CHAPTER VI
SOCIAL LIFE
The Contract-tablets.--We have learnt a great deal about the social life of Babylonia and Assyria from the contract-tablets which have been found in enormous numbers in Babylonia. A few have also come from the library of Nineveh, relating for the most part to the sale and lease of house property. Some of them have Aramaic dockets attached to them, giving the names of the persons mentioned in the contract and the nature of its contents. These dockets serve to verify the method of cuneiform decipherment, and are an indication that in the time of Tiglath-pileser III and his successors Aramaic was the common language of trade.
Some of the Babylonian contract-tablets go back to the time of Khammurabi and his dynasty, and are in Sumerian. But the larger number are of much later date, and extend from the reign of Kandalanu, the predecessor of Nabopolassar, to that of Xerxes. For many years we have a continuous series of documents dated month by month in each year. A contract-tablet was often enclosed in an envelope of clay, on which its principal contents were inscribed. They were kept in large jars which answered to our modern safes.
Married Life.--From the contracts relating to matrimony we learn that polygamy was very rare, and that the wife enjoyed a considerable amount of independence. The dowry she brought with her on marriage had to be restored to her in case of divorce. Moreover the woman could act apart from her husband, entering into partnership, trading with her money and conducting law-suits in her own name. In B.C. 555 we find a father transferring all his property to his daughter, and reserving only the use of it during the rest of his life. On the other hand wives, like concubines, could sometimes be purchased, though in this case if the husband married again he stipulated that he would send his first wife back to her home along with a certain sum of money. Children could be adopted, and there was the utmost freedom as regards the devolution of property, which could be 'tied up' by will.
Burial.--The dead were buried after complete or partial cremation. With the exception of the kings they were interred in cemeteries outside the towns, tombs and tombstones being erected over them, with rivulets, which symbolized 'the water of life,' flowing at their side.
Slavery.--Slavery was an ancient institution, but the slave was protected by law as far back as the Sumerian period. In later times he could even appear as party to a suit, and could recover his freedom by manumission, by purchase, by proving that he had been unlawfully enslaved, or by his adoption into the family of a citizen. Slaves could be impressed into the royal service, so that in selling a slave it was usual to stipulate that the seller should be responsible for any trouble arising from such a cause. Poor parents sometimes sold their children into slavery, and the Sumerian law ordered a son who denied his father to be shorn and sold as a slave.
Lowness of Wages.--Few persons were so poor as not to be able to keep one slave at least. But the existence of slavery caused wages to be low, and lowered the character and position of the free labourer. Thus we find that a skilled labourer, like a coppersmith, received only six _qas_ (about 8-1/2 quarts) of flour for overlaying a chariot with a lining of copper, and that only 1_s._ 6_d._ was paid for painting the stucco of a wall.
Property.--The tenure of a farm was of various kinds. Sometimes the property belonged half to the landlord, half to the tenant, the tenant doing all the work and handing the landlord's half of the produce to his agent. Sometimes while the tenant gave his work, the landlord provided him with carts, oxen, and other necessaries. At other times the tenant received only a third, a fourth, or even a tenth of the produce, besides paying a fixed rent of two-thirds of the dates gathered from the palms on the estate. The landlord could dismiss the tenant, who was also required to build the farm house if one did not already exist.
When house property or land was let or sold it was minutely described, and numerous witnesses to the deed of sale or lease were required. The length of the lease as well as the rent had to be stated, any transgression of the terms of the lease being punished with a severe fine. The tenant had to return the property in the state in which he found it. The rent of course depended on the size and value of the property, and could be paid half-yearly as well as three times a year. Houses, further, might be bought and sold through the intervention of an agent.
Taxes.--Taxation was probably heavy. In the time of Sennacherib, Nineveh had to pay the treasury 30 talents a year, while Carchemish was assessed at 100 talents. Taxes were also levied in kind, and there was an _octroi_ duty upon goods entering the town. The metal,--gold, silver, and bronze,--was measured out by weight, a coinage not making its appearance until late in Babylonian history, though, as in Egypt, rings of gold or silver, which took the place of coins, were used at an early time.
Prices.--The value of grain and dates necessarily varied from time to time. Under Nebuchadrezzar, the quart of sesame cost a little over a penny, in the twelfth year of Nabonidos it was a little less than 1-1/2_d._ In the seventh year of Nebuchadrezzar dates were about a halfpenny a quart, in his thirty-eighth year the quart was only 1/25 of a penny. In the reign of Cambyses a quart of corn cost 2-1/2_d._
The prices of other things were higher. In the reign of Darius a lady sold 200 sheep for £135, in that of Nebuchadrezzar an ox, sacrificed in the temple of the Sun-god at Sippara, cost £2. We hear of asses sold for £7 10_s._, and £2, and of five casks of wine purchased for £1 10_s._
Usury.--Deeds of partnership are common; so also are deeds relating to money-lending. The usurer, in fact, was a prominent person in the trading community of Babylonia. Under Nebuchadrezzar and his successors the usual rate of interest was 20 per cent., the interest being paid each month, though we also hear of 13-1/3 per cent. In concluding a bargain, it was usually stipulated that if the money were not paid by a specified date, interest should be paid upon it until it was paid in full.
