Chapter 15

The Special Senses.

308. The Special Senses. In man certain special organs are set apart the particular duty of which is to give information of the nature of the relations which he sustains to the great world of things, and of which he is but a mere speck. The special senses are the avenues by which we obtain this information as to our bodily condition, the world around us, and the manner in which it affects us.

Animals high in the scale are affected in so many different ways, and by so many agencies, that a subdivision of labor becomes necessary that the sense avenues may be rigidly guarded. One person alone may be a sufficient watch on the deck of a sloop, but an ocean steamer needs a score or more on guard, each with his special duty and at his own post. Or the senses are like a series of disciplined picket-guards, along the outposts of the mind, to take note of events, and to report to headquarters any information which may be within the range of their duty.

Thus it is that we are provided with a number of special senses, by means of which information is supplied regarding outward forces and objects. These are touch, taste, smell, seeing, and hearing, to which may be added the muscular sense and a sense of temperature.

309. General Sensations. The body, as we have learned, is made up of a great number of complicated organs, each doing its own part of the general work required for the life and vigor of the human organism. These organs should all work in harmony for the good of the whole. We must have some means of knowing whether this harmony is maintained, and of receiving timely warning if any organ fails to do its particular duty.

Such information is supplied by the common or general sensations. Thus we have a feeling of hunger or thirst indicating the need of food, and a feeling of discomfort when imperfectly clad, informing us of the need of more clothing.

To these may be added the sensation of pain, tickling, itching, and so on, the needs of which arise from the complicated structure of the human body. The great majority of sensations result from some stimulus or outward agency; and yet some sensations, such as those of faintness, restlessness, and fatigue seem to spring up within us in some mysterious way, without any obvious cause.

310. Essentials of a Sense Organ. Certain essentials are necessary for a sensation. First, there is a special structure adapted to a particular kind of influence. Thus the ear is formed specially for being stimulated by the waves of sound, while the eye is not influenced by sound, but responds to the action of light. These special structures are called terminal organs.

Again, a nerve proceeds from the special structure, which is in direct communication with nerve cells in the brain at the region of consciousness. This last point is important to remember, for if on some account the impression is arrested in the connecting nerve, no sensation will result. Thus a man whose spine has been injured may not feel a severe pinch on either leg. The impression may be quite sufficient to stimulate a nerve center in a healthy cord, so as to produce a marked reflex act, but he has no sensation, because the injury has prevented the impression from being carried up the cord to the higher centers in the brain.

311. The Condition of Sensation. It is thus evident that while an impression may be made upon a terminal organ, it cannot strictly be called a sensation until the person becomes conscious of it. The consciousness of an impression is, therefore, the essential element of a sensation.

It follows that sensation may be prevented in various ways. In the sense of sight, for example, one person may be blind because the terminal organ, or eye, is defective or diseased. Another may have perfect eyes and yet have no sight, because a tumor presses on the nerve between the eye and the brain. In this case, the impression fails because of the break in the communication. Once more, the eye may be perfect and the nerve connection unbroken, and yet the person cannot see, because the center in the brain itself is injured from disease or accident, and cannot receive the impression.

312. The Functions of the Brain Center in the Perception of an Impression. Sensation is really the result of a change which occurs in a nerve center in the brain, and yet we refer impressions to the various terminal organs. Thus, when the skin is pinched, the sensation is referred to the skin, although the perception is in the brain. We may think it is the eyes that see objects; in reality, it is only the brain that takes note of them.

This is largely the result of education and habit. From a blow on the head one sees flashes of light as vividly as if torches actually dance before the eyes. Impressions have reached the seeing-center in the brain from irritation of the optic nerve, producing the same effect as real lights would cause. In this case, however, knowing the cause of the colors, the person is able to correct the erroneous conclusion.

As a result of a depraved condition of blood, the seeing-center itself may be unduly stimulated, and a person may see objects which appear real. Thus in an attack of delirium tremens, the victim of alcoholic poisoning sees horrible and fantastic creatures. The diseased brain refers them as usual to the external world; hence they appear real. As the sufferer’s judgment is warped by the alcoholic liquor, he cannot correct the impressions, and is therefore deceived by them.

313. Organs of Special Sense. The organs of special sense, the means by which we are brought into relation with surrounding objects, are usually classed as five in number. They are sometimes fancifully called “the five gateways of knowledge”—the skin, the organ of touch; the tongue, of taste; the nose, of smell; the eye, of sight; and the ear, of hearing.

Illustration: Fig. 124.—Magnified View of a Papilla of the Skin, with a Touch Corpuscle.

314. The Organ of Touch. The organ of touch, or tactile sensibility, is the most widely extended of all the special senses, and perhaps the simplest. It is certainly the most precise and certain in its results. It is this sense to which we instinctively appeal to escape from the illusions into which the other senses may mislead us. It has its seat in the skin all over the body, and in the mucous membrane of the nostrils. All parts of the body, however, do not have this sense in an equal degree.

