Part 2

Five years after the first voyage of Columbus, John Cabot, sailing from Bristol, discovered Labrador and Newfoundland, and within forty years Verazzano and Cartier opened up the St. Lawrence River as far as Montreal for French settlement; before the end of the century Frobisher had explored Hudson Bay and Gilbert made the first attempt at colonising Newfoundland and Virginia; in 1620 the Pilgrim Fathers sailed the _Mayflower_ into Cape Cod Bay, where five years later the colony of Massachusetts was planted. The coast settlements from Maine to Connecticut assumed in 1642 the name of New England, where were used the interesting silver pieces struck at Boston with N E and the mark of value (XII., VI. or III.); a sixpence is shown on Plate II., Fig. 9; Fig. 10 on the same plate is a Massachusetts shilling of 1652 with the inscription, which runs from obverse to reverse, "Masathusets in New England: An. Dom. 1652. XII." (=12 pence), which type was substituted in 1651 for the earlier New England pieces. The foundation of the Baltimore, or Maryland, plantation in 1632 is illustrated (Plate II., Fig. 11) by a shilling made, together with sixpennies and groats (or fourpennies), in England in 1659 under direction of Lord Baltimore, the founder, whose bust and title "Cecil, Lord of Maryland," and coat of arms are seen on the coins. Plate II., Fig. 12, is a pewter piece struck by James II. (who is seen on horseback) for circulation as small change in the American plantations; its chief interest lies in the fact that being rated as one twenty-fourth of the Spanish real it recognizes Spanish money as common currency. The next coin (Plate II., Fig. 13) is a penny token (dated 1694) of Carolina, the colony which Charles II. presented to his favourite nobles in 1668. In 1717 and 1722 George I. issued copper coins (twopence, penny, and halfpenny) for the American colonies, called the Rosa Americana series; those of the latter year (of which a penny is figured on Plate II., No. 14) were made by William Wood whose Irish halfpence of the same year were pilloried by Swift in the _Drapier Letters_. By the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 the quarrel between French and English settlers was embittered by the ill-defined clause which gave to England "Acadia with its ancient boundaries;" Acadia never had any boundaries except the sea, but it was more or less identical with Nova Scotia. These quarrels culminated in the Seven Years' War, when after her victories at Louisburg, Quebec, Montreal, etc., England became possessed of Canada and the country between Mississippi and the Alleghanies by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. In the first half of the nineteenth century tokens played the part of copper money in British North America; on Plate II., Fig. 15, is a token of Prince Edward Island, which was originally part of Cape Breton and took its name in 1800 from the Duke of Kent; it became a province of Canada in 1873. Similar tokens, issued by banks, companies, or tradesmen, are illustrated on Plate III., Nos. 16 to 20; Fig. 16 is a halfpenny token of Upper Canada, Fig. 17 a sou of Lower Canada, Fig. 18 a halfpenny issued by Montreal Bank (a rare piece showing a corner view of the bank), Fig. 19 a halfpenny of Nova Scotia with a branch of mayflower on the reverse; earlier tokens had the thistle for reverse design to commemorate the Scottish settlements of 1623 in the French country of Acadia; Fig. 20 is a trade token of Newfoundland. Fig. 21 shows a gold Two-dollar piece of Newfoundland of 1870, and Figs. 22 and 23 (Canadian 25 Cent pieces of Victoria and Edward VII.) show the present currency issued for Canada by the English mint.

