Chapter 38

"FRENCHMEN! The present situation can last no longer. Every day which passes enhances the dangers of the country. The Assembly, which ought to be the firmest support of order, has become a focus of conspiracies. The patriotism of three hundred of its members has been unable to check its fatal tendencies. Instead of making laws in the public interest it forges arms for civil war; it attacks the power which I hold directly from the People, it encourages all bad passions, it compromises the tranquillity of France; I have dissolved it, and I constitute the whole People a judge between it and me. The men who have ruined two monarchies wish to tie my hands in order to overthrow the Republic; my duty is to frustrate their treacherous schemes, to maintain the Republic, and to save the Country by appealing to the solemn judgment of France.

"Such is my firm conviction. If you share it, declare it by your votes. If, on the contrary, you prefer a government without strength, Monarchical or Republican, borrowed I know not from what past, or from what chimerical future, answer in the negative.

"But if you believe that the cause of which my name is the symbol--that is to say, France regenerated by the Revolution of '89, and organized by the Emperor, is to be still your own, proclaim it by sanctioning the powers which I ask from you.

"Then France and Europe will be preserved from anarchy, obstacles will be removed, rivalries will have disappeared, for all will respect, in the decision of the People, the decree of Providence.

"Given at the Palace of the Elysee, 2d December, 1851. LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE."

[Sidenote: The Second December]

[Sidenote: Summary executions]

[Sidenote: Proscription]

During the same day the Assembly was dissolved by troops. Attempts at public protests were roughly suppressed. A few barricades were thrown up, but the crowds were quickly dispersed, and those agitators who were caught were hurried off to prison. On December 4, the troops were ordered out in force, and proceeded to clear the streets. Nearly a thousand persons were shot during the course of the day. The insurrection was stamped out. A few days later, when the National Assembly tried to meet again, a hundred and eighty members were arrested. Then appeared two parallel lists of names. One contained the names of those who could be counted on for the purposes of Prince Napoleon. They were all created members of a consultative committee, which was to sit "until the reorganization of the legislative party." The other list contained the names of those who were proscribed from French territory, from Algeria, and from the colonies "for the sake of public safety." Among them were Victor Hugo, Thiers, Baune, Laboulaye, Theodore Bac, and Lamarque. Many hundreds of compromised Republicans fled before they were proscribed. Others were transported across the borders without any publication of the fact. Still others were summarily shot in the barrack courtyards.

[Sidenote: The plebiscite]

[Sidenote: Foreign congratulations]

[Sidenote: Palmerston dismissed]

On December 21, the result of the so-called popular plebiscite was announced. Louis Napoleon had been elected President for ten years by an alleged vote of 7,473,431 ays against 641,341 nays. He was clothed with monarchical power and was authorized to issue a constitution for France. Outside of France the results of the _coup d'etat_ were received with equanimity. Pope Pius IX. went to a review held by General Gemeau in Rome and begged him to congratulate Prince Louis Napoleon for him. Lord Palmerston in London, it was stated, told the French Ambassador that he "entirely approved of what had been done, and thought the President of the French fully justified." The British Ambassador at Paris was instructed to make no change in his relations with the French Government, and to do nothing that might wear the appearance of English interference. It appeared that Lord Palmerston had once more acted on his own initiative. He was requested to resign. Before long the dismissed Minister had an opportunity of showing the government how formidable an adversary he could be.

1852

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon in power]

[Sidenote: Empire foreshadowed]

