Part 2
Throughout these struggles and particularly with the conversion of Thakombau and the leadership of the already Christianized Tongan chiefs, native religion, including cannibalism, rapidly declined. Meanwhile, English, Australian, and New Zealand settlers were augmenting earlier trade contacts. Plantations and trade centers developed, and in 1857 a British consul was appointed and set up at Levuka on the east coast of Viti Levu. A few years later Thakombau sought relief from the payment of indemnities to foreign powers and from internal harassments by an offer to cede his dominions to Great Britain. The initial offer was declined and the British consul was recalled in 1860.
The next ten years saw a continuation of political and military turmoil stemming from rival interests of native rulers, Tongan interlopers, and European immigrants. A second appeal to the British government resulted in an unconditional deed of cession on October 10, 1874, which marks the beginning of Fiji's status as a British Crown Colony.
POPULATION
Over 300,000 people live in the Fiji Islands. Of these about 140,000 are native Fijians. The others are arranged in the following divisions:[4]
Indians 154,803 Europeans 6,500 Part European 7,496 Polynesians } Melanesians } 4,133 Micronesians } Rotumans 3,990 Chinese 3,857 Others 649
When Fiji became a British Crown Colony in 1874 the population was entirely native except for a handful of outsiders. At that time the population has been variously estimated at approximately 200,000. Shortly thereafter a measles epidemic reduced their number severely. This, with other epidemics and maladies for which they had little or no immunity or resistence, continued the decimation until by 1905 there were only 87,000. During the next decade they held their own, until in 1919 the influenza scourge brought them to their lowest level of 83,000. This was the last serious setback to their number; since that time the population has been on the upgrade.
A present threat to Fijian population, in the opinion of many, stems not from disease but from the Indian presence. This began in the latter part of the nineteenth century when Indian immigration of indentured laborers began. The influx went on until 1916 by which time some 40,000 to 50,000 Indians had come to Fiji and very few had returned to India. Since then, the Indians have increased more rapidly than the Fijians until they now outnumber them. This situation has, of course, created numerous problems beyond the scope of this paper.
It is significant to point out that intermarriage or interbreeding between Fijians and Indians is relatively slight. The amount of mingling of Fijians with Europeans or Orientals cannot be demonstrated statistically, but it has not been extensive. The Fijians, on the whole, retain pretty much of their prehistoric racial make-up.
RACIAL BACKGROUND
It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people, derived mainly from Melanesian and Polynesian sources. Both of these parental strains in turn are commonly believed to be racial blends. Hooton describes the Melanesians as Oceanic Negroes whose composition includes Negrito, Australoid, "plus convex-nosed Mediterranean plus minor fractions of Malay and Polynesian."[5] Birdsell sees the same three strains in Melanesia which he believes contribute to the Australians, namely Negrito, Murrayan, and Carpentarian, plus a small amount of Mongoloid. He believes they differ from Australians in being "basically negritic in their genetic composition as a result of the rain forest environment."[6] Polynesians, however, are usually thought to be derived from Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid strains in which the Caucasoid component is more often the strongest.
The composite character of the Fijians has been variously explained as far as order and time of the contributing elements are concerned. One theory regards a Negroid stock as aboriginal to which a Polynesian strain was later added. An early explanation of this sort is that of Fornander who held that the ancestors of the modern Polynesians coming from southeastern Asia via Indonesia in the early centuries A.D. made a prolonged stopover in Fiji as they moved eastward. This left a Polynesian imprint on the native Fijian physical appearance as well as on their language and culture.[7] Later on, Churchill added a second movement of Polynesians from the west about a thousand years later. This was used to explain a certain amount of Mongoloid elements that needed accounting for in western Polynesia.[8]
A differing interpretation brings the Polynesian influence into Fiji from the east in relatively recent times. Thomson, for example, regards it as mainly Tongan. There are many references in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to Tongan presence in Fiji; they came to trade, to fight, and merely to visit.
Hocart believes the Polynesians at one time occupied most of Fiji until they were driven eastward to Tonga and Samoa by native Melanesians.[9] Howells tentatively suggests another possibility: originally all of Fiji was occupied by Polynesians except perhaps for some Melanesian tribes in the mountainous interior of Viti Levu. Around the eleventh century a wave of immigrants from the west reached Fiji. "The newcomers, taking possession of the archipelago, partly amalgamated with and partly pushed out the Polynesian tenants, just as did the hill tribes of Hocart's theory, the refugees fleeing to Somoa and Tonga."[10] Howells associates this immigration with the Fijian tradition of an arrival of ancestral families from across the western sea.
