Chapter 6

(22) And why should not English convicts be sent to work in the Rocky Mountains? We all know that the highest peak of Great St. Bernard is 11,005 feet above the level of the sea, and is covered with perpetual snow. Between the two main summits runs one of the principal passages from Switzerland to Italy, _which continues open all winter_. On the most elevated point of this passage is a monastery and hospital, founded in the tenth century by Bernard de Monthon. The French army, under Bonaparte, crossed this mountain with its artillery and baggage in the year 1800; and here Bonaparte caused a monument to be erected to the memory of General Desaix, who fell in the battle of Marengo. If, then, a monastery and hospital have been established since the tenth century, and are still to be found in the old world at such an elevation, and in such a climate, what objection can there be to the establishment of a convict post, under similar circumstances, to open an important road in the new world? We have seen that Sir George Simpson crossed the Rocky Mountains at a height of 8000 feet, but lower passes may yet be found. At all events our soldiers are exposed to every diversity of climate and every hardship; and we see no reason why healthy and powerful criminals should be more cared for. It was also suggested in 1836--"The gangs might be moved to other and more distant spots, and employed in similar works of utility, and in this way would relieve emigrants from many of the hardships and difficulties which they are now doomed to encounter at the commencement of their settlement."--_A. R. Porter, Esq._

(23) "It would indeed be a heart-sickening prospect if, in looking forward to the continued progress of our country, in its economical relations, we must also contemplate the still greater multiplication of her 'criminals'. Still we fear that, for a long time at least, we shall have of them a large proportion, and that arrangements must be made for their employment. What we have already stated prove that there is no decrease as yet."

One of our periodicals observes--"We have no hope that a class of criminals will ever cease to exist in this country, and it will always therefore be a question, what is to be done with them?.... There are certain conditions directly _essential_ to every successful effort for the repression of crime; the legislature should see that the penal code, while as merciful as a reasonable philanthropy can demand, should yet be severe enough to be truly merciful--merciful, that is, to the entire community."

(24) "The flight of a quarter of a million of inhabitants of these islands to distant quarters of the globe, in 1847, was one of the most marvellous events in the annals of human migration. It is nevertheless a fact, that the migration of this year is nearly equal to that of the last."--(_The Times, 1848._)

"Nor is there any reason to believe that 1849 will witness a diminution in the rate at which this extraordinary process of depletion is going forward; on the contrary, there is every symptom of its probable acceleration."--(_Morning Chronicle, 1849, on Irish Emigration._)

(25) A few extracts concerning them will be interesting. "The chain of the Rocky Mountains, after being considerably depressed in latitude 46 deg. and 48 deg., attains a much higher elevation from latitude 48 deg. to 49 deg., and, continuing in a westerly direction, it separates the affluents of the Saskatchewan and M'Kenkie from those of Columbia or Oregon and other rivers which flow into the Pacific. These mountains appear to decrease again from about 58 deg. to 62 deg. northern latitude, where probably they do not exceed 4000 feet in height; and, still further north, are estimated at less than 2000 feet, between the latitudes of 42 deg. and 58 deg. north. Several peaks rise far above the snow line.

"Wherever the head waters of the rivers, on the east and west sides of the Rocky Mountains, approach nearest each other, there have been found passes through them. Of these, perhaps the most important is the south pass. Between Mount Brown and Mount Hooker, in latitude 52 1/2, another very important pass, offering great facility of communication between the Oregon and Canada, by the waters of the Columbia and the north branches of the Saskatchewan, which, flowing into Lake Winnipeg, gives easy access to Hudson's Bay and the great lakes.

"Among the most awful features of mountain scenery lies the great northern outlet of the territory, resembling the southern in many of its features, with even more sublimity of character, but especially in having the sources of several great rivers within a very short distance of each other. Here are the head waters of the Athabasca and north tributaries of the Saskatchewan, which falls into Lake Winnipeg; and on the east the northern waters of the Columbia, and the eastern branch of Frazer's River, near a deep cliff in the mountains, which has been called by British traders the Committee's Punch Bowl."--_Rev. C. G. Nicolay._

The first who penetrated the Rocky Mountains was Sir Alexander Mackenzie, then in the service of the North-West Company. In the year 1793 he crossed them in about latitude 54 deg., discovered Frazer's River,[A] descended it for about 250 miles, then struck off in a westerly direction, and reached the Pacific in latitude 52 deg. 20'. In 1808 Mr. Frazer, also under the orders of the North-Western Company, crossed the Rocky Mountains and established a trading post on Frazer's River, about latitude 54 deg.; and in 1811 Mr. Thompson, also an agent of that company, discovered the northern head waters of the Columbia, about latitude 52 deg., and erected some huts on its banks.

[A] Frazer's River has its embouche six miles to the north of the 49th parallel, which defines the United States boundary. It is a mile wide. The country around is low, with a rich alluvial soil.

Fort Langley is twenty miles from its mouth.

Sir George Simpson made a journey of 2000 miles in forty-seven days, from the Red River, via Fort Edrington, to Fort Columbia, in 1841; he crossed the Rocky Mountains, at the confluence of two of the sources of Saskatchewan and Columbia, at an elevation of 8000 feet above the level of the sea.

(26) Little, perhaps, did Mr. Pitt suspect the time was to be so near, when that country he had loved so well and served so nobly, would be able to send any quantity of artillery by the mail; and that not eight or ten hours would be required, but hardly three. Would that he was amongst us now. What could England not hope for, or expect to see realized, in her advanced condition, if directed by such a mind as his.

(27) "It is about 900 miles in length by 600 at its greatest breadth, with a surrounding coast of 3000 miles, between the parallels of 61 deg. and 65 deg. north latitude. The coasts are generally high, rocky, rugged and sometimes precipitous. The bay is navigable for a few months in summer, but for the greater part of the remainder of the year is filled up with fields of ice. The navigation, when open, is extremely dangerous, as it contains many shoals, rocks, sandbanks and islands; even during the summer icebergs are seen in the straits, towards which a ship is drifted by a squall or current, rendering it very hazardous for the most skilful seaman. The transitions of the thermometer are from 100 deg. to 40 deg. in two days, and the torrents of rain are surprising. Whether in winter or summer the climate is horrible. The range of the thermometer throughout the year is 140 degrees. The sea is entered by Hudson's Strait, which is about 500 miles long, with a varying breadth and with an intricate navigation."--_Montgomery Martin, Esq._

(28) "The settlement on the Red River, distant from Montreal by the Ottawah River about 1800 miles in lat. 50 deg. north, lon. 97 deg. west, is elevated 800 feet above the level of the sea, contiguous to the border of the Red and Asinibourn Rivers, along which the settlement extends for fifty miles. The soil is comparatively fertile, and the climate salubrious; but summer frosts, generated by undrained marshes, sometimes blast the hopes of the husbandman. The Hudson's Bay Company by the introduction, at a great expense, of rams and other stock, have improved the breed of domestic animals, which are now abundant. Wheat, barley, oats, maize, potatoes and hops thrive; flax and hemp are poor and stinted. The river banks are cultivated for half a mile inland, but the back level country remains in its natural state, and furnishes a coarse hay for the long and severe winter which lasts from November to April, when the Lake Winnipeg is unfrozen and the river navigation commences--via Norway house entrepot--at the north extremity of the lake. The population is in number about 6000, consisting of Europeans, half-breeds and Indians. The two principal churches, the Protestant and Roman Catholic, the gaol, the Hudson's Bay Company's chief building, the residence of the Roman Catholic bishop, and the houses of some of the retired officers of the fur trade, are built of stone, which has to be brought from a distance; but the houses of the settlers are built of wood. A great abundance of English goods is imported, both by the Hudson's Bay Company and by individuals in the company's ships, to York factory, and disposed of in the colony at moderate prices. There are fifteen wind and three water mills to grind the wheat and prepare the malt for the settlers. The Hudson's Bay Company have long endeavoured, by rewards and arguments, to excite an exportation of tallow, hides, wool, &c. to England, but the bulky nature of the exports, the long and dangerous navigation of the Hudson's Bay, and the habits of the half-bred race, who form the mass of the people and generally prefer chasing the buffalo to agriculture or regular industry, have rendered their efforts ineffectual."--_Montgomery Martin, Esq._

(29) "It is true there is another communication via Montreal, but the country in that direction is not of such a nature as to admit of introducing the rollers or the waggons upon the portages."--_Bishop of Montreal._

(30) Mackenzie says, "There is not perhaps a finer country in the world for the residence of uncivilized man, than that which occupies the shore between the Red River and Lake Superior; fish, various fowl and wild rice are in great plenty: the fruits are, strawberries, plums, cherries, gooseberries, &c. &c."

(31) "Of this profitable trade the citizens of the United States possess at present all but a monopoly. Their whaling fleet consists of 675 vessels, most of them 400 tons burden, and amounting in all to 100,000 tons. The majority of them cruise in the Pacific. It requires between 15,000 and 16,000 men to man them. Their value is estimated at 25,000,000 dollars, yielding an annual return of 5,000,000 or 20 per cent. The quantity of oil imported is about 400,000 barrels, of which one-half is sperm. When we add to this profitable occupation for many persons--the value of the domestic produce consumed by them--and the benefit that is thus conferred upon both agricultural and manufacturing interests--the importance of this branch of business will appear greatly enhanced. The whaling fleet of England and her Colonies may be considered as not exceeding at present 150; about twenty whales are killed annually in the straits of Juan de Fuca--besides the whale fishery on the banks and coast is important--cod, halibut and herring are found in profusion, and sturgeon near the shore and mouths of the rivers. Already the salmon fishery affords not only a supply for home consumption, but is an article of commerce, being sent to the Sandwich Islands. They are also supplied to the Russian settlements according to contract. The coast swarms with amphibious animals of the seal kind, known by the vulgar names of Sea Lion, Sea Elephant and Sea Cow--but above all with the common seal. The traffic to be derived from these in skins, oil, &c. could not but be lucrative."--_Rev. C. G. Nicolay._

(32) We are quite aware that the American Lines are made at a much cheaper rate, but we are here advocating a grand permanent link of connexion with Great Britain and all her Colonies and dominions--and however cheaply the Line may be opened, we must not deceive ourselves, but look to a proportional outlay to the greatness of the undertaking. It is in its results and consequences that we look forward to the great benefit and financial return to Great Britain and to her people, both abroad and at home.

(33) It is curious to observe, that in 1822 the Americans themselves fought the battle of England with Russia. The extravagant claims of dominion over the Northern Pacific Ocean and the North-West Coast of America, which Russia proclaimed at St. Petersburgh on the 9th October,--"It is not permitted to any but Russian subjects to participate in the whale or other fishery, or any branch of industry whatever, in the islands, ports and gulfs, and in general along the coast of the North-Western America, from Behring's Strait to 51 deg. north latitude"--were not passed unheeded by the British Ministry of the day, and it was communicated to the Court of St. Petersburgh that England could not submit to such usurpation. The result of these representations were not imparted to the public; but when these pretensions were made known at Washington by the Russian Minister, the American functionaries protested against them with so much vehemence that it was likely to endanger the amicable relations of Russia and the United States--thus fighting the battle of England as it has since proved. In December, 1823, a treaty was entered into at Washington between Russia, the United States and England on this subject, and the Russians retired farther north than 55 deg..

The Marquis of Londonderry was Secretary of State for foreign affairs up to August, 1822, and Mr. Canning succeeded him; and to the watchful care of these two eminent statesmen it may be owing that Russia and the United States did not divide the coast and territory between them.

(34) See Sir Peter Laurie's description of prisons.

(35) In spite of so large a portion of the French population being agricultural, i.e. belonging to that calling in life which developes muscular strength and activity--in spite of that proportion being on the increase as compared with the rest of the inhabitants, it is proved that the number of recruits rejected as unfit for the military service from deficient stature, health and strength, is slowly, surely and constantly on the increase, 40 per cent. are turned back from this cause, and yet the required height is only 5 feet 2 inches.

(36) Several companies have, I believe, been formed for the working of these mines, and the shares, I have heard, were one time rather high. The ore, however, is at present sent chiefly to Boston. The opening of the proposed Line of Railway would no doubt cause a great quantity of it to be sent to Montreal or Quebec and there shipped for England,--enabling the colonies, therefore, to take a greater quantity of our manufactured goods.

Lake Superior.--"Copper abounds in various parts of the country; in particular some large and brilliant specimens have been found in the angle between Lake Superior and Michigan. Henry and others speak of a rock of pure copper, from which he cut off 100 pounds weight."--_Montgomery Martin, Esq._

(37) It is true that Montgomery Martin, in 1834, says, "and if Railroads do not take the place of canals, I have no doubt the greater part of Upper Canada will in a few years be intersected with canals. I recommend the latter to the Canadians in preference to Railroads, as by their means the country will be drained, rendered more fertile and _more_ healthy."

Since that time several canals have been finished, and I have no doubt, as the country becomes more populous, others may be undertaken for the purposes of drainage and internal communications; but my own personal knowledge has satisfied me that Railroads would be far more useful and a far more ultimate benefit, for there is no doubt that the waters of Canada have a general inclination to subside. Mr. Martin himself says, that "the Lakes Huron, Michigan and Superior, have evidently been at one time considerably higher than they are at the present day;" and although Mr. Martin considers the subsidence of these waters has not been effected by slow drainage, but by repeated destruction of barriers, still the fact shows that the waters are subsiding.

Be this all as it may, I do not think that even Mr. Montgomery Martin himself would suggest a communication by canals from the Atlantic to the Pacific, as well might he recommend a man to travel by a slow heavy coach when a light quick one could be procured; and thus we dismiss the subject of canals.

(38) To encourage this Steam Company, who have so nobly performed their task, Government granted, I believe, L52,000 a year.

(39) Such, for instance, as the carrying letters for a penny, and removing such taxes as bear particularly heavy upon the poor.

(40) The Governor-General, in his opening address to the parliament of the province of Canada on the 18th January, 1849, says--"The officers employed in exploring the country between Quebec and Halifax, with the view of discovering the best line for a Railway to connect these two points, have presented a report which contains much valuable information, and sets forth in a strong light the advantages of the proposed undertaking. I shall lay it before you, together with a dispatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies, expressive of the interest taken by her Majesty's Government in the execution of this great work."

(41) See Mr. Charles Pearson's Speech on this subject.

(42) The feeling of loyalty becomes so natural to soldiers after a few years service, that it remains impressed upon their hearts in general for the rest of their lives.

(43) "So great is the fertility of the soil of Canada, that fifty bushels of wheat per acre are frequently produced on a farm where the stumps of the trees, which probably occupy an eighth of the surface, have not been eradicated; some instances of eighty bushels per acre occur; near York (now Toronto) in Upper Canada 100 bushels were obtained from a single acre. In some districts wheat has been raised successively on the same ground for twenty years without manure."--_Montgomery Martin._

(44) A return of the public money expended in Arctic expeditions was called for. It appears that since the peace, or from the year 1815 to the present, L428,782 have been expended in Arctic expeditions.

(45) Mr. Alderman Sydney said--"that convicts had ceased to be sent to Norfolk Island or New South Wales for a considerable time, and he understood that Lord Grey had been influenced on the question by the perusal of a pamphlet which abounded with information of a most convincing character."--_Times._

(46) Yes! to the value of its resources we now seem indeed to be awakened. Earl Grey, in his despatch (dated 17th November, 1848,) to Lieutenant-General Sir John Harvey, Lieutenant-Governor of Halifax, says (after speaking of the final Report of Major Robinson on the formation of the Halifax and Quebec Railway)--"I have perused this able document with the interest and attention it so well merits; and I have to convey to you the assurance of Her Majesty's Government that we fully appreciate the importance of the proposed undertaking, and entertain no doubt of the great advantages that would result not only to the provinces interested in the work, but to the empire at large, from the construction of such a Railway." Again, his Lordship speaks of this Railway as "a great national line of communication," and yet on the 4th August, 1848, was issued the following letter from the Treasury Chambers:--

"Sir,--With reference to your letter of the 18th ult. relative to the expenses incurred in the survey of the proposed Line of Railroad between Halifax and Quebec, I am directed by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury to request that you will move Earl Grey to instruct the several officers in charge of the Governments of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, to cause the proportion of the Railroad survey expenses to be defrayed by each province, to be paid into the commissariat chests on the respective stations.

"I have, &c. (Signed) C. E. TREVELYAN." "H. Merivale, Esq., &c. &c."

(47) "We cannot afford to spend L50 a year on a convict at home: let him be sent to a colony where his labour is absolutely necessary, and where, though by his good conduct and his industry he may finally attain a decent subsistence, yet where he will be unable to acquire affluence, and which he will be prevented from leaving for a happier or a richer shore: this will be punishment without sentimentalism, and without vindictiveness."--_The Times_, 19th February, 1849.

"As it is obvious that we must either retain our convicts at home or send them abroad, and the latter can only be accomplished by transportation to a colony, it is obvious (especially after the results of the last experiments) that we must either found a new colony, as in 1783, or adopt the French system, which has nothing certainly to recommend it."--_Globe_, 17th February, 1849.

(48) Lieutenant Synge has observed: "The necessity of protecting works further in the interior against hostile tribes of Indians is a formidable impediment to their successful prosecution at present." How easily would this impediment be removed by paying these Indians with guns, blankets, &c., and employing them to guard the convicts and the works.

(49) "The hostility of the Indians overcome, (or what for the present would more effectually restrain England's advance, the possibility of their sufferings being increased by the progress of civilization,) the passage of the Rocky Mountains may rather prove a stimulant, as it will be the last remaining obstacle, and, attention being called to the subject, may urge to exertion the talents of such men as have elsewhere conquered every natural difficulty, however formidable."--_Lieutenant Synge_, "_Canada in 1848_."

(50) "More especially the very great opportunities afforded by the cessation of convict labour in our Australian colonies should not be overlooked. The great present pressure in these colonies, in consequence of the want of such labour, should be removed in connection with the relief and profitable employment of portions of our surplus home population."--_Same Author._

(51) "To derive from these measures the chiefest benefits they may confer, the work must be executed under the superintendence of the Imperial Government."--_Same Author._

(52) "Great as is our civilization and intelligence, compared with the empires of former days, we have no right to think that the goal of prosperity and glory is attained. England has by no means reached the zenith of earthly power; science is as yet but in its infancy; the human mind has scarcely arrived at adolescence; and, for aught we imperfect beings know, this little island may be destined by Divine Providence to continue as a light unto the heathen--as a nucleus for the final civilization of man."--_Preface to "Taxation of the British Empire," published in 1833._

(53) This of course would only be a temporary arrangement previous to their being sent to distant parts.