On the first day of January, Louis Napoleon was reinstalled as President of France in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The day was made a public holiday. On New Year's Eve the Diplomatic Corps had congratulated Prince Napoleon at the Palace of the Tuileries. A few days later some of the more prominent of the President's opponents, among them Changarnier and Lamorciere, were conducted to the Belgian frontier. On January 10, the President banished eighty-three members of the Legislative Assembly. Some six hundred persons who had been arrested for resisting the _coup d'etat_ at the same time were taken to Havre for transportation to Cayenne. On January 14, the new constitution was made public. All real powers were vested in the President. He had the initiative for all new measures, as well as the veto on deliberations of both Senate and Legislative Assembly. The Senators were to be appointed by him. The sessions of both bodies were to be held behind closed doors. The impotence of the legislators was offset by their princely salaries. Senators were to receive 30,000 francs per year, while the Deputies drew half that sum. The actual sessions of the Legislature were limited to three years. The President himself was to draw an annual salary of 12,000,000 francs. The money for these expenditures was raised by extraordinary means. A decree on January 22 confiscated all former crown lands and the estates of the Princes of Orleans. The press was gagged by a decree prohibiting the publication of any newspaper without the sanction of the government. All liberty poles were chopped down, and the motto of "Liberte, Fraternite, Egalite," was tabooed. On February 29, the elections for the Legislative Assembly were held. The government nominated all the candidates, and practically all were elected. Late in March, Prince Louis Napoleon opened the Senate and Corps Legislatif. His address throughout was couched in the language of a monarch. While he conceded the intention of the republican reforms to be harmless, he suggested the possibility that he might be called upon "to demand from France in the interest of peace a new title, by which the powers that have been conferred upon me may be confirmed once for all." A Cabinet was formed of the President's most devoted followers, under the nominal leadership of Persigny. One of the first votes of the Legislature, after fixing the President's salary, was a grant of 80,000,000 francs for public works wherewith to occupy the laboring classes. This done, the President made a triumphal tour of France. The government officials saw to it that he received a magnificent welcome wherever he appeared.

[Sidenote: Death of Schwarzenberg]

[Sidenote: Buol Schauenstein, Austrian Minister]

In the neighboring countries the progress of events in France created less misgivings than had the doings of the Republic. In Austria, Emperor Francis Joseph further undid the work of the recent revolution by his total abolition of the rights of trial by jury on January 15. Shortly afterward, Prince Felix Schwarzenberg, the Prime Minister, died in Vienna. He was a nephew of Charles Philippe, the famous Prince of Schwarzenberg who negotiated the marriage of Napoleon and Marie Louise, and later led the allied armies against Napoleon. In 1848, Prince Felix Schwarzenberg commanded a division in Italy. Later he joined Windischgraetz in the military occupation of Jena, and soon took charge of the civil administration of the empire, in which he continued until his death. He was succeeded by Count Buol von Schauenstein.

[Sidenote: German affairs]

[Sidenote: The Danish succession]

[Sidenote: German fleet sold]

Throughout the year the affairs in Germany were tranquil. Shortly after the death of the old King of Hanover, a tariff union was established with Russia, while a postal and telegraph union was extended to all the German States. Early in the year the King of Prussia revived the old Council of State as it was before 1848. The Constitution underwent new modifications. In May, a conference of the great Powers met at London to treat of certain German affairs. An agreement was signed practically assuring the independence of the Swiss district of Neuchatel, which had revolted from Prussia in 1848. Three days later, on May 8, a protocol was signed concerning the Danish succession. This intricate problem continued to vex the souls of diplomats. Lord Palmerston, when interrogated about it, said that there were only three persons who understood the Danish succession. One was the Queen Dowager of Denmark, the second was God Almighty, and the third was a German professor, but he had gone mad. While attempting to settle the terms of the succession the five great Powers and Sweden signed a treaty guaranteeing the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The throne was granted to Christian of Sonderburg-Gluecksburg. Christian, Duke of Augustenburg-Holstein, consented to surrender his rights for a money consideration. The treaty was not recognized by the German Confederation, but was accepted by Hanover, Saxony and Wurtemberg. In June, Germans had the humiliating experience of seeing their fleet, the formation of which was undertaken in 1848, sold at public auction. All aspirations for sea power had been abandoned by the Bund. In July, Prussia's representative at the Bund meetings, Baron Bismarck, was sent as envoy to Austria. Through his efforts at Vienna the Austrian Government was prevailed upon to join the German Zollverein and to sign commercial treaties.

