Part 4

Particular care should be taken to make sure that whatever type of heating is employed is adequate in size. It is more economical to operate a heater that is somewhat oversized than to "rush" one which cannot easily maintain a comfortable temperature in cold weather. Heating engineers and contractors are available to furnish information on heating costs in every locality. The generally used types of heating include stoves, circulator heaters, warm air, hot water and steam systems, and fireplaces. Specialists of the United States Department of Agriculture have developed a great deal of information to enable the home owner to cope with the heating problems in a practical manner. It is estimated by the department that if a two-pipe hot-water system for a six-room house costs $500, the other systems for the same house ordinarily would cost about as follows:

Two-pipe vapor system $600 One-pipe steam system $400 A piped warm air furnace $260 Pipeless furnace $140 Circulator heater or stove $ 60

Of course, these systems vary in efficiency and in providing comfort as much as they vary in cost, but these estimates will provide the home owner with an idea of the outlay for taking care of the heating problem.

The ability to maintain a satisfactory temperature depends as much upon the construction of the house as upon the heating apparatus itself. Heat is readily lost through walls, roofs and windows. Most houses can be made more comfortable at small cost by applying insulation or by correcting defects in construction. The use of storm doors or storm vestibules where doors are frequently opened to the out-of-doors will prevent drafts and conserve heat. Metal weather stripping is the most effective means of preventing air leaks around windows and doors and making the entire house weather-tight.

The fuel that is used will depend upon the type of furnace and the relative prices prevailing for different kinds. Recent developments in oil heating bring this fuel in close competition from the standpoint of economy with coal or coke. Oil is particularly adaptable as a source of fuel in homes in the country since tank trucks can readily deliver oil to the home owner. Improvements in securing the maximum efficiency from all types of fuel are being developed continually; and there are now on the market furnaces, using anthracite or bituminous coal as fuel, which offer many advantages that were unknown to older types.

_Fireplace Construction._--An open fireplace where wood can be used as fuel is a great source of satisfaction and pleasure, as well as a comfort, in country homes. Wood of proper length for fireplace burning can be readily secured in the country and there is ample room for storing it. Where the house is small in size, such wood fires can be used for heating the house satisfactorily in spring and fall and can be used to supplement other types of heating when desired.

No country home can be considered complete without a fireplace. The comfort and homelike atmosphere that it gives make it a general asset for the enjoyment of the family circle. Fireplaces should be constructed so as to insure a good draft with a maximum of heat radiation. It is desirable to build in the fireplace flue a damper which can be open when the fire is burning and can be shut when it is desired to keep heat from escaping from the room via the chimney. It is also a convenience to have a trap opening placed in the back of the fireplace on the floor so that ashes may be removed in this manner, eliminating the labor of carrying them from the fireplace.

_Sewerage of Farm Homes._--All wastes from the farm home coming under the term of sewage should go direct to a septic tank. Here the sewage is held in a quiet state for a period of time, and through bacterial processes, the organic matter is destroyed. A septic-tank installation consists of four parts: first, the house sewer from house to tank; second, the sewage tank, consisting of one or more chambers; third, the sewer from tank to distribution field; fourth, the distribution field where the sewage is distributed, sometimes called the absorption field. Plans for sewerage construction may be obtained from state and local boards of health and from federal health and agricultural agencies.

The Rural Engineering Department of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station recommends that the septic tank have a capacity adequate to hold all the water used by the family for two entire days. For a family of six persons the inside dimensions of the tank should be 4 feet in width with a length of 4 feet in the first chamber and 3 feet in the second chamber. The depth of water should be 4 feet, giving the tank a capacity of over 600 gallons, thus allowing 100 gallons for each person during the forty-eight-hour period. The entire tank will be 4 feet wide, 8-1/2 feet long and 6-1/2 feet deep.

Septic tanks are usually built of solid concrete, concrete blocks or brick, waterproofed on the inside to prevent escape of the contents except through the outlets described. These outlets should be 100 to 150 feet away from any source of water supply to prevent contamination of potable water.