The exclusion of the French from North America by the Treaty of Paris in 1763 and the self-confidence acquired by the Americans in the Seven Years' War paved the way for the Independence of the American States; the arrogant legislation of the English Parliament caused a smouldering irritation which was finally exploded by the Quebec Act of 1774 which followed the series of Boston riots culminating in the "Tea-party" of 1773. The Declaration of Independence was made by the Thirteen States at Philadelphia in 1776; suggestions at this time for a federal coinage only resulted in the issue of proofs and tokens of which some bear the bust of Washington. In 1783 the Treaty of Versailles gave liberty to the United States. The coinage of the United States began in the year 1792; a selection of pieces to illustrate the ordinary denominations is shown on Plates IV. and V. The gold pieces are the Eagle or Ten Dollars (Plate IV., Fig. 24) and its parts, the Half Eagle (Fig. 25) and Quarter Eagle (Fig. 26); and the Gold Dollar (Fig. 27), which was first issued in 1849 and suppressed in 1890. The Silver Dollar of 1795 (Plate IV., No. 28) has fifteen stars round the head of Liberty to denote the number of the states, which had been increased in 1791 to fifteen by the inclusion of Vermont and Kentucky; Fig. 29, the dollar of 1797, has sixteen stars, Tennessee having been admitted to the Union in the previous year; on later dollars thirteen stars only, the number of the original states, appear. From 1873 to 1887 the ordinary dollar was replaced by the Trade Dollar (Plate V., Fig. 30), which was designed for commerce with the Far East. Figs. 31 and 32 show the Half and Quarter Dollar, Fig. 33 the Dime, or Ten Cents, and 34, 35 and 36 the Cent. These pieces have been chosen partly with a view to showing the various representations of Liberty at different periods. When the law which initiated the coinage came before the House of Representatives a clause ordering that every coin should bear the bust of the president in power at the time of its issue raised such a storm of indignation that the head of Liberty was substituted for that of the president; the early coins represent the head with wild flowing locks (Plate V., No. 34), the dollars of 1795 and 1797 (Plate IV., Nos. 28, 29) have a bust with the hair tied at the back by a bow of ribbon, and the same head is seen on the Ten-Dollar piece wearing a high cap (Plate IV., Fig. 24). The Quarter Eagle of 1836 (Plate IV., Fig. 26) shows the hair dressed in thick curls and bound by a fillet inscribed "Liberty," and on the Half Dollar of the same year (Plate V., Fig. 31) she wears also a small cap. On the Half Eagle of 1845 (Plate IV., Fig. 25) the hair is tied up in three curls at the back of the head and a _stephane_ takes the place of the fillet; on the Cent of 1856 (Plate V., Fig. 35) the head is similarly treated, but a double coil takes the place of the curls; on the gold Dollar of 1862 (Plate IV., Fig. 27) the hair again hangs loose and she wears a crown of plumes. On the Quarter Dollar of the following year (Plate V., Fig. 32) the full figure is represented seated supporting a shield and holding a staff and cap, and on the Trade Dollar (Plate V., Fig. 30) a similar figure is seen holding an olive spray and seated among goods of commerce. On the small Cent of the same year, 1878 (Plate V., Fig. 36) the head again is shown wearing a fillet and Indian feathers; on the Dime of 1892 (Plate V., Fig. 33) the hair is tightly bound in a cap wreathed in laurel. The reverse of the gold and silver coins bears an eagle sometimes supporting the shield, except the gold Dollar, which, like the copper coins, has simply the denomination within a wreath. The small nickel Cent was introduced in 1857 bearing an eagle on the obverse, which was changed in 1859 to the head of Liberty as seen on Plate V., Fig. 36; in 1864 the nickel Cent was supplanted by a copper coin of the same type.

The Five Dollar gold piece figured in Plate V., No. 37, illustrates the settlement of the Mormons under Brigham Young in Utah on the Salt Lake in 1847. This private issue includes pieces of 20, 10, 5, and 2½ dollars. On the obverse is seen the Eye of Providence with the inscription "Holiness to the Lord," and on the reverse the clasped hands of friendship, above which are the letters G.S.L.C.P.G. (Great Salt Lake City Pure Gold).

