Part 3

_China._--The earliest coins of China, like those of Western Asia, date from the seventh century B.C.: these are small bronze spades and knives, copies of the actual spades, knives, or rather billhooks, and other small articles of husbandry which had previously been used for barter. The knives are about seven inches long and bear an inscription giving the weight or value and the name of the town or confederacy which issued it; a modified form of the spade money, called the _pu_ (flattened) money, circulated widely in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. (Plate VIII. 1, a _pu_ coin of the town of Lu-Yang). Round money had been made as early as the fourth century B.C., but it was not till 221 B.C. that the great reformer Shih Huang Ti (221-210 B.C.), the "First Emperor," definitely superseded all previous currencies by round coins. His coins were pieces of half an ounce (_pan-liang_), and were continued by the Han dynasty (Plate VIII. 6, a _pan-liang_ of the Empress Kao Hou, 187-179 B.C.).

This coinage gradually became so debased and counterfeited that in 118 B.C. the Emperor Wu Ti (122-117 B.C.) issued a new bronze coinage of five-_chu_ pieces (Plate VIII. 2); the five-_chu_ piece remained the standard coin for the next eight centuries. The attempted monetary reforms of the usurper Wang Mang (9-22 A.D.) may be mentioned here. In addition to reviving a modified _pu_ and knife money (Plate VIII. 4), he instituted a round coinage (_ho tsiuen_, Plate VIII. 3), but after his assassination and the restoration of the Han dynasty the five-_chu_ piece was restored. The history of Chinese currency is henceforth a continual struggle between the government and the counterfeiter. On one occasion at least, the government sought to get rid of the forgers by making the most skilled of them mint officials.

In 618 A.D. the Tang emperor Kao Tsu (618-627 A.D.) issued the _Kai yuan tung pao_, "current money of the inauguration" (_i.e._ of the Tang dynasty, Plate VIII. 5), which gave the coinages of the Far East the form they have retained almost to the present day. From the time of the Sung dynasty (960-1120 A.D.) onwards the legend took the form "current money of" (name of regnal period) (Plate VIII. 8, "current money of (the) Sung Yuan" period, 960-976 A.D.). The Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1278 A.D.) dated their coins on the reverse in regnal years. The Mongols (1260-1341 A.D.) issued but little copper money. An account of their extensive paper currency in the reign of Kublai Khan (1260-1295 A.D.) is given by Marco Polo. The Ming dynasty (1368-1628 A.D.) placed the mint-name on the reverse, while the Ching dynasty (1628-1911) placed the mint-name in Manchu on the reverse (Plate VIII. 7, Shun-che period, 1644-1662 A.D.; Pekin mint).

It is only recently that a serious attempt to institute a silver coinage in China has been made. In the nineties of last century, mints with European machinery were instituted in each province, and struck silver and copper coins of European fabric (Plate IX. 1, half-dollar of the late Emperor Kuang Hsü, 1875-1910) for Sze-Chuan. During the last thirty years bilingual silver coins have been issued for the Mohammadan population of Chinese Turkestan (Plate IX. 6, reverse of a five mithkal piece of Kashgar). One of the most remarkable of Chinese coins is the silver rupee recently issued for the Sze-chuan province, bearing the Emperor's head, and copied from the Indian rupee, with which it is destined to compete for Tibetan trade (Plate IX. 3).

_Japan._--The Japanese borrowed the art of coinage from the Chinese, and issued coins as early as 708 A.D. Plate VIII. 9 is an early Japanese copper coin or _sen_ of the period 818-835 A.D. (inscription--"Divine Treasure of Wealth and Longevity"). From the tenth to the sixteenth centuries the main coinage of Japan consisted of imitations of contemporary Chinese coins. One of the commonest of Japanese coins is the _kwan-ei_ sen (Plate VIII. 10), which was extensively issued from 1624-1859. Large, flat gold coins (_obans_ and _kobans_) were frequently issued from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. The smaller gold and silver coins of this period are rectangular (Plate IX. 7, a gold _bu_ of 1837 A.D.). Plate IX. 4 is the obverse of a coin (a piece of 5 _momme_) with an interesting history. In 1765, a high official named Taruna ordered that all silver ornaments should be confiscated as useless luxuries and made into coins. This edict aroused great indignation, particularly among the fair sex, and its enforcement was one of the causes which led to the assassination of the tyrannical governor. In 1869 a mint with European machinery was established in Tokio, and a coinage of gold, silver (_yen_ or dollar), and copper (_sen_, 100 = 1 dollar) on the European model adopted (Plate IX. 5, 50 sen of the sixth year of Meiji, 1873).