Leading from the outlet of the second chamber, several lines of tile 10 to 14 inches in depth should be laid at a gentle slope away from the tank, permitting escape of the effluent at each joint. For a family of six persons a total length of 150 feet of tile pipe will be sufficient in most types of soil.

_Food Storage._--Every country home should have a basement in which a room can be set apart for cold storage. Such a place is suitable for keeping supplies of potatoes and other root crops, as well as commodities that deteriorate under conditions of warmth. Surplus supplies of food from the garden can be placed in such storages and be readily available for use during the winter. With the surplus of perishable food products in cans and with a good supply of non-perishable products in such a type of storage room, economies in food purchase can be effected and the healthfulness of the family maintained through their use when fresh products are difficult to secure or are unseasonable and expensive.

If a basement is not available for food storage, root crops can be stored outside the house and kept during the winter. These products should be piled in a heap, covered with straw or other clean, loose material and the mound then covered with earth. In this manner, potatoes and similar crops can be kept throughout the winter and until late in the spring without serious deterioration. It is important to select a site for such outdoor storage that is well drained so that water will not collect and freeze in the storage area.

_Services Available to the Country Resident._--Public agencies are available for help in solving the problems of country residents, varying from agricultural and horticultural practices to building construction, water supply and sewage disposal. As a rule, these services are of advice and suggestion, are free of cost and may be utilized freely by those living in the country.

Most of the counties in the United States have a county agricultural agent, who is located at the county seat and whose territory covers only the county in which he resides. The costs of such service are paid by federal and state appropriations, frequently supplemented by county appropriations, and also frequently through annual individual subscriptions. The county agricultural agent is really a field representative of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the state agricultural college in the state where he works. There is hardly a problem of the country resident for which he cannot obtain aid from the county agricultural agent. In many of the more thickly populated areas the problems of the family getting a location on the land for a home are already well known to the agricultural agent and he is therefore in a position to guide the newcomer and help him to prevent mistakes.

In many counties there is also a home economics service connected with the office of the county agricultural agent and supported in the same general manner. This service, along the lines which the name implies, is available to the country home maker. Groups of women are organized and meet at intervals for discussions on food preparation, canning and storage and the making of clothing for the family.

In nearly every state there is a state department of agriculture with regulatory and promotional activities and dealing especially with law enforcement provisions passed by the respective legislatures. These agencies are also concerned with development of marketing facilities in many states. They are supported by state and federal funds and carry on such projects as the testing of cattle for tuberculosis, treatment in prevention of communicable animal diseases and the control of insect and fungous pests through quarantine and inspection activities. These departments are located at the state capitols and information on the services available can be secured by addressing the department in the state where one resides.

Because there is a lack of understanding among newcomers to the country of the services that are available through these agencies without cost, this particular mention of them is made. It is recommended that each family get in touch with the county agricultural agent, the college of agriculture and the department of agriculture and learn definitely of the help that can be secured without cost in meeting the problems of country life.

_Electric Wiring Principles._--Public utilities are organized to furnish electric service and it will be found that they are ready to assist customers in securing the most satisfactory use of electricity. Such knowledge, based on experience, will be valuable in helping owners to avoid costly mistakes and to provide for a wiring system that will be economical and yet complete. When the plans and specifications of the wiring system have been worked out, it is important to secure bids from reliable contractors. Only those contractors who can do the work in a capable manner should be employed and it should be determined in advance that the installation will be in strict compliance with the National Electrical Code. For wiring work it is necessary to know the number of amperes the wire is to carry. This may be determined by dividing the load in watts by the voltage which is to be used.

The service lateral is a system of wires which form a path over which electricity is carried from the main line to the house. This is generally built by the utility company and its cost will depend upon the distance of the residence from the main line and whether the owner furnishes poles, labor, etc.

Wires should be of such size as to give sufficient mechanical strength to stand up under sleet conditions. Usually three entrance wires are used to carry the electric energy from the utility connection to the house. The lateral is the electrical doorway to the farm and is the most essential part of the wiring system. The wires should be of adequate size so as to provide proper voltage and give complete electrical service for all ordinary requirements of current.