The Army.--By the side of the commercial class stood a numerous body of military and civil officials. At the head of the Assyrian army was the Tartan (_turtannu_) or Commander-in-chief, and under him came a large staff of officers. The army itself was highly organized. In addition to the infantry and cavalry there were numerous chariots, in one of which the king rode when he commanded in person. In the time of Tiglath-pileser III, saddles, leathern drawers, and high boots were introduced for the cavalry, and a corps of slingers and pioneers was created by Sennacherib. The infantry were divided into heavy-armed and light-armed, many of the heavy-armed wearing coats of mail formed of metal scales sewn to a leather shirt. Helmets were largely used, as well as shields. The army carried with it on the march various engines for attacking the walls of a town--battering-rams, ladders, crow-bars, and the like--as well as tents. The royal tent was accompanied by a cooking and a dining-tent, and was elaborately furnished. We learn from the contract-tablets, that in the reign of Nabonidos, rather more than 2-1/2 bushels of wheat were furnished to each of the bowmen, while 54 _qas_ (75 quarts) of beer were provided on a particular day, 'for the troops which had marched from Babylon.'
Navy.--A fleet was kept in Babylonia, and the king had a State-barge on the Euphrates. The Assyrians, however, were not a naval people, and the biremes, employed by Sennacherib when he attacked the Chaldaean colony in the Persian Gulf, were built and manned by Phoenicians.
The Bureaucracy.--The prefects or satraps of the Assyrian provinces and subject cities were appointed by the king, like the military officers, and were responsible to him. A certain number of them were eligible for the post of _limmu_, or eponym, after whom the year was named--an honour which they shared with the monarch. The office does not appear to have existed in Babylonia.
Among the tablets which have come from the library of Nineveh are some which contain long lists of Assyrian officials. They were a very numerous body, but we need mention only the Rab-shakeh (_Rab-saki_), 'chief of the princes,' or Vizier, the Rab-saris (_Rab-sa-resi_) or 'chief of the nobles,' and the Rab-mag (_Rab-mugi_) or 'chief physician.' The identification of the two last is due to Mr. Pinches.
The priests and judges have already been alluded to, as also the clerks or scribes, many of whom, at least in Babylonia, were also priests. Poets and musicians were attached to the court, and we hear of a grant of land being made to a court-poet, in Babylonia, for some verses in which he had doubtless flattered the king. Society, in short, was highly organized, and the principle of a subdivision of labour was fully understood.
In one important respect, however, the basis upon which society rested in Babylonia and in Assyria was different. The government of Babylonia was theocratic, that of Assyria was military. While Assyria with its bureaucratic centralization is an anticipation of imperial Rome, Babylonia with its theocratic constitution is an anticipation of papal Rome. The king was the adopted son of Bel, and his right to rule was based on the fact that Bel, the true lord and ruler of the State, had delegated to him his power.
APPENDIX
ASSYRIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
60 Uban ('fingers') 1 Ammat ('cubit'). 6 Ammat 1 Qanu ('reed'). 2 Qanu 1 Gar. 60 Gar 1 Sussu ('soss'). 30 Sussi 1 Kaspu.
MEASURES OF CAPACITY[6].
10 GAR[7] 1 QA. 27 QA 1 AP. 36 QA 1 PI (or Persian Ardeb). 60 QA 1 Homer. 3 Homers (or 5 Ardebs) 1 GUR (about 250 quarts).
[6] As determined by Dr. Oppert.
[7] Capitals denote that the Semitic pronunciation of the ideograph is unknown.
MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND COINAGE.
60 Shekels 1 Silver Mana ('Mina') = £9. 60 Silver Manas 1 Silver Talent. 60 Gold Manas 1 Gold Talent (£8400).
The silver shekel was worth about 3_s._
THE MONTHS OF THE YEAR.
Assyrian Name. Sumerian Name. Zodiacal Sign. Corresponding Months.
(1) Nisannu (Nisan) Month of 'the dweller in the Asherah[8] Aries March-April.
(2) Aaru (Iyyar) 'The directing bull' Taurus April-May.
(3) Sivanu (Sivan) 'Bricks' (?) Gemini May-June.
(4) Duzu (Tammuz) 'The growth of seed' Cancer June-July.
(5) Abu (Ab) 'The fiery-hot' Leo July-August.
(6) Ululu (Elul) 'The message of Istar' Virgo August-September.