This Fijian tradition of their own origin includes a landing on the west coast of Viti Levu at Nandi by an ancestral chief and his sons who came across the sea from the west. Several of his sons moved eastward and eventually founded families with native wives in various parts of the archipelago. These families ultimately became consolidated into present-day tribes or federations. Most Fijian social units derive their origin from this or similar legendary immigrations. These eposodes occurred eight or ten and, in one case, fifteen generations ago.[11] Where these ancestors came from or what their racial affiliations were is not described in the stories. On the basis of supposed similarities of place-names, claims have been made for Africa as the place of origin, but the validity of them is dubious. It is likely that these traditions refer only to the more recent immigrations from the west. As to the racial make-up of the ancestors, it is commonly believed that they were Polynesians who, after settling in various parts of Fiji, took native wives, presumably Melanesian, and originated many of the existing family lines. This assumption does not rest on any actual physical reference to their appearance but on such cultural data as their patrilineal succession and their tradition of strong hereditary chieftainship.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to a number of people of Fiji whose assistance and coöperation were helpful. Thanks are due to Sir Ronald Garvey, governor of Fiji, whose approval of my project gave administrative sanction. Mr. G. Kingsley Roth, the Secretary for Fijian Affairs, secured for me the coöperation of the Fijian Affairs Department, which in turn gave me access to the proper native officers and leaders, furnished me with necessary transportation; he also gave me some sound advice. Also of the Fijian Affairs Office, Ratu Dr. Dobi helped me make the necessary contacts as my work took me from one area to another. Mr. Robbin H. Yarrow, safety officer of the Emperor Gold Mining Company, was most helpful during my stay at Vatukoula, where I secured an excellent sample of the northern provinces.
The young Fijian who acted as my interpreter, guide, and recorder was Joji Qalelawe; my especial thanks to him for his intelligent and cheerful coöperation.
MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES
GENERAL
_Weight_[12]
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 814 105-300 163.0 20.3 12.5 Interior 0 0 0 0 0 East 73 130-245 168.1 19.3 11.5 Coast 210 118-300 160.7 22.8 14.2 N.W. 79 120-212 161.9 16.9 10.4
The average weight of 163 pounds, coupled with their rather tall stature, describes the Fijian as a large person, on the whole. Their generous weight does not reflect excessive obesity; the body build, as will be pointed out later, is prevailingly muscular and athletic. Variation among the regional samples is not significant; all the groups average more than 160 pounds.
_Stature_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 150.1-195.0 172.5 6.1 3.5 Interior 154 150.1-183.7 169.6 6.0 3.5 East 120 160.2-190.5 173.3 6.0 3.5 Coast 210 156.1-195.0 173.4 5.8 3.4 N.W. 79 159.8-186.0 172.7 5.8 3.3 Fiji (Howells) 133 158-190 170.8 6.1 3.6 Solomons (Howells) 85 146-181 160.2 6.8 4.2 Tonga (Sullivan) 92 160-188 173.0 5.2 3.0
The stature of the Fijians is moderately tall. Howells' series of Fijians, as well as mine, indicate this category. In this measurement, the Fijians are similar to the Tongans. They are 12 cm. taller than the Melanesians.
Among the Fijian themselves, the interior people of the highlands are definitely shorter than the rest of the population.
Rumors still persist of remnants of pygmoid people in the interior mountains of Viti Levu. I found no evidence of them either in my travels in the interior or by extensive inquiries among natives and Europeans who had thorough knowledge of the whole island.
_Span_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 155.0-208.0 180.0 15.1 8.8 Interior 154 155.0-201.0 179.5 7.5 4.2 East 120 166.4-200.5 178.1 24.3 13.6 Coast 210 160.1-208.0 181.2 14.6 8.1 N.W. 79 165.1-202.0 180.0 21.6 11.9
Span of the arms also reflects the generous proportions of the Fijians. Regional difference is not marked. Relative to stature, the hill people have the longer arms and the eastern natives the shortest. The greater relative arm length of the hill tribes seems to be owing more to deficiency of stature than to excessive arm length or shoulder breadth.