It is important to see that the electrical equipment is properly "grounded," that is, the connecting to earth of certain metallic objects which are near power conductors. The purpose is to carry to the earth any heavy electrical charge which might exist on such objects and cause electrical shocks when they are touched. Grounding may be secured by connecting with water pipes that reach some depth under ground, or driven pipe may be used as a means of securing intimate contact with moist earth.

Recommendations for outlets from the electrical wires in the house call for centering ceiling lighting outlets, and placing wall brackets about 5-1/2 feet above the floor. Convenient outlets in the kitchen and bathroom should be about 33 inches above the floor. In other locations they are usually best placed in the baseboard. Wall switches are usually located 4 feet above the floor. A switch should be located at each door to a room or entrance to a hall and in many cases three-way switches can be used to advantage, since these afford control over the same lighting from two separate locations.

With these general observations on a rather complicated subject, most of which are based on the excellent recommendations of the National Committee on the Relation of Electricity to Agriculture, the home owner should be in a position to take care of his needs properly, bearing in mind that the system of wiring should be adequate in every respect and the number of outlets sufficiently numerous to provide easy and convenient service throughout the house. An official check-up should be made of all installations after completion. The method of securing such inspection can be obtained through a local electrical contractor.

_Tank Gas Supply._--A service of supplying compressed gas in portable tanks has recently been developed for country homes located away from public gas lines. This gas can be used either with a specially adapted range which is supplied as part of the service or in some cases with an ordinary gas range. Companies offering this service are located in most cities and are understood to be willing to supply residences anywhere with gas. The cost of first installation of the system is about $40. Renewals cost approximately $12 per cylinder of gas. Each cylinder will supply a family of four with gas for three to four months, making a monthly bill of from $3 to $4, which compares favorably with artificial gas supply through a meter from pipe lines. This gas may be used for any purpose for which any other gas is adapted. The gas and the servicing of it constitute a boon to country residents from the standpoint of utility and economy. It is especially desirable for those previously accustomed to city gas supplies and to whom the use of any other type of fuel is strange and somewhat of a problem.

_Do's_

Remember that important service factors include mail delivery, telephone, electricity, water supply and sewage disposal.

Be sure of adequate water supply of good quality.

Obtain artesian water supply wherever possible.

Provide for such heating facilities as the budget can stand.

Select the heating system in relation to fuel costs.

Make sure that the sewerage system is adequate for waste disposal.

Use fully such governmental agencies as county agents, home demonstration agents, experiment stations and agricultural colleges, state and federal departments of agriculture.

Provide storage space for surplus food products.

Remember electric wiring requires skilled workmanship.

Investigate advantages and costs of tank gas as a cooking fuel.

_Don'ts_

Don't forget that services automatically available to urban residents must be planned for in the country.

Don't neglect construction defects that prevent full benefits from heating system.

Don't overlook the advantages of a well-built fireplace.

Don't install electrical service without full attention to principles of convenience, safety and economy involved.

_Chapter_ VI

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

There are many treatises available that deal with the soil, its composition and its treatment. No attempt will be made here to go exhaustively into that subject. There are a few fundamental factors, however, which the potential owner should know regarding soil treatment, for that is the base upon which he will build his income-producing operations.

The particles of soil have had their genesis in rock. The rock has become disintegrated and decomposed through natural processes. The action of the weather is the most important factor in creating soil. Water falling on rock not only wears it away mechanically, but through certain mild acid elements which it acquires, disintegrates the binding materials that hold rock segments together. In addition, there is the action of frost and freezing, too, making the moisture in rock expand and contract and thereby causing the breaking down of the segments. With this action is coupled that of hot suns which cause expansion and breaking up of the rock as it becomes heated and cooled under atmospheric influence.

A great deal of the soil surface in many sections of the country is the result of glacial action. These glaciers not only eroded the surface, thereby creating millions of rock particles, but they also carried large deposits of the rock particles to more distant areas and deposited them over a subsoil that may be totally different in character from the surface soil thus deposited.