(7) Tasritu (Tisri) 'The holy mound' Libra September-October.
(8) Arakh-savna 'Opposite the foundation (of the year) (Marchesvan, 'the eighth month') Scorpio October-November.
(9) Kisilivu (Chisleu) 'The cloudy' Sagittarius November-December.
(10) Dhabitu (Tebet) 'The cave of the dawn' (?) Capricornus December-January.
(11) Sabadhu (Sebat) 'The curse of rain' Aquarius January-February.
(12) Addaru (Adar) The month of 'cultivation' Pisces February-March.
(13) Arakh-makhru (Ve-Adar), the intercalary month.
[8] _Zaggara_, rendered by the Semitic _bit ili_ (Beth-el), 'house of God,' as well as by _asirtu_, 'the symbol of the goddess Asherah' (mistranslated 'grove' in the Authorized Version of the Old Testament).
BABYLONIAN KINGS. B.C.
Sargon of Akkad 3800
Naram-Sin his son 3700
(1) The Dynasty of Babylon: 11 kings for 304 years 2478-2174 The sixth king of the dynasty was Khammurabi 2356-2301
(2) The Dynasty of Lagas: 11 kings for 368 years 2174-1806
(3) The Kassite Dynasty: 36 kings for 576 years 9 months 1806-1229
Among the kings of this dynasty were Burna-buryas (cir. B.C. 1420), the contemporary of the Egyptian Pharaohs Amenophis III and Amenophis IV, and Kuri-galzu (cir. B.C. 1400).
The last six kings were:
Rimmon-nadin-suma 1297 Conquest of Babylon by Tiglath-Uras of Assyria 1291 Expulsion of the Assyrians; Rimmon-suma-natsir king 1284 Meli-sipak 1261 Merodach-baladan I 1246 Zamama-nadin-sumi 1233 Bel-suma-nadin 1232
(4) The Dynasty of Isin: 11 kings for 72 years 6 months 1229-1156
(5) The Dynasty of the Sea-coast: 3 kings for 21 years 5 months 1156-1135
(6) The Dynasty of Bit-Bazi: 3 kings for 20 years 3 months 1135-1115
(7) An Elamite usurper for 6 years 1115-1109
(8) The 31 [kings] of the Dynasty of Babylon[9] 1109- 730
Among them were:
Nebuchadrezzar I 1109-1096 Merodach-nadin-akhi 1096-1090 Merodach-sapik-zirrat cir. 1075 Nebo-baladan cir. 880 Merodach-balasu-iqbi cir. 820 Nabu-natsir (Nabonassar) 747 Nabu-nadin-ziri (Nadios) his son 733 Nabu-suma-yukin his son 731
(9) The Dynasty of Sape: Yukin-zira (Chinziros) 730
(10) The Assyrian Dynasties: Pulu (Pul, Pôros), called Tiglath-pileser III in Assyria 727 Ululâ, called Shalmaneser IV in Assyria 725 Merodach-baladan II, the Chaldaean from the Sea-coast 721 Sargon of Assyria 709 Sennacherib his son 704 Merodach-zakir-sumi for 1 month 702 Merodach-baladan III for six months 702 Bel-ebus of Babylon 702 Assur-nadin-suma son of Sennacherib 700 Nergal-yusezib 694 Musezib-Merodach 693 Sennacherib a second time 689 Esar-haddon his son 681 Samas-suma-yukin (Saosduchinos) 668 Kandalanu (Kineladanos) 648 Nabu-pal-utsur (Nabopolassar) 626 Nabu-kudurri-utsar (Nebuchadrezzar) his son 605 Evil-Merodach his son 562 Nergal-sarra-utsur (Nergalsharezer) 560 Laborosoarchod, his son, for 3 months 556 Nabu-nahid (Nabonidos) 556 Cyrus conquers Babylon 538 Cambyses his son 529 Gomates (Gaumata) the Magian (the pseudo-Bardes or Smerdis) 521 Dareios (Dârayavaush) the son of Hystaspes (Vishtâspa) 521 Xerxes I (Khshayârshâ) his son 485 Samas-erba, rebel-king 480 Xerxes restored 479 Artaxerxes I (Artakshatra) Longimanus his son 465 Xerxes II, his son, for two months 425 Sogdianos, his half-brother, for seven months 425 Dareios II, Nothos (or Okhos) his brother 424 Artaxerxes II (Mnêmôn) his son 405 Okhos (Uvasu) the son of Artaxerxes 362 Arses his son 339 Dareios III, Kodomannos 336 Conquered by Alexander the Great 330
[9] The fracture of the tablet makes the arrangement of this Dynasty not absolutely certain.
ASSYRIAN KINGS.
Sargon asserts he was preceded by 330 Assyrian kings.
HIGH PRIESTS OF ASSUR.