In Chapter IX. we learned that the superficial layers of the skin covers and dips in between the papillæ. We also learned that these papillæ are richly provided with blood-vessels and sensory nerve fibers (sec. 234). Now these nerve fibers terminate in a peculiar way in those parts of the body which are endowed with a very delicate sense of touch. In every papilla are oval-shaped bodies about 1/300 of an inch long, around which the nerve fibers wind, and which they finally enter. These are called touch-bodies, or tactile corpuscles, and are found in great numbers on the feet and toes, and more scantily in other places, as on the edges of the eyelids.

Again, many of the nerve fibers terminate in corpuscles, the largest about 1/20 of an inch long, called Pacinian corpuscles. These are most numerous in the palm of the hand and the sole of the foot. In the papillæ of the red border of the lips the nerves end in capsules which enclose one or more fibers, and are called end-bulbs.

The great majority of the nerve fibers which supply the skin do not end in such well-defined organs. They oftener divide into exceedingly delicate filaments, the terminations of which are traced with the greatest difficulty.

315. The Sense of Touch. Touch is a sensation of contact referred to the surface of the body. It includes three things,—the sense of contact, the sense of pressure, and the sense of heat and cold.

The sense of contact is the most important element in touch. By it we learn of the form, size, and other properties of objects, as their smoothness and hardness. As we all know, the sense of touch varies in different parts of the skin. It is most acute where the outer skin is thinnest. The tips of the fingers, the edges of the lips, and the tip of the tongue are the most sensitive parts.

Even the nails, the teeth, and the hair have the sense of touch in a slight degree. When the scarf skin is removed, the part is not more sensitive to sense of contact. In fact, direct contact with the unprotected true skin occasions pain, which effectually masks the feeling of touch. The sense of touch is capable of education, and is generally developed to an extraordinary degree in persons who are deprived of some other special sense, as sight or hearing. We read of the famous blind sculptor who was said to model excellent likenesses, guided entirely by the sense of touch. An eminent authority on botany was a blind man, able to distinguish rare plants by the fingers, and by the tip of the tongue. The blind learn to read with facility by passing their fingers over raised letters of a coarse type. It is impossible to contemplate, even for a moment, the prominence assigned to the sense of touch in the physical organism, without being impressed with the manifestations of design—the work of an all-wise Creator.

316. Muscular Sense; Sense of Temperature; Pain. When a heavy object is laid upon certain parts of the body, it produces a sensation of pressure. By it we are enabled to estimate differences of weight. If an attempt be made to raise this object, it offers resistance which the muscles must overcome. This is known as the muscular sense. It depends on sensory nerves originating in the muscles and carrying impressions from them to the nerve centers.

The skin also judges, to a certain extent, of heat and cold. These sensations can be felt only by the skin. Direct irritation of a nerve does not give rise to them. Thus, the exposed pulp of a diseased tooth, when irritated by cold fluids, gives rise to pain, and not to a sensation of temperature. Various portions of the body have different degrees of sensibility in this respect. The hand will bear a degree of heat which would cause pain to some other parts of the body. Then, again, the sensibility of the outer skin seems to affect the sensibility to heat, for parts with a thin skin can bear less heat than portions with a thick cuticle.

Experiment 139. _To illustrate how the sense of touch is a matter of habit or education_. Shut both eyes, and let a friend run the tips of your fingers first lightly over a hard plane surface; then press hard, then lightly again, and the surface will seem to be concave.

Experiment 140. Cross the middle over the index finger, roll a small marble between the fingers; one has a distinct impression of two marbles. Cross the fingers in the same way, and rub them against the point of the nose. A similar illusion is experienced.

Experiment 141. _To test the sense of locality_. Ask a person to shut his eyes, touch some part of his body lightly with the point of a pin, and ask him to indicate the part touched. As to the general temperature, this sense is relative and is much modified by habit, for what is cold to an inhabitant of the torrid zone would be warm to one accustomed to a very cold climate. Pain is an excessive stimulation of the sensory nerves, and in it all finer sensations are lost. Thus, when a piece of hot iron burns the hand, the sensation is the same as when the iron is very cold, and extreme cold feels like intense heat.

317. The Organ of Taste. The sense of taste is located chiefly in the tongue, but may also be referred even to the regions of the fauces. Taste, like touch, consists in a particular mode of nerve termination.

The tongue is a muscular organ covered with mucous membrane, and is richly supplied with blood-vessels and nerves. By its complicated movements it is an important factor in chewing, in swallowing, and in articulate speech. The surface of the tongue is covered with irregular projections, called papillæ,—fine hair-like processes, about 1/12 of an inch high. Interspersed with these are the fungiform papillæ. These are shaped something like a mushroom, and may often be detected by their bright red points when the rest of the tongue is coated.

Towards the root of the tongue is another kind of papillæ, the circumvallate, eight to fifteen in number, arranged in the form of the