Part 3

To begin therefore with the Head. The _Skull_ (_Fig. 2._) is composed of several Bones, joined together by _Sutures_, as in _Man_, but with this Difference, that the _Os Frontis_ in the Viper consists of Two Bones united by a Rectilinear _Suture_, and the _Parietal_ Bones are entire; whereas in Man the _Parietal_ Bones have _Sutures_, and the _Os Frontis_ is entire.

(_a_) Shews Two small Semicircular Bones, which form the inferior Part of the _Nostrils_.

(_b_) The Two Bones which make the upper Part of the _Nose_, from the latter pass down two thin _Laminæ_, which touching one another, and falling perpendicular upon the _Ossa Palati_, compose the _Septum_ of the Nose.

(_e e_) Point out the _Ossa Frontis_, which form the upper Part of the _Orbits_ of the Eyes. And (_c c_) the _Orbits_ themselves.

The _Parietal Bones_ (_d_) make a large Cavity, in which the greatest Part of the Brain is contained, and _this_ we may call the _Sinciput_.

Behind this Bone are placed the _Ossa Temporum_ (_f f_) in which lye the Organs of _Hearring_; and behind Them a Bone (_g_) which, we may call the _Os Occipitis_, covers the posterior Part of the Brain. This is joined to the first _Vertebra_ of the Neck (_h_), by a Spherical Articulation, as all the _Vertebræ_ are to one another; and this is the Reason why this Creature can turn its Head and Body so much, and so nimbly, every way.

To some of _These_ there are Two other Bones Articulated for particular Uses.

The First of _Them_, which serves as a _Basis_ to the Articulation of the Rest (_a_, _Fig. 4._), is fastned by one Extremity to a small Proturberance (_i_, _Fig. 2._) in the middle and lateral Part of the _Os Sincipitis_, and running back towards the _Vertebræ_, lyes in the same Plain with the _Sinciput_. This Bone has a Motion, tho’ very inconsiderable, both upwards and downwards. By means of This, the opening of the Mouth is somewhat inlarged in the Time of _Deglutition_.

That End of this Bone, which is next to the _Vertebræ_, is articulated at oblique Angles with _Another_ (_b_) placed Horizontally, and whose Motion is forwards and backwards, being made chiefly for moving the Bones of the upper and lower Jaw, into which the Teeth are inserted. By reason of this kind of Articulation, It cannot contribute any thing towards widening the Mouth for Swallowing.

This Bone, and That with which it is joined, I call the _Common Bones_.

The _Upper Jaw_ (_Fig. 3._) is, besides the Teeth, composed on each side of _three_ Bones. The _First_ (_a_), into which the Poisonous _Fangs_ are fixt, is articulated with the Anterior Protuberance of the _Orbit_ of the Eye; and has a Motion of Flexion and Extension, that is, forwards and backwards, by which the _Fangs_ are Erected or Depress’d. It is small at the Joint, but grows broader by degrees, to a pretty large _Basis_, the better to contain a considerable Number of _Teeth_. It is _Spongy_ like the Substance of the _Vertebræ_, and no ways fit to be the immediate Organ of _Hearing_, as Mr. _Charas_ and some others have imagined.

The _Second_ (_c_), is a broad thin Bone, Articulated by _one_ Extreme to the _Former_, (_f_), and by the _other_ firmly fixt to the middle of the _third_ Bone. When _this_ is thrust forwards, it likewise pushes the _First_, and by this means the _Erection_ of the _Fangs_ is helped; and when it is pull’d backwards, they are _depressed_.

The _third_ Bone (_e d_), is join’d by one Extremity (_e_), to the End of one of the Bones of the Lower Jaw (_c_, _Fig. 4._), And being somewhat crooked, turns in a little towards the _Basis_ of the _Cranium_, and running along the Inferior Part of it towards the _Nose_, terminates near the Internal and Anterior Part of the _first_ Bone.