_How Tillable Soil Is Made._--The action of plants themselves has a great effect in adding to our supply of tillable soil. Seeds of plants or seeds of trees become established in some slightly weathered rock areas and begin to grow. The roots penetrate wherever there is any loose soil, and partly by their pressure and partly through the acidity accompanying decomposing plant tissue, complete a further breaking down of the rock. There is a continuous process of destruction of rocks and leveling off of mountains and hills to fill the valleys below.

Many groups of deep-rooted plants tend to increase the depth of the surface soil by growth of the roots in the subsoil and by creating therein a condition approaching that which already exists on the surface. The action of earth worms and similar forms of life in bringing subsoil to the top and in opening channels through which water and surface air can penetrate constitutes another continually operating force in the creation of a productive soil. A deeper layer of productive soil can also be created through a plan of consistently deeper plowing, bringing up with each annual plowing operation a small portion of subsoil which, when mixed with the surface soil, tends to become like it.

Every type of real soil contains all the elements of plant growth. This plant food results from a breaking down of soil particles and the setting free of chemical elements which, either singly or in combination, serve as food for plants.

Whatever the type of soil may be, it will be found that certain crops will make better growth in it than others. As a general rule, it may be said that the only way to determine which plants will grow best on a given soil is by the trial-and-error method. However, by observation of the growth on similar types of soil we can learn something of a soil's crop adaptability. There are some crops that will grow in almost any soil and there are others that need an exactness of texture, moisture and plant food which makes them highly specialized products. The operator must learn how to work in harmony with the peculiarities of his own soil before he can hope to get the best results.

In acquiring a tract for the growing of plants of any kind it is desirable to get a soil type that will meet the requirements of most plants. As a general rule, this type contains enough clay to be retentive of moisture, enough sand to be easily worked and is generally suitable for bacterial growth. In other words, what is commonly called a loam is the ideal type for general agricultural and horticultural purposes. This may be a heavy loam, in which clay predominates, or a so-called light loam, in which sand particles predominate. An examination of a handful of soil by a person experienced in farming will indicate its nature and its adaptability to ordinary crop production.

_Essential Elements of Plant Food._--Countless scientific experiments in plant growth show that potassium, lime, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are essential to normal development. The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements make up nearly 99 per cent of the entire composition of the plant and are derived from the atmosphere. All of the other elements are derived from the soil except in the case of peas, beans, clovers and other legumes which secure most of their nitrogen from the air.

The mineral elements are not needed in large amounts but well-balanced plant growth is strictly dependent upon their presence in available form. Of these elements, those most likely to be deficient either in total amount or in availability are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. It is entirely feasible and economical to apply concentrated chemical fertilizers containing the first three elements so that their lack will not constitute a limit to size of crops harvested. In many cases it is necessary to apply chemical fertilizers to get satisfactory yields, even where natural manures are available and can be applied as well.

In addition to supplying essential plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium perform specific functions in plant growth. The application of nitrogen in one of its readily available forms (e.g., nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia) will stimulate vegetative growth. If too much of this one element is applied, leaf and branch development may occur at the expense of the crop. Good results follow the use of nitrogen on grass sods and on leafy vegetables like spinach. On the other hand, corn, peas, beans and other seed-forming crops need to have the nitrogen balanced with phosphorus. Potatoes, in common with other tuber and root crops, will utilize plenty of potassium in the development of starch.

_Sources of Plant Food._--Chemical fertilizers can be purchased at supply stores in ready mixed condition and of analyses that will meet general crop needs. A good formula for such a general purpose fertilizer is 4 to 5 per cent nitrogen, 7 to 9 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 to 10 per cent potash to the ton. It is known that such a mixture will supply the food needs of a large variety of plants in balanced amounts. Highly concentrated mixtures are now on the market providing double the amount of plant food in the example quoted, costing nearly twice as much but effecting a saving by cutting in half the material handled to get the same result. Care should be taken, in using these highly concentrated fertilizers, to avoid contact with tender roots. A mixture for general farm and garden purposes may contain the following ingredients:

100 pounds nitrate of soda 230 pounds sulphate of ammonia 250 pounds animal tankage (7 per cent nitrogen) 1,140 pounds superphosphate (16 per cent phosphoric acid) 280 pounds muriate of potash (50 per cent potash) ----- 2,000 pounds.