_Span-Stature Index_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 96.1-116.3 104.3 8.5 8.15 Interior 154 99.4-115.1 105.2 2.3 2.2 East 120 99.1-108.5 102.7 13.5 13.14 Coast 210 97.9-116.3 104.4 7.7 7.4 N.W. 79 100.2-109.7 104.1 12.0 11.5
THE TRUNK
_Sitting Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 75.1-100 87.0 3.5 3.9 Interior 154 75.1-94 84.4 9.4 11.0 East 120 81-100 88.5 3.5 3.9 Coast 210 80-99 87.7 3.2 3.6 N.W. 79 80-94 86.0 2.9 3.3 Fiji (Howells) 132 78-101 88.3 3.06 3.46 Solomons (Howells) 85 69-95 83.6 3.8 4.5
A total sitting height average of 87 cm. attests the generous general body length. A regional trend follows the same curve as that for stature. The eastern body length is greatest; it exceeds the over-all average by 1-1/2 cm. and is more than 4 cm. larger than the interior people who fall at the bottom of the scale of sitting height. Howells' Fijian series is close to my eastern average. Compared with the Solomon Islands natives, the Fijians are much more elongated.
_Relative Sitting Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 45-58 50.4 1.5 3.0 Interior 154 46-56 49.8 1.4 2.8 East 120 48-54 51.0 1.3 2.5 Coast 210 46-56 50.5 1.4 2.8 N.W. 79 47-54 50.2 1.4 2.8 Fiji (Howells) 132 46-57 51.7 1.36 2.63 Solomons (Howells) 85 46-57 52.1 1.64 2.92
The relative sitting height ratio for all Fijians is 50.4 per cent. The eastern average of 51 per cent indicates a little more legginess, whereas the interior groups tend somewhat to longer trunks.
_Biacromial_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 28-47 39.7 8.2 6.2 Interior 154 29-43 39.0 6.2 4.7 East 120 35-45 39.9 6.1 4.0 Coast 210 28-45 39.7 7.6 4.9 N.W. 79 35-47 40.5 6.6 3.9
The Fijians are generally a broad-shouldered people. The inhabitants of Ra and Ba have the highest average and the interior people are least broad-shouldered.
_Relative Shoulder Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 18-27 22.3 1.3 5.8 Interior 154 19-25 22.9 1.0 3.9 East 120 20-26 23.0 1.0 3.9 Coast 210 18-26 22.9 1.0 4.4 N.W. 79 20-27 23.4 3.1 13.2
Relative to total stature, shoulder breadth averages 22.3 per cent. No significant regional differences are indicated.
_Bi-Iliac_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 23-40 29.2 5.6 5.3 Interior 154 25-38 29.0 5.1 5.2 East 120 27-34 29.5 4.1 4.8 Coast 210 23-37 29.2 5.9 5.5 N.W. 79 26-32 29.3 4.6 5.0
The Fijians, as a whole, are fairly broad-hipped; this condition holds with little variation in all the provinces.
_Shoulder-Hip_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 58-101 73.7 4.3 5.8 Interior 154 65-100 74.6 4.2 5.6 East 120 67-82 73.8 3.2 4.3 Coast 210 58-99 73.5 4.3 5.9 N.W. 79 62-86 72.8 5.9 8.1
The total shoulder-hip ratio describes the shoulders as 73.7 per cent as wide as the hips. These ratios do not vary greatly in different parts of Fiji. The somewhat higher index of the hill groups is owing largely to their narrower shoulders, whereas the superior shoulder breadth of the northwest provinces contributes mostly to the lower hip-shoulder index.
_Chest Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 24-39 28.6 6.4 5.7 Interior 154 25-33 28.6 3.3 4.7 East 120 26-39 29.4 7.2 5.8 Coast 210 25-37 28.7 7.8 6.2 N.W. 79 25-32 28.9 4.3 4.9
Broad chests are also characteristic in Fiji. The eastern men surpass the Viti Levu males, and the interior groups have the narrowest chests, but the regional variations are small.