The coinage of Mexico and Central and South America takes us back to the sixteenth century, when American mints were opened and struck Spanish colonial coins, which, as we have seen above, formed the chief currency of the American continent for nearly three centuries. On Plate VI. are shown an Eight Real piece, or "Piece of Eight," struck in Peru by Philip IV. of Spain in 1677 (Fig. 38), and a Two Real piece struck by Charles IV. in 1795 (Fig. 39). The landing of Fernando Cortez in 1518 resulted in the complete reduction of Mexico within four years; Plate VI., Fig. 40, a Two Real piece of the Emperor Charles V. (Charles I. of Spain), is one of the earliest coins struck at the Mexican mint after it was opened in 1535. Until the end of the eighteenth century the Spanish colonies in America remained under the control of Spain, and the chief cause of their disaffection was the exposure of the weakness of Spain in the Napoleonic wars. Mexico was one of the earliest to revolt; the rebels were led by the priest Hidalgo in 1810 and, on his execution in the following year, by another priest, Morelos, under whom were struck coins of the type figured on Plate VI., No. 41, bearing on the obverse the date and mark of value, and on the reverse a bow and arrow and the word "Sud" implying his command of the southern army. Independence was declared in 1813, but Spanish control restored in 1820, and the country finally won its independence in the following year under Augustin Iturbide, who was later declared emperor. An Eight Real piece with a fine portrait of Augustin as Emperor of Mexico is shown on Plate VI., Fig. 42. In 1823 a federal republic was formed which received recognition from Spain ten years later.

Brazil is interesting as the seat of Portuguese colonisation in America. Originally annexed to Spain by Pinzon, it was accidentally discovered a second time in 1500 by the Portuguese admiral Cabral, who, in an attempt to follow Vasco da Gama's course by the Cape of Good Hope to India, so greatly exaggerated the circuit which was necessary to avoid contrary winds and currents that he struck the coast of Brazil; it was then found that it lay within Portuguese territory by the agreement of 1494, and a few years later Vespucci was sent by Portugal to colonise it. After the middle of the sixteenth century it passed into Spanish and Dutch possession and was recovered by Portugal in 1640. On the invasion of Portugal by Napoleon in 1807, John VI. fled to Brazil, and it became the seat of government till 1821, when, on his father's return to Portugal, Pedro was left regent, and became emperor by a revolution in the following year; its independence was recognised in 1825. Plate VII., Fig. 43, shows a silver coin of Brazil struck in 1749 by John V.; the sphere on the reverse was the emblem adopted by Manoel about the year 1500 to typify the large additions to Portuguese dominions at that time. Fig. 44 is a gold piece of 4000 Reis with portrait of Pedro I. as emperor in 1824 and Fig. 45 a gold 10,000 Reis piece (the Reis having greatly depreciated by this time) struck in 1889, the first year of the Brazilian Republic.

French colonisation is seen in the island of Haiti, in which, though discovered by Columbus, a French colony settled in 1690, and by the treaty of Ryswick in 1697 the part of the island known as San Domingo was ceded to France. After long fighting between French and natives independence was declared under Dessalines, who took the title of James I.; after his assassination in 1806, Christophe seized power and in 1811 became king of the largest part of the island; his portrait and assumed title of Henry I. are seen on the silver coin figured on Plate VII., No. 46. Pétion, ruler of the other part, was succeeded by Boyer who united the whole island in 1822. In 1844 it was again divided as at the present time.

Plate VII., Fig. 47, shows an English Shilling countermarked by the Republic of Costa Rica, a practice which was much in vogue in Central America to supply the lack of small silver. Having become independent in 1821 Costa Rica joined in 1824 the Confederation of Central America and separated again in 1840. A gold Escudo of 1849 is seen on Plate VII., Fig. 48, on which is continued the type in use during the Confederacy. Guatemala, the head republic of this Confederacy, won its independence also in 1821; the Peso, or Eight Real piece, of the first year of the Confederacy, which is figured on Plate VII., No. 49, bears the mint-mark N.G. (New Guatemala).