The _Lower Jaw_ (_c d e f g_, _Fig. 4._) on each side is made up of two Bones, but firmly united, the Extremity of the _one_ entring within the _other_ (_f_). The First (_c d e_) articulates with the _Second_ of the _Common Bones_ (_b_), where it is broad, and sends off an _Apophysis_, into which there is a _Muscle_ inserted, which helps to open the _Jaw_. There is in _this_ is a _Hole_ (_d_), for the Entrance of the Branch of the _Nerve_, which passing thro’ a _Canal_ in the middle of it, goes to the Extremity of the _Second_ Bone, and in its way sends off several Branches which go to the _Teeth_; and also a very considerable one, which goes out at (_e_), and is wholly spent upon the Neighbouring _Muscles_.

The _Second_ Bone (_f g_) serves chiefly to receive the small _Teeth_, which answer to _those_ in the upper Jaw.

As for the _Teeth_, they are of two Sorts, the _Great_, or poisonous _Fangs_, and the _Small_.

The _Great_ (_b_, _Fig. 3._), being fixt in the First Bone of the _Upper Jaw_, are Crooked and Bent, like the _Dentes Canini_ in most _Carnivorous_ Animals. They are manifestly hollow from their Root a considerable way, not to the very _Apex_ or Point, (which is solid and sharp, the better to pierce the Skin) but to a small distance from it, as is plainly seen by splitting the Tooth thro’ the middle (_Vid. Fig. 6._). This Cavity ends at the Convex Part in a visible _Slit_, very well resembling the _Nip_ or _Cut_ of a _Pen_ (_Fig. 9. d_), which is the _Emissary_ or Outlet to the Poyson.

_Galen_ (37) has given us a considerable Hint of this Make of the Tooth: For, _The Mountebanks_ (He says) _used to suffer themselves to be bit by Vipers, having first with some Pastes stopt the Holes of their Teeth, that the Venom being thus kept in, the Spectators might think they did by their Antidote secure themselves from its dangerous Effects_.

The Reason why these Teeth are _Crooked_, is, That the _Point_ of the Tooth, when the Viper bites, may be _Perpendicular_ to the Part to be Wounded; for the Head being raised back in the Time of Biting, and the Tooth erected, if _this_ were strait, It would not, by reason of its oblique Situation to the part, enter with so much Force, nor so deep into the Flesh.

As for the _Number_ of the Poisonous Fangs, I have observed, that there are, for the most part, besides One, Two or Three on each side, fixt Perpendicularly to the first Bone of the Upper Jaw, some others which are Young, and of a smaller Size, adhering to the same Bone: Their _Points_ are hardened, and they have their _Fissures_ formed as in the other, but their _Roots_ are Soft and Mucilaginous, like the Roots of the Teeth in Infants, and so they lye always depress’d at the _Bottoms_ of the _Former_, as may be seen _Fig. 10. c_.

They drop off from the Bone at the least Touch; and therefore some Anatomists have imagined them to be fastened to Muscles or Tendons, which would have rendred Them altogether Useless. For they are made to supply the Place of the _Greater_, when they fall away, or are pulled out by Accident, and in order to do this, they do by degrees harden, and rise more and more, till at last they stand upright, and come to a Perpendicular Situation in the Bone.

They are not all of the same _Growth_, for in some we can only discern the Shape of a Tooth without any Hardness, in _others_ the Point, and in the _next_ somewhat more is hardened, and so on to the greatest Fang.

Their Number is very uncertain, there being sometimes six or seven in each side of the Jaw, sometimes fewer.

These seem to have occasioned the Disputes among the Ancients concerning the Number of the Viperine Teeth.

The Poysonous Fangs have small Holes at the Internal Part of their Root, thro’ which the Vessels pass which carry their Nourishment (_Fig. 5. a_).

It is remarkable, that Nature has provided Young Vipers with Poisonous Teeth grown to their Perfection, that so they may kill their Prey as soon as they come into the World.

The _Second_ Kind of Teeth, or the _Small_, are hooked, and bent, as well as the former, but without any _Slit_ or Opening. Of These there are Four Rows, Two on each side of the Mouth. They are fixt in the _third_ Bone of the Upper Jaw, and in the _Second_ in the Lower, as exhibited to view in the _Figures_.

Their Use is to hold the Prey fast while Execution is done by the Bite, lest in struggling to get away, It should pull out the Fangs.

The Instruments that _Emit_ the Venom being thus describ’d, we come next to _those_ which serve to _Prepare_ and _Contain_ it.