_Corea, Annam, and Siam._--Corea issued bronze coins in the Chinese style in its various intervals of independence. The commonest is the _Shang Ping_ cash issued at various mints from 1790 to 1881 (Plate VIII. 11). Plate IX. 2 is a piece of one _yang_ (silver) issued by the new mint in 1898. Japanese influence may be traced in it (_cf._ Plate IX. 5), as on the Chinese coin of Kashgar (Plate IX. 6). The kings of Annam issued an extensive coinage modelled on the Chinese till Annam became a French possession. Siam has issued a coinage struck by European machinery since 1850 (Plate IX. 8, rupee of Phra Chom Klao, 1850-1868 A.D.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Terrien de Lacouperie, British Museum Catalogue of Chinese Coins, vol. i. (all published) (1892); J. H. S. Lockhart, _Currency of the Farther East_ (Hong-Kong, 1893-1895); H. G. Munro, _Coinage of Japan_ (Yokohama, 1904); A. Schroeder, _Annam, Etudes Numismatiques_ (Paris, 1905).

V.--COINS OF EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS IN ASIA

_English._--In 1600 Queen Elizabeth granted a Royal Charter to "The Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies," and soon afterwards ordered silver coins to be struck at the Tower Mint for the Company's use in the Indies (Plate X. 2, sixpence or real of this issue). In 1677 the first English mint in India was established at Bombay, which had come to Charles II. in 1662 as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza, and rupees and copper cash were issued in the name of Charles II., or "bearing the name of their impure king" as an indignant Moghul historian describes them. For trade with the natives, however, the Company required coins of a type familiar to them, and had to send their bullion to be minted at the Moghul mints or to imitate Moghul coins at their own mints, the latter course being really forgery, as it was not till the middle of the eighteenth century that the Great Moghul finally allowed them to issue coins freely in his name (Plate X. 5, half-rupee of Murshidabad struck by the East India Company in name of Shah Alam II. in 1768 A.D.). In 1641 the Company had acquired a settlement at Fort St. George (Madras) and thenceforth issued coins in imitation of the local currencies of the Coromandel coast (Plate X. 3, gold star pagoda; Plate X. 1, silver fanam (_cf._ Plate VI. 5); Plate X. 4 is the later pagoda of European fabric issued at the end of the eighteenth century). It was not till 1835 that the name of an English king again appeared on the coins of the East India Company, when a uniform coinage of English style was adopted for India (Plate X. 6, quarter-rupee of William IV.). There has since been little change in the type then adopted. In 1858 the name of the East India Company disappears from the reverse, and in 1877 the proclamation of Queen Victoria as Empress of India necessitated a change of title on the obverse (Plate X. 7, quarter-rupee of Victoria).

In 1796, the English occupied Ceylon, hitherto a Dutch possession, and were confirmed in its possession by the treaty of Amiens in 1802. The earlier coins were struck on the standard introduced by their predecessors (Plate X. 8, a silver piece of 24 stivers). In 1836 the English standard was adopted, and silver coins (three-halfpenny pieces) and copper (half-farthings) issued till 1870, when the cent was adopted as the standard coin (Plate X. 9, 25 cents (silver) of George V.).

The East India Company issued coins similar to their later Indian issues for their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, and since 1867 there has been a regular Imperial coinage (100 cents = one dollar) for the Straits Settlements and also for Hong-Kong (Plate X. 10, 5 cents (silver) of Edward VII.).

_Portuguese._--In 1510 Albuquerque captured Goa, which became the capital of the Portuguese empire in the east, and increased in wealth and commercial importance so rapidly that it became known as "Golden Goa" (Goa Dourada). From the time of Albuquerque the Portuguese have issued coins here, always with European types. Plate X. 11 is a _pardao_ or half-rupee of Maria struck at Goa in 1808, and is typical of the coinage for nearly three centuries previous. Since 1881 the coins for Goa, which is now all that is left of the Portuguese possessions in the East, have been struck at the Bombay mint, and are uniform with those of British India (Plate X. 12, quarter-rupee, 1885).

