hemlock Spruce is not so abundant, but it constitutes a noticeable element in the Snoqualmie Valley forests. It seems to be exactly the same tree which so abounds in our Eastern and Northern Lake States, and is common in the moist valleys all along the Appalachian Mountains. It is called hemlock in the Northern States, and spruce in the Southern. Its wood, though unsuited for many purposes, is largely used in the North for the frames of cheap buildings and also for fencing-plank, and its bark is in great demand for tanning, especially for making the red sole leather. It is also used for tanning upper leather and calf-skins, though its light leather is not so good as that made from the oak barks. The hemlock bark has not been considered quite equal to the chestnut-oak (or rock oak) bark for any tanning purposes, but in Virginia the price is usually the same. It certainly makes good sole leather. The logger in Washington Territory neglects this tree, and there are no tanneries yet to call for it, but this will soon be changed, and the hemlock will take its position, not only as the most beautiful of the evergreens, but as among the most useful. This tree does not attain as great size as the two above mentioned, but I observed many specimens ranging from four to five feet in diameter.

[Sidenote: White pine.]

The general character of the White Pine is well known. I saw but a few of them, and they not specially good. I doubt whether this tree forms an important feature in these forests.

[Sidenote: Balsam fir.]

[Sidenote: Large supply of Canada Balsam.]

The Balsam (or White) Fir abounds on the higher slopes of the Cascade Mountains, and it is so balsamic that it will receive attention from the collectors of "Canada Balsam," which is becoming increasingly popular for many purposes, especially in mounting specimens for the microscope. Such forests as lie near the Snoqualmie Pass will not long remain unnoticed. The wood is white and easily worked, but the trees do not rank in size or value with those previously mentioned.

[Sidenote: The yew.]

The Yew is found sparingly on the mountain heights; but, though interesting, it seems to have no economic value.

[Sidenote: The superior timber of Snoqualmie Valley.]

As to the extent of these evergreen forests, they may be said to cover West Washington with almost unbroken continuity, though they vary in density and the size of the trees, some tracts containing little or no mill-timber. In my travels, which were, of course, quite limited, I saw no forests which answered the usual unqualified descriptions, except in the Snoqualmie Valley, and here they far exceeded my expectation, as will be shown in the detailed description, given hereafter, of the country lying along the line of the Seattle, Lake Shore & Eastern Railway. The finest forests lie between Puget Sound and the crest of the Cascade Mountains, though even in this area there are variations. And after all the chopping and sawing--of which more will be told later--the forests as yet show but little diminution.