This _Liquor_ is separated from the Blood by a _Gland_ on each side of the Head, placed in the Anterior and Lateral Part of the _Os Sincipitis_, just behind the Orbit of the Eye (_Fig. 9. a_); It lies immediately under that Muscle which helps to depress the Fangs, so that by the Action of _this_ it is Press’d; which is an admirable Contrivance to forward the _Secretion_ of the Juice out of it.

’Tis a _Conglomerated_ Gland, composed of many smaller ones contained in a common Membrane; each of These sends off an Excretory Vessel, all which do afterwards Unite and Form one _Duct_ (_b_), which running towards the Roots of the Fangs, discharges the Yellow Liquor into a _Bag_.

This _Bag_ is fixt to the _Basis_ of the _first_ Bone of the Upper Jaw, and also to the Extremity of the _Second_, covering the Fangs near the Root (_d_, _Fig. 10._). To the upper Part of this _Vesicula_ there is joined _another_ (_a_), in the Anterior Part of which there is a Passage for the Poisonous Teeth.

This consists of Muscular Fibres, both _Longitudinal_ and _Circular_, by Means of which it can _Contract_ it self when the Fangs are erected; and by this Contraction the _Venom_ is press’d into the Hole at the Root of the Tooth, and forced out at the Fissure near the Point.

That this is so done, I have frequently observed with the naked Eye, having cut off the Head of a Viper, and immediately pinching the Neck to make it open the Mouth wide; for by this means the Venom was _Squirted_ out as from a _Syringe_.

When the Viper lyes quiet with its Mouth shut, the Fangs are depress’d and covered with the _External Bag_; when it intends to bite, it opens the Mouth very wide, at the same time the lower Extremity of the _Second_ of the _Common_ Bones (_Fig. 4. b_) is moved forwards by proper Muscles, and turns as it were upon the fixt Centre (_b_), thus pushing forward the Upper and Lower Jaws, whose Extremes are united at (_c_). By this means the Lower Part of the First Bone of the Upper Jaw (_Fig. 3. a_) is thrust forwards, the other Extremity turning in the Cavity of its Articulation, where it is fastned by _Ligaments_; the Fangs being by this Mechanism Erected, the Bags which covered them, by the Contraction of their _Longitudinal_ Fibres, are pulled back, and the Action of the _Circular Ones_ does at the same Time straiten the _Internal_ Bag, and force the _Juice_ into the Teeth.

Besides this, when the Viper bites, It strikes in the Fangs to the very Root; and thus the _Vesiculæ_ are still more squeezed for the Discharge of the Liquor.

It is worthy our Observation, that the Viper can move the Jaw Bones on _one_ side without moving Those on the _other_, for they are not joined together at the Extremes as in other Animals; which Contrivance is very beneficial to it in the _swallowing_ its Prey; in that, while the Teeth on one side stand unmoved, and fixt in the Flesh to hold it, _Those_ on the other side are brought forward, to draw it in farther, then they keep it fast till the former Jaws advance again in their _Turn_. Thus they act successively, and force the Animal intire (there being no _Dentes Incisivi_ or _Molares_ to divide it) into the _Œsophagus_, whose Muscular Fibres are very Weak, and can help but little in the Business.

It may not be amiss to conclude these _Remarks_ with a short _Hint_ concerning the _Organs of Hearing_; Mr. _Charas_ (who is however followed by others in _it_) having, as we mention’d before, Entertain’d a very absurd Opinion about _Them_.

_These_ then are placed in the _Temporal_ Bones, as in other Animals, and consist of _One_ long, small _Bone_ (_Vid._ _Fig. 11._), like _that_ of _Birds_, whose Extremity is broad, like the _Basis_ of the _Stapes_ in _Man_, and situated upon a little _Hole_ which opens into the _Labyrinth_; and besides of _three Demicircular Canals_ (_Fig. 12. a b_) which also open into the _Labyrinth_.

This _Labyrinth_ (_Fig. 13._) has a great many _Eminencies_ in it of no determin’d Regular Figure (_Fig. 14._), and is covered with a _Membrane_ full of _Nerves_ and _Blood Vessels_. The _Nerve_ enters from the Brain at a Hole in the middle of this _Cavity_ (_a_, _Fig. 15._).