_Chest Depth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 184-308 22.9 5.5 7.0 Interior 154 195-263 22.4 3.2 5.8 East 120 189-295 22.5 4.9 6.6 Coast 210 184-300 21.7 5.7 7.2 N.W. 79 192-250 21.8 3.3 6.0
The chests of the Fijians are also fairly deep. The close similarity in chest depth of the interior group and the eastern sample is rather striking inasmuch as the former are nearly 4 cm. shorter in stature. This would indicate that the interior group, for their size, are relatively deep-chested.
_Thoracic_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 59-96 76.4 4.6 6.0 Interior 154 69-88 78.5 3.9 5.0 East 120 65-85 76.3 4.3 5.6 Coast 210 56-89 75.5 4.7 6.2 N.W. 79 65-85 75.7 4.4 5.8
The thoracic index shows that the Fijians are deep-chested relative to thoracic breadth as well as in absolute values. Again the interior people stand out for their deeper chests.
ARMS AND LEGS
_Arm Length_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 45-87 75.2 5.0 6.6 Interior 154 45-83 73.6 4.8 6.1 East 120 52-84 75.1 3.9 5.2 Coast 210 57-87 76.0 4.9 6.4 N.W. 79 55-86 75.3 6.6 8.8
The over-all arm length is 75.2 cm. Shorter arms seem to be characteristic of the interior population where the average is nearly 2 cm. less than the over-all average. The eastern group has the longest arms; the other samples are intermediate.
_Humeral Length_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 26-39 32.8 8.6 5.7 Interior 154 28-38 32.8 7.1 5.2 East 120 28-39 32.9 8.3 5.6 Coast 210 26-38 32.9 9.1 5.8 N.W. 79 28-38 33.0 7.9 5.4
Length of the upper arm averages 33 cm. for all Fijians; the several provinces are closely similar in this trait.
_Radial Length_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 23-35 27.6 4.1 5.1 Interior 154 24-33 27.3 2.4 4.5 East 120 23-34 27.5 6.9 6.1 Coast 210 24-35 27.9 3.5 4.8 N.W. 79 25-32 27.9 3.4 4.8
Lower arm length is 27.6 cm. and also varies but little among the regional samples.
_Radial-Humeral_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 65-113 84.0 4.2 5.0 Interior 154 77-104 83.0 3.8 4.6 East 120 65-95 83.5 4.7 5.6 Coast 210 75-113 84.7 4.2 4.9 N.W. 79 77-94 82.2 3.6 4.3
The radial-humeral ratio indicates that the lower arm of Fijians is 84 per cent as long as the upper arm. None of the subgroups deviates markedly from this average.
_Leg Length_[13]
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 61-98 84.3 10.5 12.5 Interior 154 74-96 81.1 8.6 12.9 East 120 73-96 84.1 8.6 10.3 Coast 210 68-97 85.3 7.2 8.5 N.W. 79 75-95 85.7 4.4 5.2
Average leg length is 84.3 cm., and some regional differences are manifest. The legs of the hill people are shorter by 3 cm. than are the other groups. Their neighbors to the northwest and east have the longest legs, and the eastern are intermediate.
_Tibial Length_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 34-49 40.9 8.3 6.9 Interior 154 35-45 40.3 13.4 10.8 East 120 35-47 40.7 6.2 5.2 Coast 210 35-47 41.2 6.8 5.1 N.W. 79 36-47 40.9 6.1 5.9
Lower leg length is around 40 cm. for all Fijians. The regional pattern is similar to that of total leg length: shortest in the highlands, intermediate in the east, and longest in the coastal and northwestern districts.
_Calf Circumference_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 29-57 37.6 6.7 7.1 Interior 154 31-51 37.0 6.4 7.1 East 120 33-50 38.1 4.7 6.5 Coast 210 29-48 37.2 9.4 7.9 N.W. 79 30-43 37.7 7.6 6.3
The generous girth of the calf of the Fijians reflects their sturdily muscled legs. The eastern groups excel the other Fijians in this respect, whereas the interior groups have the lowest average for calf circumference.
THE HEAD
_Head Circumference_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 410-630 562.4 7.8 6.7 Interior 154 537-613 565.3 4.1 2.5 East 120 528-630 566.3 4.9 2.9 Coast 210 410-630 563.5 4.6 3.5 N.W. 79 537-597 557.7 14.3 11.5
The head circumference average of 562.4 mm. Probably is a little on the large size because of the thick wiry hair of most Fijians; the eastern groups appear to have the largest heads and the northwestern groups show a rather abrupt drop.