[Sidenote: Death of Froebel]

During this year in Germany, Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel, the German educator, died at Marienthal on July 21, in his seventieth year. After an unsettled and aimless youth, he started teaching, and soon developed a system which has become famous under the name of Kindergarten (children's garden). It was intended to convert schooling into play, which, according to Froebel, is the child's most serious business. The first Kindergarten was opened in 1840 at Blankenburg, Prussia. Meeting at first with little encouragement, it gradually gained a footing in most civilized countries. Froebel was largely assisted in the propagation of his ideas by the Baroness Marenholz-Buelow. He was the author of "Die Menschenerziehung" (Human Education) and "Mutter und Koselieder," a book of nursery songs and pictures for children.

[Sidenote: "Prometheus" affair]

In England, the dismissal of Lord Palmerston left the Foreign Office in an embarrassing position as regarded Louis Napoleon's government. Other embarrassments were likewise bequeathed. Thus, on January 10, Lord Palmerston's successor, Lord Granville, had to disavow to the American Minister the act of the British man-of-war "Empress," which had fired into the American steamer "Prometheus." England offered an apology which was accepted.

[Sidenote: "The Third of February"]

The caustic comments of the English press on French affairs, together with the free utterances of Victor Hugo and other French exiles on English soil, gave great offence to Louis Napoleon. Count Valevski's diplomatic protests found support in the British House of Lords. It was then that Alfred Tennyson, undeterred by the supposed reserve of his Poet Laureateship, wrote the invective lines entitled "The Third of February."

[Sidenote: "Henry Esmond"]

About the same time Thackeray brought out his "History of Henry Esmond," a masterpiece of English historical fiction. In the dedication to Lord Ashburton, Thackeray thus announced his departure for America. "My volume will reach you when the author is on his voyage to a country where your name is as well known as here."

[Sidenote: Transvaal's independence recognized]

In South Africa, at the Sand River Convention on January 17, the British virtually accepted the independence of the Transvaal. In the meanwhile the fifth war with the Kaffirs was begun by Sir George Cathcart. Incidentally a crushing defeat was inflicted on the Basutos at Guerea. Toward the close of the year the situation grew so alarming that martial law was proclaimed by the Governor of Cape Colony. All inhabitants were bidden to the frontier for the defence of the colonies.

[Sidenote: Progress of Taiping rebellion]

In China, the Taiping rebellion grew ever more threatening. Early in the year Tien Wang decided to march out of Kmaysi to invade the vast untouched provinces of Central China. He averred that he had "the divine commission to possess the Empire as its true sovereign." The rebels now became known as Taipings, after a town of that name in Kwangsi province. Tien Wang began his northern march in April. Irritated by the conduct of Tien Wang's lieutenants, the Triads took a secret departure and made peace with the Imperialists. Their secession put an end to the purpose of attacking Canton which Tien Wang had cherished, and he made an assault on Kweisling. The Imperial Commissioners at that place having beaten them back failed to pursue and conquer them, and they advanced unopposed across the vast province of Hoonan. At Changsha they encountered strong resistance. After a siege of eighty days they abandoned the attack and marched northward. They captured Yoochow, which was an important arsenal, and soon afterward Hankow, Manchong and How-Kong were taken.

[Sidenote: South American struggles]

In the Argentine Republic, the civil war and its consequent upheavals were continued. On February 3, General Urquiza, commanding the combined army of Entre Rios and Brazil, defeated General Rosas at Monte Cazeros, "the gate of Buenos Ayres." The city capitulated and the civil war seemed ended. Urquiza announced himself as provisional dictator. On May 31, he was elected Provisional President, while Vincente Lopez was elected Governor of Buenos Ayres. One month later, Urquiza, having won over the army by a sudden _coup d'etat_, seized the reins of government as dictator. His first measure was to acknowledge the independence of Paraguay. In September, Urquiza's refusal to recognize the political and commercial pre-eminence of Buenos Ayres produced another revolt. On September 11, the people of Buenos Ayres, under the leadership of Bartholomay Mitre, seceded from the confederacy. Urquiza was compelled to leave Buenos Ayres and proceeded to Santa Fe, where he was acknowledged as President by the thirteen other provinces. They bound themselves by a treaty to secure the free navigation of all rivers flowing into the La Plata. On November 20, the Congress of the Confederation met at Santa Fe and invested Urquiza with full powers to suppress the revolution in Buenos Ayres. Urquiza's blockade of the city by sea led to another revolution within the walls of Buenos Ayres. General Pintos assumed charge and Urquiza withdrew.