There is no _Cochlea_ in the Ear of the Viper; but the Anterior _Demicircular Canal_ opens into a _Semicanal_, which makes some _Spiral Turns_ in the Fore-part of the _Labyrinth_; in like manner as it is in _Fish_.

The _Passage_ for the Air to these Organs is not _Outward_, but, as in some Fish, thro’ the Mouth, between the Upper and Under Jaws, running below the _Second_ of the _Common Bones_. But of _This_, and also of the True Mechanic _Use_ of the aforesaid _Parts_, more hereafter.

_Poisonous Animals._

As the _Viper_ is Hurtful by Instilling a Liquid _Poison_ into the Wound made by its Teeth; so likewise are all _Venomous_ Creatures whatsoever, whether they _Bite_ or _Sting_, tho’ there be some difference in the Contrivance of their _Organs_, Mischievous after much the same _Manner_; and mostly for the same good _Use_ and Purpose, that is, in order to Kill their _Prey_.

This will fully appear, by Examining the _Instruments_ of Death in several of _Them_.

First then, The _Spider_ wh_i_ch lives upon Flies, Wasps, and the like _Insects_, is provided with a hooked _Forceps_, placed just by the Mouth, very sharp and fine; with _this_ he pierces the Flesh of little Creatures caught in his _Webb_, and at the same time infuses a _Juice_ into the Puncture, by which means the Animal being Killed, He sucks out the Moisture from the Body, and leaves it a dry husky Carkass.

M^r _Van Leewenhoek_, in his Account of _Spiders_, lately publish’d (38), has, together with the other Parts, by the help of his Glasses, describ’d these _Weapons_, which He finds to lie couched on each side the Mouth, in a Row of Teeth, till they are raised to do Execution. These Rows of Small _Teeth_ are design’d to hold the Prey, that It may not escape the Force of the Bite. And in the Convex Part, towards the Point of each _Claw_, He has delineated a little Aperture or _Slit_, thro’ which he supposes the Poison issues out at the same time the Wound is made.

This _Situation_ and _Motion_ of these Parts, I have several times view’d; but was never able to discern the _Exit_ or Opening; which, having a just Deference to the Industry and Application of so Nice an Observer in Things of this Nature, I, at first, imputed to my own Unskilfulness in such Enquiries, knowing my _Microscope_ to be very good; till at last, after repeated Trials, I very plainly saw, That nothing dropt out of the _Claws_, which were always dry while the Spider Bit, but that a short, white _Proboscis_ was at the same time thrust out of the Mouth, which instilled a _Liquor_ into the Wound.

Then I concluded, That M^r _Leewenhoek_ had Delineated the _Apertures_ in these _Weapons_, only from the _Analogy_ which he thought they must bear to the Viperine _Fangs_, the _Sting_ of the _Scorpion_, _Bee_, &c. And I was confirmed in this Opinion by examining a _Claw_ of the great _American_ Spider, described (tho’ but lamely) by _Piso_ (39), and called _Nhamdu_; this was given Me by M^r. _Pettiver_, and being above fifty Times bigger than _that_ of the largest _Europæan_ Spider (40), if there had been any Slit in it, my Glass would no doubt have discover’d it, but yet I found it to be quite Solid.

And indeed the Quantity of _Liquor_ emitted by our common Spiders when they kill their Prey, is visibly so Great, and the wounding _Weapons_ so Minute, that they could contain but a very inconsiderable Portion thereof, if it were to be discharged that Way.

To this purpose, I remember Mr. _Boyle_ somewhere tells a Story of a Person blinded by a Spider dropping its Venom into his Eye, which tho’ it can hardly find Credit with some, is however confirmed by what _Piso_ relates of his _Nhamdu_, _Viz._ That in catching it great heed is to be taken, lest its Poison fall into the _Eye_, This causing a total Loss of the _Sight_.

What Mr. _Leewenhoek_ observes of the Enmity these Creatures bear to one another I have often seen; for if Four, Five, or more be put together into a Glass, they immediately fall to _Fighting_ with all the Fury imaginable; _Limbs_ struck off are usually the _Præludes_ to the terrible Slaughter, which continues till all are killed, the _Surviving Conqueror_ himself most commonly Dying of his Wounds.