_Head Length_[14]
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 162-215 187.9 9.4 5.0 Interior 154 170-210 190.1 7.6 4.0 East 120 172-209 188.6 6.6 3.5 Coast 210 162-215 187.4 13.5 7.2 N.W. 79 165-214 187.2 7.9 4.2 Fiji (Howells) 133 164-208 188.8 7.29 3.86 Solomons (Howells) 85 170-208 188.5 6.5 3.5 Tonga (Sullivan) 117 173-213 191.0 6.6 3.5
Total head length for all Fijians is 187.9 mm; longest heads occur in the interior. Both Howells' Fijian average and the Solomon Islands series are close to the above value. Gifford's Tongan head length of 191 mm. Somewhat exceeds the Fijian.
_Head Breadth_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 122-186 155.9 6.8 7.7 Interior 154 135-170 152.1 6.6 4.3 East 120 144-172 157.2 5.2 3.3 Coast 210 141-186 158.3 9.3 8.5 N.W. 79 122-185 152.9 8.6 8.2 Fiji (Howells) 133 135-170 153.7 6.1 3.9 Solomons (Howells) 85 126-158 144.7 5.2 3.6 Tonga (Sullivan) 117 145-167 154.8 4.3 2.8
General head breadth is 155.9 mm., and considerable regional variation is shown. Fijians of the interior have the narrowest heads, whereas the coastal and eastern people have appreciably wider heads. Howells' series of Fijians are closest to my highland groups.
The Solomon Islanders are markedly narrower headed than the Fijians, whereas Sullivan's Tongan series is nearer the Fijian average.
_Cephalic Index_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 68-99 83.0 6.4 7.7 Interior 154 68-96 80.0 6.0 7.3 East 120 72-92 83.9 3.8 4.5 Coast 210 72-99 84.2 7.2 8.6 N.W. 79 71-95 81.6 10.3 12.6 Fiji (Howells) 133 68-94 81.54 4.7 5.7 Solomons (Howells) 85 65-88 76.8 3.9 5.1 Tonga (Sullivan) 117 73-89 81.1 3.1 3.9
Most Fijians tend to brachycephaly. The eastern natives and those of the coastal series have the broadest heads. The interior people show definitely lesser values in this ratio than do the other groups. Howells' Fijian series is close to the northwestern Fijians in their mesocephaly, and so is the Tongan mean. The Solomon series borders on dolicocephaly.
_Head Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 110-154 129.5 6.8 7.9 Interior 154 114-140 127.7 4.8 3.8 East 120 114-148 129.6 5.0 3.9 Coast 210 112-154 120.0 7.0 5.4 N.W. 79 117-142 127.6 9.2 8.9
Head height averages do not differ greatly among the provinces. The interior and northwestern people have somewhat lower heads; the coastal and eastern people show slight superiority.
_Length-Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 55-84 69.0 3.4 3.6 Interior 154 59-77 67.2 3.9 5.8 East 120 61-78 68.7 3.2 4.7 Coast 210 55-84 69.4 3.7 4.3 N.W. 79 58-84 68.1 4.5 3.5
Relative to head length, the cranial vault of Fijians is high. The mountain people show the lowest relative head height, whereas the other provinces are nearer to the over-all average.
_Breadth-Height_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 66-102 83.0 3.0 3.3 Interior 154 75-96 84.0 3.9 4.6 East 120 75-91 82.4 3.4 4.1 Coast 210 66-97 82.8 5.3 8.4 N.W. 79 73-92 81.2 8.6 9.7
Head height relative to total breadth is 83 per cent. In this ratio the interior groups have the highest index, a condition owing more to deficiency in cranial breadth than to superior head height.
_Cranial Module_
No. Range Mean S.D. C.V.
Total sample 815 141-176 157.7 10.5 6.7 Interior 154 147-166 156.6 11.5 7.3 East 120 148-172 158.4 4.4 2.7 Coast 210 143-176 158.5 15.5 9.7 N.W. 79 141-171 155.9 10.7 6.7
Head size as expressed by the cranial module averages 157.7 mm. for all Fijians. Regional fluctuation is unimportant.