The independence of the Spanish possessions in Central and South America was due mainly to Bolivar, a Venezuelan, whose portrait is seen on Plate VIII., Fig. 50; he was made dictator in 1813, and in 1819 united Venezuela and New Granada as the Republic of Columbia, in which Ecuador was included in 1822. On the death of Bolivar in 1830 these three states separated themselves, and New Granada formed in 1861 the United States of Columbia of which a fine gold 20 Peso piece (1863) is shown on Plate VIII., No. 51. In 1871 were formed the United States of Venezuela by which was struck the gold piece of 1886 on Plate VIII., Fig. 50, with the commemorative portrait of Bolivar. Plate VIII., Fig. 52, is a silver coin of Ecuador struck in 1884 commemorating by the portrait and the coin denomination (Half Sucre) the great general who fought under Bolivar for the independence of these republics; after his victory at Ayacucho in 1824 he became in the following year the first president of the new republic of Bolivia. Fig. 53 is a gold Five Peso piece of Chili of 1862, and Fig. 54 a 20 Soles piece of Peru of 1863. The last three pieces are all struck under the decimal system, which was established in most of the South American republics between 1860 and 1875; in the several republics various denominations were used, many of which were taken from the type; the gold Condor, for example, in Chili and other countries is named after the condor or vulture which appears on its reverse, the silver Sucre at Ecuador from the commemorative portrait to which we have referred above, and in Peru the Sol from the Sun on the shield beside Liberty (see Plate VIII., No. 54) or above the shield of arms.

MAPS AND PLANS OF NOTABLE BATTLES AND DISTRICTS CONNECTED WITH FAMOUS AUTHORS AND THEIR BOOKS

A GAZETTEER OF TOWNS AND PLACES IN NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA[2]

ABBREVIATIONS

A. Author Ass. Associations with Bp. Birthplace Cap. Capital F. Founded Ind. Indies Res. Residence Sc. Scene (of, in) W. War(s) Cent. A. Central America Conn. Connecticut Mass. Massachusetts Mex. W. Mexican War N.A. North America N.Y. New York Penn. Pennsylvania S.A. South America U.S. United States S. A. W. Ind. South American War of Independence

[2] A large number of the places are not marked in the maps, but the latitude and longitude will enable the reader to locate their position.

=Abancay=, Peru. 10S. 70W. Victory of Almagro, fellow-conqueror with Pizarro of Peru and Chili, over his Spanish rival Alvarado, Captain-General of Peru, 1537. (See Prescott, 'Conquest of Peru.')

=Acadia=, see Nova Scotia.

=Acapulco=, Mexico. 16N. 99W. Old commercial centre; Spanish galleon from, captured by Anson, 1743; by Parker, 1762. (See Anson, 'Voyage Round the World.')

=Acul=, Haiti. 19N. 74W. Port named Saint-Thomas by Columbus.

=Alabama=, U.S. 31N. 85W. De Soto, discoverer of Mississippi (q.v.), had fierce combats with natives; first colonised by French 18th century (see Mobile); part transferred by France to Great Britain, 1763; formerly part of Georgia; became independent state, 1817; admitted to Union, 1819; seceded, 1861; readmitted, 1868.

=Alamo Fort=, San Antonio, Texas. 28N. 98W. Heroically defended by Texans against Mexicans under Santa Ana, who massacred the six left of the garrison after capitulation, 1836 (Texan struggle for independence).

=Alaska.= 55N. 140W. Formerly 'Russian America;' discovered by Bering, 1741; bought by the U.S. and organised as a territory, 1867.

=Albany=, cap. of N.Y. State. 42N. 72W. Dutch traders at, 1614; f. by Dutch (Fort Orange), 1622; present name given by English, to whom ceded, 1664; peace conference with the five nations at, 1689; colonial conventions, at which the six nations were represented, 1748, 1751, and 1754, when Benjamin Franklin assisted as delegate from Pennsylvania. Bp. Bret Harte (1839-1902); P. H. Sheridan, general (1831-88).

=Albemarle Sound=, N. Carolina. 36N. 76W. Indecisive battle during Civil W.

=Alderman Jones's Sound.= 76N. 82W. So named by Baffin, 1616.

=Aleutian Islands=, N. Pacific. 53N. 173E. Discovered by Bering, 1741.

=Allatoona=, Georgia. 34N. 84W. Capitulated to Sherman, 1864 (Civil W.). (His signal 'Hold the fort' has been made popular in a well-known hymn.)

=Allumette=, island, Ottawa River, Quebec. 45N. 77W. Champlain at, 1612.

=Amaquemecan=, Mexico. 19N. 98W. Cortés at, on his march to Mexico, 1519.

=Amazon= (Marañon), river, 0N. 50W. So called from the accounts given by Orellana of the warlike women he encountered on its banks. First seen at its mouth by Vincent Yañez Pinzon, 1500; Orellana, who accompanied Gonzalo Pizarro on his expedition from Quito into the interior, sailed down to the mouth from the Rio Napo, 1540; among later explorers were Lope de Aguirre, Pedro de Texeiro, La Condamine, and in the 19th century the naturalists Alfred Wallace, Walter Bates, Poeppig, Agassiz, Orton, and English, American, and French navigators.

=Ambato=, Ecuador. 1S. 79W. Defeat of Huascar by Atahuallpa, brother Incas of Peru and Quito. (See Prescott, 'Peru,' op. cit.)

=America.= Visited by Northmen 10th century (see Massachusetts); mainland of the North sighted by John Cabot, 1497; discovered by Columbus during his third voyage, 1498; Vespucci accompanied Ojeda in expedition to, 1499 (there is uncertainty as to V.'s earlier voyage); further explorations of the east coast in 1498-9 by the Cabots; 1500-1 by the Cortereals; 1502 and 1504 by Columbus; 1524 by Verazzani; in 1500 Yañez Pinzon and Cabral discovered Brazil shortly after one another; 1513, Balboa crossed the isthmus of Panama and sighted the Pacific; other explorers of 16th-17th centuries: Cortés, Pizarro, Almagro, De Soto, Magalhaes, Cartier, Champlain, La Salle, Joliet, and Marquette; in the 18th the American travellers Lewis and Clarke, and Pike. The continent was first named after Amerigo Vespucci in a geographical work by Waldseemüller, 1507.

=Anaquito=, Plains of, Ecuador, 0. 78W. Battle between Gonzalo Pizarro and Blasco Nuñez, Viceroy of Peru, and defeat and death of latter, 1546, (Prescott, 'Peru,' op. cit.)

=Anastasia Island=, Florida. 29N. 81W. Ribault and his Huguenot followers massacred by Menendez, 1565.

=Andes, The.= 18S. 65W. Passage of, by Pizarro, 1532. The highest summit is Aconcagua, in the Chilian Andes, ascended by Zurbriggen, 1897; a partial ascent of Chimborazo was made by Humboldt and Bonpland, 1802; Edward Whymper was the first to reach the summit, 1880; ascent of Cotopaxi by Thielmann, 1878; by Whymper, 1880; ascents of other heights were made by Conway, 1898.

=Angostura= (Ciudad Bolivar), Venezuela. 8N. 63W. F. by Jesuits, 1576, and formerly known as S. Tomas de Nueva Guayana; present name derived from the liberator Bolivar, who here held the congress which converted New Grenada and Venezuela into the single state of Colombia, 1819.

=Annapolis=, Maryland. 39N. 76W. Settled by Puritans from Massachusetts under Durand, 1649; formerly known as Providence; present name given in honour of Queen Anne; tea burned in harbour by American patriots, 1774; convention for establishing temporary government, 1775. Bp. J. H. Alexander, scientist (1812-67).

=Annapolis= (former Port Royal), Nova Scotia. 44N. 65W. F. by French, 1604; several times captured by English in following years; by Sir W. Phipps, 1690; again in 1710, and finally ceded to Great Britain, when the change of name took place.

=Anticosti=, island, Canada. 49N. 63W. Discovered by Cartier, 1534.

=Antietam Creek=, near Sharpsburg. 39N. 77W. Battle between McClellan and Lee, the former remaining victor, Sept. 16-17, 1862 (Civil W.).

=Antigua=, West Indies. 17N. 61W. Discovered by Columbus, 1493.

=Appomattox= Court House, Virginia. 37N. 78W. Surrender of the Confederate Gen. Lee to Gen. Grant, 1865.

=Apurimac=, river, Peru. 13S. 73W. Perilous passage of, effected by Gasca's army, 1548. (Prescott, 'Peru,' op. cit.)

=Aquidaban=, river, Paraguay. 20S. 55W. Paraguayans defeated at, and the despot Lopez killed, 1870 (war with Brazil).

=Aragua=, near Barcelona, Venezuela, 10N. 63W. Bolivar and Marino severely defeated by the Royalist forces under Morales, 1814 (S. A. W. Ind.).