* * * * *

The _Weapons_ of Mischief in the _Scolopendra_ are much the same with Those of the Spider, only larger. One of these Creatures I had brought to Me alive out of a Ship which came from the _East-Indies_, where _Bontius_ (41) says, Their Bite is so painful, that it makes People almost mad; but it died before I had an opportunity of making Trial of its Poison; however, I very diligently looked upon the Claws (42), and found them to have no more _Cavity_ than is necessary for the Insertion of their Muscles, nor any _Exit_ or Out-let towards their _Apex_; these therefore serve only to _pierce_ the Flesh, and the Venom is infused from a _Proboscis_ out of the Mouth; tho’ _This_ I could not very well discern, because the Parts had been kept too long dry before I examined Them.

* * * * *

The Case is much the same with _Stinging_ Animals; of These the _Scorpion_ is the Chief, whose _Virus_ in different Countries is more or less dangerous, according as ’tis exalted by various Degrees of _Heat_; thus in _Africa_ particularly its Effects are so dreadful, that as _Joann. Leo_ (43) tells Us, the Town of _Pescara_ there is in a manner left desolate by the Inhabitants in the Summer Time, by Reason of the great Abundance of these Creatures, certain Death following their _Sting_.

Some of this deadly kind (the same, tho’ not so large with _That_ in the _East-Indies_, of which _Swammerdam_ (44) has given a very accurate Description and Figure) S^r _Redi_ had sent him from _Tunis_ (45); and it being _November_, irritated them to _Sting_ Pigeons, Pullets, _&c._ without any bad Effect at all of their _Poison_; but upon the approaching Spring, One of them which had been kept all the Winter, nay, eight Months, without any Food, and the Wound of whose Sting before was harmless, stung to Death two Pigeons successively; but a Third and Fourth wounded in like manner, suffered no Hurt. Yet having let the _Scorpion_ rest all Night, He killed another Pigeon the next Morning.

At the _Point_ of the _Sting_ he very often could discern a small drop of white _Liquor_, which when the Wound was made, entered into the Flesh.

_As_ this _Liquid Venom_ is either not separated from the Blood into the Cavity of the Sting, during the cold of Winter, or at least the Scorpion wants Strength at that Time to throw it out with Force and Energy. _So_ even in the hot Months, after it is exhausted by two or three _Attacks_, the _Sting_ is no longer hurtful, till the Expence of this _Juice_ is recruited by Time.

’Tis very remarkable concerning this _Insect_, what an ingenious Gentleman who lived several Years in _Barbary_ told Me, he had many times tried; That if it be surrounded with a Circle of _Burning Coals_, It does, upon the Sense of the _Heat_, turn it self violently every way to make an Escape; but finding it impossible, and the _Pain_ from the Fire increasing, it strikes it self Twice or Thrice with the _Sting_ on the _Back_, and immediately dies of the Wounds.

Others may make what Reflections They please on this _Self-Murder_, it is to Me beyond all Dispute sufficient to decide the _Controversie_ between Writers, whether Poisonous Animals of the same _Species_ can kill each other. Which is not only confirmed by what we before observed of the _Spider_, but is likewise true of _Vipers_; for D^r. _Herman_ bringing from the _Indies_ Three of the _Cobras de Capelo_ all in one Glass, Two of them were killed in the Voyage by _Fighting_.

As the _Viperine Venom_ is the _Quintessence_ and most active Part of those _Animal Juices_ with which the Viper is nourished, so is also _That_ of the Scorpion; for this Insect lives chiefly upon _Locusts_, _&c._ and the same Person from _Barbary_ inform’d Me, That seeing oftentimes _Locusts_ sticking up in the Ground as if they were _Set_ there, by looking he found that some Part of them was always eat away, and that these Places were the _Holes_ of Scorpions, who had dragg’d their Prey thither, and fed on it as they had Occasion.

In like manner, as the _Axungia Viperina_ cures the Bite of the Viper, _so_ also the _Oleum Scorpionum_, or Oil in which Scorpions have been infused, is a present Remedy for the Sting of this Creature.