B.C.
Isme-Dagon cir. 1850 Samas-Rimmon I his son 1820
Igur-Kapkapu ? Samas-Rimmon II his brother ?
Khallu ? Irisum his son ?
KINGS OF ASSYRIA.
B.C.
Bel-Kapkapu 'the founder of the monarchy' ?
Ada'si ? Bel-basi his son ?
Assur-bil-nisi-su, cir. 1450 Buzur-Assur, 1440 Assur-nadin-akhi, 1420 Assur-yuballidh his son, 1400 Bel-nirari his son, 1380 Pudilu (Pedael) his son, 1360 Rimmon-nirari I his son, 1340 Shalmaneser I his son (founder of Calah), 1320 Tiglath-Uras I his son, 1300 Assur-natsir-pal I his son, 1280 Assur-narara, 1270 Nebo-dân his son, 1265
Bel-kudurri-utsur, 1230 Uras-pileser, 1215 Assur-dân I his son, 1185 Mutaggil-Nebo his son, 1160 Assur-ris-ilim his son, 1140 Tiglath-pileser I his son, 1115 Assur-bil-kala his son, 1090 Samas-Rimmon I his brother, 1070
Assur-irbi ?
Tiglath-pileser II, 950 Assur-dân II his son, 930 Rimmon-nirari II his son, B.C. 911 Tiglath-Uras II his son, 889 Assur-natsir-pal II his son, 883
Shalmaneser II his son 858 Assur-dain-pal (Sardanapallos), rebel-king 825 Samas-Rimmon II his brother 823 Rimmon-nirari III his son 810 Shalmaneser III 781 Assur-dân III 771 Assur-nirari 753 Tiglath-pileser III, Pulu (Pul, Pôros), usurper 745 Shalmaneser IV, Ululâ, usurper 727 Sargon usurper 722 Sennacherib (Sin-akhi-erba) his son 705 Esar-haddon I (Assur-akhi-iddina) his son 681 Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapallos) his son 668 Assur-etil-ilani-yukinni his son ? Sin-sarra-iskun (Sarakos) ? Destruction of Nineveh 606
SYNCHRONISMS BETWEEN ASSYRIAN AND BIBLICAL HISTORY.
B.C.
Battle of Qarqar; Shalmaneser II defeats Hadadezer of Damascus, Ahab of Israel, &c. 853 Campaigns against Hadadezer of Damascus 850-845 Campaign against Hazael of Damascus; tribute paid to Shalmaneser by Jehu 'the son of Omri' 41 Damascus captured by Rimmon-nirari III; tribute paid by Samaria 804 Pul, who takes the name of Tiglath-pileser III, usurps the throne, April 745 War with Hamath; submission of Uzziah; fall of Arpad 843-840 Tribute paid to Tiglath-pileser (Pul) by Menahem of Samaria and Rezon of Damascus 738 Damascus besieged; the tribes beyond the Jordan carried away; Jehoahaz (Ahaz) of Judah becomes an Assyrian vassal 734 Pekah put to death; Hosea succeeds 733 (? 729) Damascus captured; Rezon slain; Ahaz at Damascus 732 Capture of Samaria by Sargon 722 Embassy of Merodach-baladan to Hezekiah 712 Capture of Ashdod by the Assyrians 711 Campaign of Sennacherib against Judah 701 Murder of Sennacherib 681 Manasseh of Judah tributary to Esar-haddon 676 Destruction of Thebes (No-Amon) in Egypt by the Assyrians 665 Babylonian invasion of Egypt 567
THE PRINCIPAL DEITIES OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.
Arm (Sumerian Ana), the sky-god of Erech, and wife Anat.
Bel the elder (Sum. Mul-lil or El-lil), the earth-god of Nipur, and wife Beltis.
Ea, the water-god of Eridu, and wife Dav-kina.
Bel-Merodach (Maruduk) of Babylon, the son of Ea, and wife Zarpanit.
Istar, the goddess of the evening-star, the daughter of Sin.
Sin, the Moon-god of Ur, the son of Bel of Nipur.
Samas, the Sun-god, the son of Sin; also called Â.
Rimmon (Rammanu) or Barqu (Sum. Mer), the air-god.
Uras[10], the warrior-god of Nipur, the minister of the elder Bel.
Nebo (Nabu), 'the prophet' of Borsippa, the minister of Merodach.
Tasmit, 'the hearer,' the wife of Nebo.
Nusku, a Sumerian deity identified with Nebo.
Nergal, the warrior-god of Kutha.
Assur, the national-god of Assyria.
[10] The reading of the name of this god is doubtful. It has been variously transcribed Bar, Nin-ip, and Adar, the last of which, however, is certainly wrong.
Oxford
HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
End of Project Gutenberg's A Primer of Assyriology, by Archibald Henry Sayce