[Sidenote: Death of Gogol]

[Sidenote: "Dead Souls"]

Nicholas Vasilievitch Gogol died on March 4 at Moscow. Born in 1810, at Soroczince, in the district of Poltava, he began his career as a writer with poems and a metrical tragedy, written in the dialect of Little Russia. To this period belongs his ballad "Two Fishes." After travelling in Germany, he was called to a professorship at the patriotic institute of St. Petersburg, where he wrote his famous prose romances in Greater Russian dialect. His "Evenings at a Farm" admitted him to the literary circles of the capital and brought him the friendship of his fellow poet, Pushkin. He wrote a series of short stories, treating of life in the Russian provinces, and among the middle class, which were subsequently published in the collection of four volumes, entitled "Mirgorod." In 1833, Gogol brought out his satirical comedy, "The Commissioner," in which he laid bare the all-pervading corruption of Russian official life. After prolonged travels through Germany, France, Italy and Palestine, Gogol returned to Russia and settled near St. Petersburg. He wrote more short stories and descriptions of travel, and finally published the incomplete satirical novel, "Dead Souls," which is the best of his works. In this novel he handled Russian life fearlessly, with satirical comments on the weak points of Russian society. It is stated that he finished the story before his death, but burned the manuscript. When he died he was acknowledged as the best writer of satirical prose in Russia.

[Sidenote: Palmerston's revenge]

[Sidenote: Earl of Derby Premier]

On February 20, Lord Palmerston was enabled to make his former colleagues in the Cabinet feel his power. Owing to general vague apprehensions that Prince Louis Napoleon might revive his illustrious namesake's projects against England, a cry had arisen for the strengthening of the national defences. To satisfy this demand, Lord John Russell brought in a local militia bill. Lord Palmerston promptly moved an amendment for a general volunteer force instead of local militia, thus totally altering the nature of the bill. The amendment was sustained by a majority of eleven votes. Lord John Russell's Ministry thereupon resigned, and the Earl of Derby was called in. The most conspicuous member of the new Cabinet was Benjamin Disraeli, who took the portfolio of the Exchequer. Disraeli by this time had already achieved popularity as an author. Some idea of his personality may be gathered from a contemporary's description of his outward appearance in those days:

[Sidenote: Disraeli's appearance]

"Usually he wore a slate-colored velvet coat lined with satin, purple trousers with a gold band down the outside seam, a scarlet waistcoat, long lace ruffles falling down to the tips of his fingers, white gloves with brilliant rings outside them, and long black ringlets rippling down over his shoulders. When he rose in the House, he wore a bottle-green frock coat, with a white waistcoat, collarless, and a needless display of gold chains."

[Sidenote: American fisheries dispute]

The new Ministry was so distinctly protectionist that the Anti-Corn Law League was reorganized to resume the agitation for free trade. Soon the perennial troubles with America about the fisheries of Newfoundland broke out afresh. The new Foreign Secretary, the Earl of Malmesbury, insisted upon a strict fulfilment of the terms agreed upon in the convention of 1818. Armed vessels were sent to the coast of British North America. The United States likewise sent a war steamer to the disputed fishing-grounds. Many vessels were boarded for information, but both sides abstained from giving serious grounds for complaint.