* * * * *

The Mechanism of the Sting of a _Bee_, D^r. _Hooke_ has very accurately described (46). One may with the naked Eye sometimes see it discharge the _Venom_; and in _this_, by the help of a _Glass_, I can easily discover a great Number of Minute _Salts_ Floating.

And indeed this _Apparatus_ or Contrivance is so universal, that we find even in _Vegetables_ something Analogous hereunto; for the last mention’d Author (47), has shewn Us, That the pricking Points of _Nettles_ do at the same time they pierce the Skin, instil a Venomous _Juice_ into the Wound.

FOOTNOTES to Essay I.

(1) _Lib. 2. Cap. 74._

(2) _De Animalib. lib. 17. c. 5._

(3) _Bœotic._ p. m. 303.

(4) _Not. in Alpin. de Plant. Ægypt._ Cap. 14.

(5) _Purchase_’s Pilgrimage, _l. 5. c. 12._

(6) Act. Apost. _Chap. 28._

(7) _Leg. Cornel. Cels. præfat. in Medicin Morbos ait vetustissimis temporib. ad Iram Deorum immortalium relatos esse, & ab iisdem opem posci solitam._

(8) _Divinæ Potentiæ Symbolum. Vid. Ezec. Spanhem. De Vsu Numismat. p. m. 125, 126, & 181, & seq;_

(9) _Saturnal. Lib. 1. c. 20. Ideo Simulachris Eorum (Æsculapii & Salutis) junguntur figuræ Draconum quia præstant ut humana Corpora velut infirmitatis pelle depositâ, ad pristinum revirescant vigorem, ut virescunt Dracones per annos singulos pelle senectutis exutâ._

(10) _Osservazioni intorno alle Vipere._

(11) _Nouvelles Experiences sur la Vipere._

(12) Philosophical Transactions, _Vol. XII. No. 144._

(13) _Vid. Fig. 19._

(14) _Dissertatio de Opera quam præstant Corpora Acida vel Alcalica in Curatione Morborum._

(15) _Vid. Bernoulli de Effervescentia & Fermentatione._

(16) _Vid. Redi Lettera sopra alcune oppositioni_, &c.

(17) _Lib. 3. Cap. 2._

(18) _Medicin._ Lib. 5. c. 27.

(19) _Lucan. Pharsal._ 1. 9.

(20) _Loc. ante citat._

(21) _Vipera Pythia_, p. 361.

(22) _De Theriac. ad Pison._ lib. 1. c. 8. _Vid. etiam_ c. 10.

(23) _Nat. Hist._ lib. 11. c. 53. _Scythæ Sagittas tingunt Viperinâ Sanie & humano Sanguine; irremediabile id Scelus._

(24) _De Mirabilibus._

(25) _Bontii Histor. Ind._ lib. 5. c. 5.

(26) Usefulness of Experimental Philosophy, _Part 2. p. 50._

(27) p. m. 66.

(28) _Esperienze intorno a diverse Cose Naturali._

(29) _Dissert. de Tarantula Histor._ 5

(30) _Pag. 88._

(31) _Lib. 30. c. 13._

(32) _De Abstinent. ab animal._ lib. 1. p. m. 16.

(33) _De simpl. Medit. Facult._ lib. 11. c. 1.

(34) _Curat. Diuturn._ lib. 2. c. 13.

(35) _Vid. Purchas._ Pilgrims, Part 2. l. 7. c. 9.

(36) Voyages, _Vol. 2. Part 1. p. 53._

(37) _De Theriac. ad Pison._ Cap. 12.

(38) _Philos. Transact._ N^o. 271.

(39) _Nat. Hist._ lib. 5. cap. 10.

(40) _Vid._ _Fig. 18._

(41) _Hist. Ind._ p. m. 56.

(42) _Vid._ _Fig. 17._

(43) _Histor. Afric._ lib. 6.

(44) _Hist. Insect._ p. 147.

(45) _Generazione degli Inserti_, p. 15.

(46) _Micrograph. Observ._ 34.

(47) _Ibid. Obs._ 25.

ESSAY II.

OF THE BITE OF THE _TARANTULA_ AND MAD DOG.