_Dutch, etc._--Towards the end of the sixteenth century the Dutch began to dispute Portuguese supremacy in the East, and ultimately acquired considerable possessions in the Malay Archipelago. An extensive coinage was issued by the Dutch East India Company in Java in the eighteenth century (Plate X. 13, gold rupee of Java, and X. 14, copper doit). The latter coins of the Dutch territories in the East are similar to the coins of Holland. Coins have also been struck for their Indian possessions of France (Pondichery) and Denmark (Tranquebar) on local standards but with European types.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Atkins, _Coins of the British Possessions and Colonies_ (London, 1889); E. Thurston, _The Coinage of the East India Company_ (Madras, 1890); G. da Cuñha, _Indo-Portuguese Numismatics_ (Bombay, 1880); J. A. van der Chijs, _De Munten van Nederlandsch Indië_ (Batavia, 1859).

MAPS AND PLANS OF NOTABLE BATTLES, DISTRICTS, & TOWNS CONNECTED WITH THE HISTORY OF ASIA

PLANS

OF THE

FIVE CHIEF BATTLES

OF INDIA

A GAZETTEER OF TOWNS AND PLACES IN ASIA

A GAZETTEER OF TOWNS AND PLACES IN ASIA[1]

[Footnote 1: _A large number of the places are not marked in the maps, but the latitude and longitude will enable the reader to locate their position._]

ABBREVIATIONS

F. Founded. Res. Residence. Bp. Birthplace. Provs. Provinces.

=Abila=, Palestine. 33N. 36E. Traditional burial-place of Abel.

=Abohar=, Punjab. 30N. 74E. Said to have been f. by Jaura; visited by Ibn Batuta, 1332.

=Aboo=, Rajputana. 25N. 73E. Contains famous Jain temple, the Vimla Sah, f. in 1032.

=Abydos=, Asia Minor. 40N. 26E. Xerxes entered Europe, B.C. 480. Scene of story of Hero and Leander. (See Byron's 'Bride of Abydos.')

=Acre=, Palestine. 33N. 35E. Taken by the Crusaders, 1104; retaken by Saladin, 1187; recovered by Richard Coeur de Lion, 1191; surrendered to Saracens, 1291; unsuccessfully besieged by Napoleon, 1799; stormed by Ibrahim Pasha, 1832; bombarded by a combined English, Austrian, and Turkish fleet, 1840. (See Scott's 'Talisman,' 'Travels of Marco Polo,' Thomson's 'Land and the Book,' Volney's 'Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte.')

=Adalia=, Asiatic Turkey. 36N. 31E. Visited by Kinglake, who gives an account of the city in 'Eothen.'

=Adam's Peak=, Ceylon. 7N. 80E. Supposed to contain tomb of Adam. (See 'Travels of Marco Polo.')

=Adas=, Bombay. 22N. 73E. Scene of Hamid Khan's victory over Rustam Ali, 1723; Mahrattas over Raghunath Rao Peshwa, 1775; British over Mahrattas, 1775.

=Aden=, Arabia. 13N. 45E. Taken from the Portuguese by Turks, 1538; annexed to British India, 1839. (See 'Purchas His Pilgrimes,' 'Travels of Marco Polo.')

=Adoni=, Madras. 16N. 77E. Seized by Sultan of Bijapur, 1568; by Aurungzebe, 1686; unsuccessfully attacked by Hyder Ali, 1779; taken by Tippoo Sahib, 1786; ceded to British, 1800.

=Agra=, United Provs. 27N. 78E. Contains palace of Shah Jehan, the Pearl Mosque, and the Taj Mahal, and was the supposed scene of incarnation of Vishnu. Capital of Mogul sovereigns, 1526-1658. Taken by British, 1803. (See Sir Edwin Arnold's 'With Sa'di in the Garden,' Whittier's 'Miriam,' 'Purchas His Pilgrimes.')

=Ahar=, United Provs. 28N. 78E. Town from which Rukminí, wife of Krishna, was said to have been taken.

=Ahmadabad= ('the abode of Ahmed'), Bombay. 23N. 73E. F. in 1412. Ancient Mohammedan capital, famed for architectural relics. Taken by British, 1818.

=Ahmadnagar=, Bombay. 19N. 75E. F. by Ahmed Nuzam Shah, 1494. Taken by General Wellesley, 1803.

=Aivalli=, Bombay. 16N. 76E. Contains famous temples, and is sacred spot of Vishnu.

=Ajmere=, Rajputana. 26N. 75E. Capital of Ajmere-Merwara. Contains tomb of Mussulman saint, Kwajah. Purchased by Britain, 1818. Mayo College f. 1875.

=Akashi=, Japan. 35N. 135E. Contains Shinto temple in honour of the poet Kakinomoto-no-Hitomaro.

=Ak-su=, Eastern Turkestan. 41N. 81E. Nearly destroyed by earthquake, 1718. Captured by Khan of Kashgar, 1867; retaken by Chinese, 1877.

=Alandi=, Bombay. 19N. 74E. Resort of Hindu pilgrims, and said to have been res. of Jnaneshvar.

=Aleppo=, Syria. 36N. 37E. Taken by Saracens, 636; conquered by Tamerlane, 1402; by Turks, 1517. Visited by earthquakes, 1170, 1822. Contains the Jami Sakarya, or Great Mosque, in which lie alleged remains of Zacharias, father of John the Baptist. Res. of Mutanabbi. (See Volney's 'Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte,' Hakluyt's 'Voyages,' Burckhardt's 'Travels in Syria and the Holy Land.')

=Aligarh=, United Provs. 28N. 78E. Contains Fort Aligarh, captured by General Lake from Mahrattas, 1803. Seat of Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College.

=Allahabad= ('city of God'), United Provs. 25N. 82E. F. by Akbar, 1575. Taken by Britain, 1801. Contains Muir Central College. Scene of journeying of Rama and Sita described in the 'Ramayana' as the hermitage of Bharadvaja.

=Allah Shehr=, Asia Minor. 38N. 29E. F. by Attalus Philadelphus, c. 200 B.C.; supposed to be one of 'seven churches of Asia' mentioned in Apocalypse.

=Amarapura= ('city of the gods'), Burma. 22N. 96E. Former capital of Burma. F. in 1783, by Bodawpaya. Destroyed by fire, 1810; by earthquake, 1839. Contains celebrated temple with colossal bronze statue of Gautama.

=Amasia=, Asiatic Turkey. 41N. 36E. Former capital of kings of Pontus. Bp. of Strabo.

=Ambur=, Madras. 13N. 79E. Muzaffar Jang conquered Anwar-ud-din, Nawab of Arcot, 1749.

=Amoy= ('gallery gate'), China. 24N. 118E. Taken by Britain, 1841; opened to foreign trade by Treaty of Nanking, 1842.

=Amritsar= ('pool of immortality'), Punjab. 32N. 75E. F. round sacred reservoir by Guru Ram Das, 1574. Contains Darbar Sahib, chief Sikh temple; also fortress of Govindgarh, 1809.

=Amroha=, United Provs. 29N. 78E. Said to have been f. by Hastinapur; res. of Shah Wilayat. In the vicinity the Mongols were conquered, 1304.

=Amu Daria=, Turkestan. 37N. 73E. Ancient river Oxus, occurring as Amoo in 'The Veiled Prophet of Khorassan.' (See Moore's 'Lalla Rookh.')

=Anantapur=, Madras. 15N. 78E. F. by Chikkappa Udaiyar, 1364; attacked by Mahrattas, 1757.

=Aneysa=, Arabia. 26N. 45E. Bp. of Abdul-Wahab, founder of Wahabis. (See Doughty's 'Travels in Arabia Deserta.')

=Angkor=, Indo-China. 13N. 104E. Ruined city, near which are ruins of Angkor-Vat, a famous Cambodian temple. (See Little's 'Far East.')

=Angora=, Asiatic Turkey. 40N. 33E. Supposed to have been f. by Midas. Scene of Christian Councils, 314, 358. Contains temple erected to Augustus. Sultan Bejazet I. captured by Tamerlane, 1402.

=Ani=, Asiatic Turkey. 41N. 43E. Ancient Armenian capital. Taken by Greeks, 1045; by Seljuks, 1064. Destroyed by earthquake, 1319.

=Anjangaon=, Berar. 21N. 77E. Treaty signed between British and Daulat Rao Sindhia after second Mahratta War, 1803.

=Anjengo=, Madras. 9N. 77E. Bp. of historian, Robert Orme, and res. of Eliza Draper, friend of Laurence Sterne.

=Anjidiv=, Bombay. 15N. 74E. Island visited by Ibn Batatu, 1342; by Vasco da Gama, 1498. Occupied by Portuguese, 1505. Mentioned by Ptolemy.

=Ankai Tonkai=, Bombay. 20N. 74E. Conquered by Shah Jehan, 1635; occupied by British, 1818.

=Antioch=, Syria. 36N. 36E. F. by Seleucus Nicator, c. 300 B.C. Scene of St. Paul's first ministry. Destroyed by earthquakes, 526, 1872. Ruined by Persians, 538; taken by Saracens, 658; by Turks, 1516. Bp. of Archias, St. Luke, and Chrysostom. (See Volney's 'Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte.')

=An-tung=, Manchuria. 40N. 125E. General Kuroki established here during Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905. (See McKenzie's 'From Tokyo to Tiflis.')

=Anupshahr=, United Provs. 28N. 78E. Occupied by Ahmad Shah Durrani, 1757; by British, 1773.

=Arafat= ('the mountain of mercy'), Arabia. 21N. 40E. Mountain on which Adam and Eve are alleged to have met after the fall. Scene of many Mohammedan pilgrimages. (See Burton's 'Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah,' Burckhardt's 'Travels in Arabia.')

=Arantangi=, Madras. 10N. 79E. Seized by Raghunatha Levan, c. 1646, 1698.

=Ararat=, Asiatic Turkey. 40N. 44E. One of mountains in Asia on which Noah's ark is said to have rested. Parrot first ascended Great Ararat, 1829. Severe earthquake experienced, 1840. (See 'Travels of Marco Polo.')

=Arcot= ('six deserts'), Madras. 13N. 79E. Contains ruins of Nawab's palace. Mentioned by Ptolemy. Clive defended city successfully against siege, 1751.

=Ardahan=, Asiatic Turkey. 41N. 43E. Successfully stormed by Russians, 1877; ceded to Russia by Turkey, 1878.

=Argaum=, Berar. 21N. 77E. Mahrattas defeated by Wellesley, 1803.

=Arginusæ Is.=, off W. coast of Asia Minor. 39N. 27E. Spartan fleet defeated by Athenians near these islands, 406 B.C.

=Arjesh=, Turkish Armenia. 39N. 43E. Taken by Jelal-ed-Din, 1228. Destroyed by earthquake, 1246.

=Arni=, Madras. 13N. 79E. Clive defeated Raja Sahib and French forces, 1751.

=Aror=, Bombay. 28N. 69E. Captured by Mohammedans, c. 712.

=Arpad=, Syria. 37N. 37E. Taken by Tiglath Pileser II., 740 B.C.

=Arrah=, Bengal. 26N. 85E. In Indian Mutiny 12 Englishmen and 50 Sikhs held out against 3000 Sepoys for 8 days, 1857.

=Artaxata=, Russian Armenia. 39N. 45E. Ancient capital of Armenia, now in ruins. Hannibal supposed to have superintended building of city; named after Artaxis I., c. 180 B.C. Destroyed by Romans, 58; by Persians, 370. Joseph, the patriarch, presided over ecclesiastical council, 450.

=Ashdod=, Palestine. 32N. 35E. Captured by Jonathan, 147 B.C. Mentioned by Herodotus. Contained famous temple of Dagon. (See Thomson's 'Land and the Book.')

=Ashta=, Central India. 23N. 77E. Contains fort built by Dost Mohammed Khan, 1716; captured by Mahrattas, 1745; stormed by Kudsia Begam, 1837.

=Ashta=, Bombay. 18N. 75E. British defeated Baji Rao Peshwa, 1818.

=Asirgarh=, Central Provs. 21N. 76E. Massacre of garrison by Ala-ud-din Khilji, 1295; captured by Akbar, 1600; by General Wellesley, 1803; besieged by British, 1819.

=Askelon=, Palestine. 32N. 35E. Ancient seat of worship of Astarte, and of Dagon and Dercetis, whose temple was plundered by Scythians, 630 B.C. Bp. of Herod I., who embellished it. Godfrey de Bouillon defeated Egyptians, 1099; city taken by Crusaders, 1153; by Saladin, 1187; destroyed by Sultan Bibars, 1270. (See Scott's 'The Talisman.')

=Assaye=, Haidarabad. 20N. 76E. Mahrattas conquered by Sir Arthur Wellesley, 1803. (See Malleson's 'Decisive Battles of India.')

=Athni=, Bombay. 17N. 75E. Visited by French traveller Mandelslo, 1639. Yielded to Rajah Sahu of Satara, 1730; British possession, 1839.

=Atrauli=, N.W. Provs. 28N. 78E. Held for three months by Mohammedans during Mutiny, 1857.

=Attock=, Punjab. 34N. 72E. Contains fort built by Akbar, 1581; captured by Ranjit Singh, 1812.

=Augur=, Central India. 24N. 76E. F. by Agra Bhil; destroyed by Bapuji Sindhia, 1801; suffered during Mutiny, 1857.

=Aurangabad= ('the abode of Aurungzebe'), Haidarabad. 20N. 75E. F. in 1620. Contains Buddhist caves, and mausoleum built by Aurungzebe in memory of his daughter.

=Ava= ('a fish-pond'), Burma. 22N. 96E. F. by Thadominpaya, 1364. Former capital of Burma. Ruined by earthquake, 1839.

=Ayodhya=, United Provs. 27N. 82E. Famous in legend as city of Dasa-ratha, father of Rama. (See 'Ramayana.')

=Ayuthia=, Siam. 14N. 101E. Founded in 1351; capital of Siam until nearly destroyed by Burmese, 1767. Chief ruin is a Buddhist temple, the 'Golden Mount.' (See Little's 'Far East.')

=Baalbek= ('city of Baal'), Syria. 34N. 36E. Contains Temple of the Sun, built by Antoninus Pius. Taken by Arabs, 748; by Tamerlane, 1400. Destroyed by earthquake, 1170, 1750. (See Twain's 'New Pilgrim's Progress,' Lamartine's 'Voyage en Orient,' Moore's 'Lalla Rookh,' Volney's 'Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte,' Burckhardt's 'Travels in Syria and the Holy Land.')

=Babylon= ('the gate of the god'), Asiatic Turkey. 33N. 45E. First mentioned, 3800 B.C.; capital of Babylonia, c. 2300 B.C. Destroyed by Sennacherib, 689 B.C.; attained eminence under Nabopolassar, 625-604 B.C.; under Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561 B.C. Surrendered to Cyrus, 539 B.C. Alexander the Great died in palace of Nebuchadnezzar, 323 B.C. (See 'Purchas His Pilgrimes,' Hakluyt's 'Voyages.')

=Badami=, Bombay. 16N. 76E. Contains famous cave-temple, f. 650. Captured by General Munro, 1818; by Arabs, 1840.

=Badarpur=, Bengal. 25N. 93E. British defeated Burmese, 1824.

=Badnera=, Berar. 21N. 78E. Partially destroyed by Rajah Ram, 1822.

=Bagalkot=, Bombay. 16N. 76E. Captured by Peshwa of Savanur, 1775; by Hyder Ali, 1778; by General Munro, 1818.

=Baghdad=, Asiatic Turkey. 33N. 44E. F. by Caliph Al-Mansur, c. 762; embellished by Harun-al-Rashid; taken by Hulaku Khan, 1258; by Tamerlane, 1393; by Amurath IV., 1638. Contains tomb of Zobeida, wife of Harun-al-Rashid, and is famous by means of the 'Arabian Nights.' (See Firdausi's 'Sha Name,' Gosse's 'Firdausi in Exile,' 'Purchas His Pilgrimes,' 'Travels of Marco Polo.')

=Baghput=, Punjab. 29N. 77E. Said to be the Vyaghraprastha mentioned in the 'Mahabharata.'

=Bahera=, Punjab. 32N. 73E. Captured by Babar, 1519; pillaged by Nur-ud-din, 1757.

=Bahraich=, United Provs. 28N. 82E. Contains tomb of Mohammedan saint, Masaud.

=Baj-Baj=, Bengal. 22N. 88E. Fort captured by Clive from Siraj-ud-daula, 1756.