[Sidenote: Franklin Pierce elected]

In the United States, the Whigs, encouraged by their success with Taylor, put forth another military officer, General Scott, as their Presidential candidate. At the convention held in Baltimore in June, Webster, Fillmore and Scott were put in nomination. Fifty-two ballots were cast before Scott was nominated. The candidates before the Democratic Convention in Baltimore were Buchanan, Cass, Marcy and Douglas. Franklin Pierce was chosen after more than forty ballots. The Free Democrats selected John P. Hale and Julian of Indiana. Pierce carried twenty-seven States, to Scott's four, receiving 254 votes to Scott's 42.

[Sidenote: Death of Clay]

[Sidenote: Death of Webster]

[Sidenote: Webster's oratory]

[Sidenote: The Concord speech]

[Sidenote: Webster in Congress]

Henry Clay died in June. He was a candidate for the Presidency three times. Few Americans have been more idolized than he. His great success was largely due to his manner, which captivated opponents as well as friends. In will and fine sense of honor he was as firm and lofty as Jackson or Jefferson. He it was who said that he would "rather be right than President." His death was followed in October by that of his great rival, Daniel Webster. This great American orator was born in 1782, the son of a New England farmer. He was graduated from Dartmouth College, and began the study of law. While reading Vattel, Montesquieu, and Blackstone, he eked out a humble income as a school teacher. He became associated with Christopher Gore, a noted lawyer of those days in Boston, and presently acquired a reputation as an orator. An address delivered at Fryeburg in 1802 furnished the model for his great Concord speech four years later. As a result of the speeches in opposition to Jefferson's and Madison's embargo policy against England, Daniel Webster was elected by the Federalists of New Hampshire to represent them in the Thirteenth Congress. Henceforth Webster's stirring addresses were delivered in the national forum of the United States. Pitted against such distinguished speakers as Calhoun and Henry Clay, he gradually came to be acknowledged the foremost orator of America. He was at the height of his reputation when he died. His most lasting achievement, perhaps, was the conclusion of the famous Webster-Ashburton treaty with England, settling the boundaries between British North America and the United States.

Shortly before Webster's death another orator of world-wide reputation was heard at Washington. This was Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian exile. On the occasion of a banquet tendered to him by the American Congress early in the year, Kossuth delivered the famous speech in which he compared the Roman Senate of antiquity to that of the New World.

[Sidenote: Junius Brutus Booth]

Junius Brutus Booth, the great English tragedian, died in America while returning from a lucrative tour to California. Booth made his debut at Covent Garden Theatre in London in 1814 as Richard III. His personal resemblance to the hunchbacked tyrant conformed so well to the traditions of the stage, and his personification of the character was in other respects so striking, that he eclipsed Edmund Keane, then acting at Drury Lane. The rivalry of the two actors grew so intense that Booth was driven from the stage by a serious theatrical riot. In 1821, he made his first appearance in the United States, again as Richard III., and was received with such enthusiasm that he settled permanently at Baltimore. From here he made professional excursions to other American cities. Among his most familiar personations were Iago, Hamlet, Shylock, Sir Giles Overreach, and Sir Edmund Mortimer. Over his audiences he ever exercised a wonderful power. On his death he left two sons, both actors like himself, and both destined to make their mark in life.

[Sidenote: Death of Tom Moore]

[Sidenote: Moore's American impressions]

The death of Thomas Moore, the Irish poet, excited as much attention in America as it did in England. Born at Dublin in 1779, Tom Moore, as he was usually called, wrote verses in early youth. Like Pope, he may be said to have lisped in numbers. At the age of thirteen he was a contributor to the "Anthologia Hibernica." After graduating at Trinity College he came to London, and there dedicated his translation of the poems of Anacreon to the Prince Regent. He became a favorite of fashionable society. Among his patrons were the Earl of Moira, Lord Holland, the Marquis of Lansdowne, and other noblemen of the Whig party. He obtained the appointment of Registrar to the Admiralty in Bermuda, but on arriving there hired a deputy to discharge the duties of the office and went on a tour to America. Like some other famous travellers, he conceived a poor opinion of the American people. In commemoration of his trip, Moore brought out "Epistles, Odes and other Poems," containing many defamatory verses on America. One scurrilous stanza read: