CHAPTER XIV

THE MODERN CITY

1877-1890

Rapid Transit. James Howell, Jr., elected Mayor. Work on the Bridge. Passage of "Single Head" Bill. John Fiske on the "Brooklyn System." Seth Low elected Mayor. His Interpretation of the "Brooklyn System." Reëlection of Low. Opening of the Bridge. Bridge Statistics. Ferries and Water Front. Erie Basin. The Sugar Industry. Navy Yard. Wallabout Market. Development of the City. Prospect Park. Theatres and Public Buildings. National Guard. Public Schools. Brooklyn Institute. Private Educational Institutions. Libraries. Churches, Religious Societies, Hospitals, and Benevolent Associations. Clubs. Literature, Art, and Music. The Academy of Music. "The City of Homes."

Brooklyn had now fairly entered upon what may be called its modern period. The first wires had been stretched for the great Bridge, and soon afterward the six years' labor at Hell Gate culminated in the long-anticipated blast. Ground had been broken for the new Municipal Building, the Ocean Parkway had been opened for travel, work had begun on the Brooklyn elevated road, rapid transit trains had begun running on Atlantic Avenue, the Manhattan Beach and Sea Beach railroads were opened to Coney Island, which had started upon its career as a great popular watering-place and pleasure resort, and a line of Annex ferryboats was opened between Jewell's Wharf and Jersey City.

In the mayoralty contest of 1877 James Howell, Jr., was elected on the Democratic ticket. The bill which had passed the Legislature at the previous session reduced the Mayor's salary from $10,000 to $6000. Mayor Howell took a strong interest in the progress of the Bridge, and succeeded Henry C. Murphy as a trustee.

Work on the Bridge advanced steadily during the years 1877 and 1878. The breaking of a strand of the cable at the New York anchorage in June, 1878, resulted in the death of several workmen. In April, 1880, farewell services were held in St. Ann's Church, at Washington and Prospect streets, preparatory to the removal of the building, to make way for the Bridge approach. The prospective area of the approach necessitated the removal of much property, and the slow work of demolition and advance still continues, after fifteen years, to present unsightly pictures at the threshold of the city.

Mayor Howell's message in January, 1880, revealed the fact that the taxable value of property in the city had reached $232,925,699, which was an increase of nearly $3,000,000 over the figures for the previous year.

An important event for the city was the passage in May, by the Legislature, of the "Single Head" bill, by the provisions of which the system of triple heads of departments was abolished, and complete appointive power and responsibility vested in the Mayor. This radical step toward municipal reform and good government was one which could not fail to attract the attention of the country, since Brooklyn was the first great city to take it, and the experiment was watched with the liveliest interest by all students of municipal government.

John Fiske, in his admirable work on "Civil Government," thus succinctly describes the new system of city government: "Besides the council of [nineteen] Aldermen, the people elect only three city officers,--the Mayor, comptroller, and auditor. The comptroller is the principal finance officer and book-keeper of the city; and the auditor must approve bills against the city, whether great or small, before they can be paid. The Mayor appoints, without confirmation by the council, all executive heads of departments; and these executive heads are individuals, not boards. Thus there is a single police commissioner, a single fire commissioner, a single health commissioner, and so on; and each of these heads appoints his own subordinates; 'so that the principle of defined responsibility permeates the city government from top to bottom.'[40] In a few cases where the work to be done is rather discretionary than executive in character, it is intrusted to a board; thus, there is a board of assessors, a board of education, and a board of elections. These are all appointed by the Mayor, but for terms not coincident with his own; 'so that, in most cases, no Mayor would appoint the whole of any such board unless he were to be twice elected by the people.' But the executive officers are appointed by the Mayor for terms coincident with his own, that is, for two years. 'The Mayor is elected at the general election in November; he takes office on the first of January following, and for one month the great departments of the city are carried on for him by the appointees of his predecessor. On the first of January it becomes his duty to appoint his own heads of departments,' and thus 'each incoming Mayor has the opportunity to make an administration in all its parts in sympathy with himself.'

"With all these immense executive powers intrusted to the Mayor, however, he does not hold the purse-strings. He is a member of a board of estimates, of which the other four members are the comptroller and auditor, with the county treasurer and supervisor. This board recommends the amount to be raised by taxation for the ensuing year. These estimates are then laid before the council of Aldermen, who may cut down single items as they see fit, but have not the power to increase any item. The Mayor must see to it that the administrative work of the year does not use up more money than is thus allowed to him."[41]

The first Mayor to act under this charter amendment was Seth Low, who was elected, in 1881, over Howell by a vote of 45,434 to 40,937.[42] Low, who was born in Brooklyn, where his family had occupied a distinguished position, and had graduated from Columbia College in 1870, afterward entering the business house of his father, was in his thirty-second year when elected to office, a circumstance which, added to the novelty of the conditions under which his administration must work, did not fail to attract special attention throughout the country.

In his first message (January, 1882) Low touched upon the important question of the appointing power:--

"The manifest purpose of the act is to make the Mayor the responsible head of the city government, and to secure a homogeneous government by laying upon each Mayor the necessity of making his appointments at the beginning of his term. To accomplish this purpose the act does some things by direct provision and some things by implication. It provides, in section I, that the terms of office of certain specified officers shall expire on the first of February, 1882. It then provides, in section 6, that 'after the first day of January, 1882, the Mayor of the city of Brooklyn shall have sole and exclusive power to appoint the successor of any commissioner or other head of department (except the department of finance and the department of audit), or of any assessor or member of the board of education of said city, when the terms of such officers shall respectively expire, or as by law may then or thereafter be required to be appointed.'

"There are certain officers in the city whose terms of office expired some time in the year 1881, to wit: The corporation counsel, the city treasurer, the collector of taxes, and the registrar of arrears, and to these officers the charter amendment makes no distinct reference. The reason that the present incumbents hold over is that, by section 5 of that amendment, all power to appoint during 1881 was taken away from the Mayor and Common Council, where it formerly resided, without being lodged anywhere else, except that the sole power of filling vacancies during 1881 was lodged with the Mayor. The evident purpose of this provision was to place the appointment of the successors to the present incumbents of these offices in the hands of the Mayor to be elected by the people in 1881. So much is clear; but it leaves two points uncertain: First, when are the successors to the present incumbents to be appointed? Second, when appointed, is it for the balance of an unexpired term, or for two years?

"I shall be governed by what I believe to be the clear and intelligent purpose of the law. I shall appoint the four officers alluded to so that their terms shall begin practically on the first of February, or at the same time with the officers distinctly mentioned in the act, and I shall appoint them for two years."

Speaking further of appointments and removals, Low said:--

"It is a matter of grave public concern for the people to know in what spirit an officer intrusted for the first time in the history of our city with such powers purposes to use them. The whole theory of the law is that the Mayor shall be responsible for the administration of the city's affairs, and for the policy which animates the different departments. It makes the relation of the different commissioners and heads of departments to the Mayor practically that of the cabinet officer to his chief. I feel it to be a matter of no less importance to my successors than to myself to emphasize this thought. It is no reproach to Mr. Evarts that President Garfield placed Mr. Blaine at the head of the State Department. It is no reproach to Mr. Blaine that President Arthur has called Senator Frelinghuysen to succeed him; and what is true of the State Department is equally true of a purely administrative department like the post-office. It will, therefore, be a great injustice to any official who may be retired through my action to interpret it into reproach upon him, just as it would be equal injustice to me to assume that I meant it as such; or to my successor, to hamper him with any obligations toward my appointees. The Mayor being responsible to the people must be left free from such personal embarrassments. I claim this right, as I believe, in the interest of good government, for my successors and for myself.

"The law does not give the Mayor the absolute power of removal. I presume it was not thought to be necessary. But the whole purpose of the law will be defeated unless the Mayor knows at all times and under all circumstances that he is responsible because his appointees represent him. If any of them get out of harmony with him he must ask for their resignations, and he is entitled to receive them on demand. I hazard nothing in saying that the people of Brooklyn elected me Mayor with the full purpose of placing precisely this responsibility upon me. As there is no precedent to govern in this case, I wish to state distinctly that the acceptance of an appointment at my hands will be evidence to the community that the gentleman accepting it has personally given me his assurance that he will without delay give me his resignation whenever I ask for it."

The remainder of the message was in the same spirit, and left the people of Brooklyn in no doubt that the new Mayor meant to interpret the movement represented by the charter amendments in its most radical and reformatory light.

Low was renominated in 1883. The Democrats nominated Joseph C. Hendrix,[43] who led a brilliant campaign. In a hotly contested election that drew out an extraordinary vote, Low was elected by a vote of 49,554 against Hendrix's 48,006.

The two administrations of Low demonstrated beyond question the availability of the "Brooklyn system." In his message for 1884 the Mayor offered a strong plea in behalf of the public schools, in which free books had just been introduced.

The president of the board of education made the following urgent presentation of the case:--

"Notwithstanding the number of new buildings erected and occupied during the year, I am unable to report any relief from the general crowded condition that existed at the time of my last report. The children come faster than we can make room for them, and in some localities for nearly every seat provided there are two applicants. As evidence of the demand made upon our new schools, at their opening, by primary pupils, I cite the following: The new primary building to relieve No. 24 was opened on the 4th inst., this being the last of the new buildings. The crowd of children with their parents seeking admission was so great and the excitement so intense that for two days two policemen were required to preserve order at the doors. In a building seating 676 pupils 899 were registered, the average age being 8 years. Only the fifth and sixth primary grades are admitted to this building. It is not pleasant for me to state that many of these children, 9 and 10 years old, have never before had a day's schooling, because there was no public school into which they could gain admittance. From the first day the class-rooms have been devoted to half-day classes.

"The registry of attendance in October of this year numbered 67,314 pupils. Our regular seating capacity is but 64,200, or 3,114 less than the actual attendance. We have 76 classes, numbering over 90 pupils each, and of this number 16 classes have over 140 each, the largest class having 218 pupils. A large proportion of these crowded classes are from necessity divided into half-day sessions.

"This is our condition after redistricting the city and reorganizing several schools, thereby decreasing the number of grammar classes, and increasing the number of primary classes by eighteen, and after building eight new school buildings,--we have been compelled to crowd and pack our school rooms without due regard to the convenience, comfort, and health of the pupils and to the proper facilities and conditions for imparting instruction....

"We have exhausted every means at our disposal to utilize space save one. It is now the purpose of the Committee on Studies to so revise the course of study that all grammar class-rooms will be full. When this has been done we shall have no resource left by which to gain space but to build new buildings."

Possibly the most important achievement in Low's administration was the framing and passage of the Arrears Bill, which had an immediate and salutary effect in the management of the city's finances.

An historic event during the period of Low's mayoralty was the opening of the Bridge on Thursday, May 24, 1883. The two cities were greatly aroused by the event, and much enthusiasm prevailed.

The ceremonies were held at the Brooklyn Approach, and the formal programme of ceremonies was as follows:--

MUSIC: 23d Regiment Band.

PRAYER: Rt. Rev. Bishop Littlejohn.

PRESENTATION ADDRESS: On behalf of Trustees, William C. Kingsley, Vice-President.

ACCEPTANCE ADDRESS: On behalf of the City of Brooklyn, Hon. Seth Low, Mayor.

ACCEPTANCE ADDRESS: On behalf of the City of New York, Hon. Franklin Edson, Mayor.

ORATION: Hon. Abram S. Hewitt.

ORATION: Rev. Richard S. Storrs, D. D.

MUSIC: 7th Regiment Band.

The ceremonies over which James S. T. Stranahan, who had won the distinction of being called "Brooklyn's first citizen," presided, drew a large and memorable company. The military marshal of the day was Maj.-Gen. James Jourdan, commanding the Second Division of the National Guard, and the arrangements were as follows:--

"The President of the United States and Cabinet, the Governor of the State of New York and Staff, with other distinguished Guests, will be escorted from the Fifth Avenue Hotel to the New York Anchorage by the 7th Regiment of the 1st Division, N. G., S. N. Y., Emmons Clark, Colonel Commanding, and there received by the Trustees and escorted to the Brooklyn Anchorage, from which point the 23d Regiment, 2d Division, N. G., S. N. Y., Rodney C. Ward, Colonel Commanding, will act as escort to the Brooklyn Approach.

"To avoid confusion, it is requested that holders of BLUE TICKETS will enter Gates marked A at the Roadways on either side of the Bridge. Holders of WHITE TICKETS will enter at either Gates A or B.

"Officers of the Army and Navy and the National Guard are requested to appear in Uniform. Officials of New York and Brooklyn are requested to display their badges of office."

In the course of his address Mayor Low said:--

"As the water of the lakes found the salt sea when the Erie Canal was opened, so surely will quick communication seek and find this noble bridge; and as the ships have carried hither and thither the products of the mighty West, so shall diverging railroads transport the people swiftly to their homes in the hospitable city of Brooklyn. The Erie Canal is a waterway through the land connecting the great West with the older East. This bridge is a landway over the water, connecting two cities bearing to each other relations in some respects similar. It is the function of such works to bless 'both him that gives and him that takes.' The development of the West has not belittled, but has enlarged New York, and Brooklyn will grow by reason of this bridge, not at New York's expense, but to her permanent advantage. The Brooklyn of 1900 can hardly be guessed at from the city of to-day. The hand of Time is a mighty hand. To those who are privileged to live in sight of this noble structure every line of it should be eloquent with inspiration. Courage, enterprise, skill, faith, endurance,--these are the qualities which have made the great bridge, and these are the qualities which will make our city great and our people great. God grant they never may be lacking in our midst. Gentlemen of the Trustees, in accepting the bridge at your hands, I thank you warmly in Brooklyn's name for your manifold and arduous labors."

Speaking of a glance forward for twenty-five years, Mayor Edson said:--

"No one dares accept the possibilities that are forced upon the mind in the course of its contemplation. Will these two cities, ere then, have been consolidated into one great municipality, numbering within its limits more than five millions of people? Will the right of self-government have been accorded to the great city, thus united, and will her people have learned how best to exercise that right? Will the progress of improvement and the preparation for commerce, manufactures, and trade, and for the comforts of home for poor and rich, have kept pace with the demand in the great and growing city? Will the establishment of life-giving parks, embellished with appropriate fountains and statues and with the numberless graces of art, which at once gladden the eye, and raise the standard of civilization, have kept abreast with its growth in wealth and numbers? These are but few of the pertinent questions which must be answered by the zealous and honest acts of the generation of men already in active life. Here are the possibilities; all the elements and conditions are here; but the results must depend upon the wisdom and patriotism and energy of those who shall lead in public affairs. May they be clothed in a spirit of wisdom and knowledge akin to that which inspired those who conceived and executed the great work which we receive at your hands and dedicate to-day."

The address of Abram S. Hewitt contained these significant words:--

"I am here by your favor to speak for the city of New York, and I should be the last person to throw any discredit on its fair fame; but I think I only give voice to the general feeling, when I say that the citizens of New York are satisfied neither with the structure of its government, nor with its actual administration, even when it is in the hands of intelligent and honest officials. Dissatisfied as we are, no man has been able to devise a system which commends itself to the general approval, and it may be asserted that the remedy is not to be found in devices for any special machinery of government. Experiments without number have been tried, and suggestions in infinite variety have been offered, but to-day no man can say that we have approached any nearer to the idea of good government which is demanded by the intelligence and the wants of the community.

"If, therefore, New York has not yet learned to govern itself, how can it be expected to be better governed by adding half a million to its population, and a great territory to its area, unless it be with the idea that a 'little leaven leaveneth the whole lump'? Is Brooklyn that leaven? And if not, and if possibly 'the salt has lost its savor, wherewith shall it be salted?' Brooklyn is now struggling with this problem, it remains to be seen with what success; but meanwhile it is idle to consider the idea of getting rid of our common evils by adding them together. Beside, it is a fundamental axiom in politics, approved by the experience of older countries as well as our own, that the sources of power should never be far removed from those who are to feel its exercise. It is the violation of this principle which produces chronic revolution in France, and makes the British rule so obnoxious to the Irish people. This evil is happily avoided when a natural boundary circumscribes administration within narrow limits. While, therefore, we rejoice together at the new bond between New York and Brooklyn, we ought to rejoice the more that it destroys none of the conditions which permit each city to govern itself, but rather urges them to a generous rivalry in perfecting each its own government, recognizing the truth that there is no true liberty without law, and that eternal vigilance, which is the only safeguard of liberty, can best be exercised within limited areas. It would be a most fortunate conclusion if the completion of this bridge should arouse public attention to the absolute necessity of good municipal government, and recall the only principle upon which it can ever be successfully founded. There is reason to hope that this result will follow, because the erection of this structure shows how a problem, analogous to that which confronts us in regard to the city government, has been met and solved in the domain of physical science."

The brilliant oration of Dr. Storrs closed with the following glowing passage:--

"Local and particular as is the work, therefore, it represents that fellowship of the nations which is more and more prominently a fact of our times, and which gives to these cities incessant augmentation. When by and by on yonder island the majestic French statue of 'Liberty' shall stand, holding in its hand the radiant crown of electric flames, and answering by them to those as brilliant along this causeway, our beautiful bay will have taken what specially illuminates and adorns it from Central and from Western Europe. The distant lands from which oceans divide us, though we touch them each moment with the fingers of the telegraph, will have set their conspicuous double crown on the head of our harbor. The alliances of nations, the peace of the world, will seem to find illustrious prediction in such superb and novel regalia. Friends and fellow-citizens, let us not forget that in the growth of these cities, henceforth united and destined ere long to be formally one, lies either a threat or one of the most conspicuous promises of the time. Cities have always been powers in history. Athens educated Greece as well as adorned it, while Corinth filled the throbbing and thirsty Hellenic veins with poisoned blood. The weight of Constantinople broke the Roman Empire asunder. The capture of the same magnificent city gave to the Turks their establishment in Europe for the following centuries. Even where they have not had such a commanding preëminence of location, the social, political, moral force proceeding from cities has been vigorous, in impression, immense in extent. The passion in Paris, for a hundred years, has created or directed the sentiment of France. Berlin is more than the legislative or administrative centre of the German Empire, and even a government as autocratic as that of the Czar, in a country as undeveloped as Russia, has to consult the popular feeling of St. Petersburg or of Moscow. In our nation, political power is widely distributed, and the largest or wealthiest commercial centre can have but its share. Great as is the weight of the aggregate vote in these henceforth compacted cities, the vote of the State will always overbear it. Amid the suffrages of the nation at large it can only be reckoned as one of many consenting or conflicting factors. But the influence which constantly proceeds from these cities--on their journalism not only, or on the issues of their book presses, or on the multitudes going forth from them--but on the example presented in them, of educational, social, religious life--this, for shadow and check, or for fine inspiration, is already of unlimited extent, of incalculable force. It must increase as they expand, and are lifted before the country to a new elevation. A larger and a smaller sun are sometimes associated, astronomers tell us, to form a binary centre in the heavens, for what is doubtless an unseen system receiving from them impulse and light. On a scale not utterly insignificant a parallel may be hereafter suggested in the relation of these combined cities to a part, at least, of our national system. Their attitude and action during the war--successfully closed under the gallant military leadership of men whom we gladly welcome and honor--were of vast advantage to the national cause. The moral, political, intellectual temper which dominates in them as years go on, will touch with beauty or scar with scorching and baleful heats extended regions. Their religious life, as it glows in intensity, or with a faint and failing lustre, will be repeated in answering image from the widening frontier. The beneficence which gives them grace and consecration, and which, as lately, they follow to the grave with universal benediction; or, on the other hand, the selfish ambitions which crowd and crush along their streets, intent only on accumulated wealth and its sumptuous display, or the glittering vices which they accept and set on high--these will make impressions on those who never cross the continent to our homes, to whom our journals are but names. Surely we should not go from this hour, which marks a new era in the history of these cities, and which points to their future indefinite expansion, without the purpose in each of us that so far forth as in us lies, with their increase in numbers, wealth, equipment, shall also proceed, with equal step, their progress in whatever is noblest and best in private and in public life; that all which sets humanity forward shall come in them to ampler endowment, more renowned exhibition; so that, linked together, as hereafter they must be, and seeing 'the purple deepening in their robes of power,' they may be always increasingly conscious of fulfilled obligation to the nation and to God; may make the land, at whose magnificent gateway they stand, their constant debtor, and may contribute their mighty part toward that ultimate perfect human society for which the seer could find no image so meet or majestic as that of a city, coming down from above, its stones laid with fair colors, its foundations with sapphires, its windows of agate, its gates of carbuncles, and all its borders of pleasant stones, with the sovereign promise resplendent above it--

'And great shall be the peace of thy children.'"

The newspapers tendered homage to the leaders of the Bridge movement, and to the guiding minds of the vast mechanical triumph--to John A. Roebling, Washington A. Roebling, Henry C. Murphy, William C. Kingsley, J. S. T. Stranahan, and others who had been prominent in the labors of organization and of execution.

The original cost of construction amounted to $15,000,000. The total number of passengers on promenade, roadway, and railroad during 1883 was 5,332,500. The total number in 1892, the year after the promenade toll was removed, was 41,772,808. The statistics for 1893 show that the traffic was highest in December and lowest in August. The earnings of the Bridge are thus shown:--

From May 23, 1883, to Dec. 1, 1884 $682,755.42 " Dec. 1, 1884, " Dec. 1, 1885 622,680.31 " " 1885, " " 1886 870,207.43 " " 1886, " " 1887 938,281.21 " " 1887, " " 1888 1,012,254.82 " " 1888, " " 1889 1,120,024.16 " " 1889, " " 1890 1,239,493.90 " " 1890, " " 1891 1,176,447.95 " " 1891, " " 1892 1,801,661.48 " " 1892, " " 1893 1,590,140.03 -------------- Total $11,053,946.71

The receipts from all sources for the year ending December 1, 1893, were as follows: City of Brooklyn construction account, $150,000; city of New York construction account, $75,000; receipts from tolls, $1,252,908.04; material sold, labor, etc., $559.91; interest, $2,426.03; rent, real estate, and telegraph wires, $109,246.05. Total, $1,590,140.03.

The management of the Bridge was formed under control of a board of twenty trustees, eight being appointed by the Mayor, comptroller, and auditor of Brooklyn, and eight by the Mayor, comptroller, and president of the Board of Aldermen of New York city. Under an act of the Legislature, passed April 4, 1893, on April 12 following, this board was replaced by the present board of trustees, consisting of two persons appointed by the Mayor of the city of Brooklyn, two persons appointed by the Mayor of the city of New York, at a salary of $3000 each, and the mayors and comptrollers of the two cities, members _ex officio_, the appointed trustees to hold office for five years.

Supplementing the work of the Bridge are the elevated railroads and the electric or "trolley" system. Six steam railroads run into the city, four running to Coney Island, one to Rockaway Beach, and one, the Long Island Railroad, connecting with the railroad system of Long Island. Sixteen ferries connect the bay and river front with New York. The New York and Brooklyn Ferry Company carried about 16,000,000 passengers in 1893.

The boundaries of the city, measuring about thirty-two miles, include an extended water front that is one of the most picturesque in the country. The Erie basin and Atlantic docks on the southern extremity of the line represent an immense industry in grain shipments. Grain-elevators, coaling-stations, store-houses, the chief naval station in the United States, and the big establishments of the greatest sugar-refining district in the world, combine to give the river front an unusual interest.

The great docks on the southwestern water front represent important industries in which Brooklyn occupies a foremost place. The Atlantic basin covers forty acres, and is surrounded by brick and granite warehouses on three sides. These are 100 feet in depth, and three to five stories high. The basin contains four piers, three of which are covered, and are 700, 800, and 900 feet in length, by 80 feet in width. South central pier, 900 feet long, is the largest in the port. In the basin are seven elevators, six of which are controlled by the New York Grain Warehousing Company, the seventh being owned by Pinto Brothers. Atlantic basin is the largest grain-depot in the world. Its frontage line of basin and piers measures three miles. South central pier is leased by the Union Hamburg and the Nicaragua and Central American lines of steamships. Barber & Co. and T. Hogan & Sons control the east central pier; Funch & Edye's steamships dock at the south central pier, as do the lines to Bordeaux and Oporto. At the west central pier many goods from the Indies are unloaded, especially plumbago and cocoa-nut oil. The entrance to the basin is 200 feet in width. The north pier is much used by Italian barks. The basin has a uniformed police force of its own.

In this region also are finely appointed shipyards and dry docks, the Anglo-American docks, opened in 1866, being the largest in the United States. The chamber of Dock No. 1 is 510 feet in length, and that of Dock No. 2,610 feet. Most of the large iron ships that are docked at the port of New York are hauled up here. On the old Williamsburgh water front are the vast sugar-refineries, the greatest group of the kind in the world, and representing Brooklyn's greatest manufacturing interest. The output of most of these great hives of industry is now controlled by the American Sugar Refining Company. The largest of the refineries melts 2000 tons of raw sugar per day, producing over 12,000 barrels of refined sugar. Vessels from the West Indies and other points as remote as Java line the piers at this part of the water front, loading with barreled sugar.

Large cooperages and extensive oil refineries occupy the water front to the north, the great Standard Oil Company having its plant in this region.

The United States reservation, known as the Navy Yard, occupies about 112 acres in the bend of the river to which the Dutch gave the name that still clings, the Wallabout. This is the chief naval station of the United States. It contains trophies of the three great wars, and the 6000 feet of water front is always made interesting by the presence of one or more ships of war.

In 1884 Brooklyn obtained from the United States Government a lease of the 422,525 square feet of land on the east of the Navy Yard, and adjoining the Wallabout canal. On this plot a large market has grown up and supplied the city with a marketing centre of which it long stood in need. In July, 1890, an act of Congress authorized the sale of the fee-simple of the land to Brooklyn; the city authorities completing the purchase in November, 1891, at the valuation of $700,000. Later, an additional purchase of adjoining land from the federal government extended the market property to the Wallabout canal, and enabled the increase of the number of lots for stands to 120. The present area of the market lands is bounded as follows: On the north by the Wallabout canal; on the east by the lands of the United States Naval Hospital; on the south by Flushing Avenue, and on the west by Washington Avenue.

In December, 1892, the national government authorized the sale to Brooklyn of additional lands of the Navy Yard reservation, abutting upon the west side of Washington Avenue, and embraced between that avenue and a line on a continuation of Clinton Avenue, Flushing Avenue, and the East River,--a tract which would more than double in extent the area of the market possessions.

Brooklyn's boundaries on the east and south touch a number of large cemeteries, most noted of which is Greenwood, which holds many distinguished dead, and many notable monuments. In 1893 there were 5519 interments at the cemetery of the Evergeens, and during the same year 3000 at Cypress Hills, and 18,000 at Calvary Cemetery. There are not less than thirty cemeteries within the county, a fact that presents a serious problem in the extension of the city's lines.

The development of Prospect Park has been a matter of great pride and gratification to the city. In recent years the park has been adorned by a number of statues. J. S. T. Stranahan has received the unique honor of a public statue in his lifetime. In the plaza is the statue of Lincoln already mentioned. Within the park are busts of Thomas Moore, Washington Irving, and of John Howard Payne, one of Long Island's sons.

The Soldiers' and Sailors' Memorial Arch in the Park Plaza was proposed by Seth Low in a speech at Greenwood, on Decoration Day. The Legislature voted $250,000, subscriptions were raised, the competition for a suitable design was won by John H. Duncan, the corner-stone was laid in 1889, and the monument was finished in 1892.

The Municipal Building was finished in 1878, at a cost of $200,000, and the Hall of Records adjoining the county Court House in 1886, at a cost of $275,000. The most imposing public building in the city is the Federal Building, bounded by Washington, Johnson, and Adams streets. This massive structure of Maine granite contains the central post-office quarters, and the federal courts and offices. The site cost $413,594.12, and the building $1,258,057.06.

Some of the most important building operations in recent years have expressed the enterprises of the great bazaars, gathered most thickly on Fulton Street, but appearing also on other leading thoroughfares.

A glance at the buildings of the city quickly suggests the remarkable increase in the number of theatres.

According to Gabriel Harrison's "History of the Drama in Brooklyn" the first dramatic performance in the city took place in a stone building on the north side of "the old road" (Fulton Street), near the corner of Front Street. This building had been known for thirty years or more as Corporation House, belonging to the corporation of the city of New York. It contained a tavern and a ferry room on its ground floor and a hall on the second. When the British gained possession of Brooklyn the house changed hands, and was known while they remained as the King's Head. It was fitted as a resort for officers and men, and all sorts of amusements were offered, from bull-baiting to games of chance. George III.'s birthday was celebrated by illuminations and fish dinners, to which the Tories of New York came over in rowboats. At the first dramatic performances here an original farce was acted, of which General John Burgoyne was the alleged author. It was called "The Battle of Brooklyn." The title-page reads: "The Battle of Brooklyn; a farce in two acts, as it was performed in Long Island on Tuesday, 27th day of August, 1776, by the representatives of the Tyrants of America, assembled in Philadelphia."

There were also dramatic performances in Greene's Military Garden in 1810, and later. An amphitheatre was built on Fulton Street in 1828. The assembly rooms of Military Garden were converted into a theatre in 1848. Chanfrau and Burke opened the Brooklyn Museum in 1850. The Odeon was built on the site of the present Novelty or Proctor's Theatre on Driggs Street, in 1852. It was afterward known as Apollo Hall. Washington Hall, afterward called the Comique, was built at the corner of Broadway and Fourth Street (now Bedford Avenue); Hooley's Opera House, at Court and Remsen streets, in 1862, and the Park Theatre was built a year later. The Brooklyn Theatre was opened in 1871, and rebuilt after the fire.[44] Hyde & Behman's Theatre was built in 1877, the Grand Opera House in 1881, the Criterion in 1885, the Amphion in 1888. The completion of the fine Columbia Theatre on Washington Street was due to the enterprise of Edwin Knowles, who had been a successful manager of the Grand Opera House, and subsequently of the Amphion.

The newer city armories are further important additions to the city architecture.

On the first day of January, 1894, the military organizations of Brooklyn, comprising, with the Seventeenth Separate Company of Flushing, the entire Second Brigade of the New York National Guard, numbered about 3000 men. The strength of the brigade in 1892, as shown at inspection, was 3084. In this number were included the 403 officers and men of the Thirty-second Regiment, shortly afterward disbanded. Very few members of that organization are now in the service. In 1893, inspections of the several commands were held, as follows: Seventeenth Separate Company, April 3; Signal Corps, October 10; Third Battery, October 11; Forty-seventh Regiment, October 18; Fourteenth Regiment, October 19; Thirteenth Regiment, October 21; Twenty-third Regiment, October 26. The Thirteenth and Fourteenth regiments, which did not go to the state camp last year, were inspected in the afternoon at Prospect Park. Below is shown the attendance of each organization:--

MUSTER ROLL FOR 1893.

----------------------+----------+---------+--------+----------- Organization. | Present. | Absent. | Total. | Percentage | | | | Present. ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+----------- Brigade Commander and | | | | Staff | 11 | -- | 11 | -- Thirteenth Regt | 529 | 118 | 647 | 81.61 Fourteenth Regt | 532 | 149 | 681 | 78.11 Twenty-third Regt | 770 | 35 | 805 | 95.65 Forty-seventh Regt | 521 | 48 | 569 | 91.56 Third Battery. | 68 | 8 | 76 | 89.47 Seventeenth Sep. Co. | 51 | 9 | 60 | 85.00 Signal Corps | 40 | 1 | 41 | 97.56 +----------+---------+--------+----------- Total | 2,522 | 368 | 2,890 | ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+-----------

The difficulties arising from inadequate school accommodations, to meet which Mayor Low and other mayors had urged broad and sufficient action, continued to hamper the action of the department of public instruction. The development of the department under the superintendency of William H. Maxwell has been along thoroughly modern lines. Recent reforms have had a tendency to improve the quality of teachers by placing obstacles in the path of the incompetent. To a considerable extent these reforms have diminished the chances of political interference in the working of the school system.

The successful establishment, in 1878, of a Central Grammar School, admitting graduates from the public schools, was followed by the organization of separate high schools for boys and girls, and afterward by a manual training school, and a movement for the establishment of kindergarten classes and definite means of physical culture. On October 31, 1893, there were on register in the public schools of the city 102,468 pupils,--more than 2000 in excess of the sittings. For many years preceding this date a large number of classes had provided a half day's schooling only for the registered pupils, forcing the teachers of these classes to assume responsibility for two large classes of children on each school day.

In his report for the year ending December 31, 1892, Superintendent Maxwell said:--

"The child that begins the school course at six ought to complete it easily, and be ready to enter the high school, at the age of fourteen. In every grade, however, the average age is about one year higher than it ought to be. There is now a well ascertained consensus of opinion among educational authorities that this delay in reaching the high school--in getting at such disciplinary studies as languages, geometry, and natural science--is detrimental not only to the individual child but to the public welfare. In some cases this delay is doubtless caused by protracted illness or general physical weakness; in some, by the mania--I can call it by no other name--which some principals and teachers have for holding back pupils from promotion; in some, by positive dullness or slowness of wit; but in the majority of cases it arises from the crowded condition of the lower primary classes. Instead of accommodating more children by swelling the registers of these classes, we are accommodating fewer. The teachers in these classes, work as hard as they may, are able to prepare but a small proportion of their classes for promotion; while by reason of lack of proper teaching in the introductory classes--a lack which is not chargeable to the teachers--the pupils are less able than they otherwise would be to do the work of the higher grades as they advance. The consequence is that pupils are put through our schools more slowly and in smaller numbers than they ought to be. If in a piece of machinery or in a living organism a greater strain is put on any one part than it is able to bear, the strength and efficiency of the whole are proportionately diminished. Just so it is with our school system. The strain put upon the seventh primary teachers by choking up their classes impairs the efficiency of the entire system. The only rational conclusion is that _the number of pupils to a class must be limited_."

The movement toward centralizing responsibility in the school principals began at this time to gather force. It was warmly supported by the superintendent.

In the Girls' High School, in 1893, the number of registered pupils was 1626; in the Boys' High School, 692. The annual appropriation for schools in 1893 was $2,449,735.33; from the city, $1,996,500.00; from the State, $394,414.82; other sources, $58,820.51.

A training school for teachers was established in 1885. From this admirable institution the graduates increased in number from 48 in 1886 to 70 in 1892.

With the educational interests of Brooklyn the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences is closely associated. In the summer of 1823 several gentlemen, among whom was Augustus Graham, met at Stevenson's Tavern for the purpose of establishing for the apprentices of Brooklyn a free library.[45] They adopted a constitution, and issued to the citizens of Brooklyn a circular, in which they solicited donations of books and money with which to effect their purpose. On November 20, 1824, they were incorporated by the Legislature of the State under the name of "The Brooklyn Apprentices' Library Association," and on July 4, 1825, the corner-stone of the first building owned by the association was laid by General Lafayette, at the junction of Henry and Cranberry streets. As early as 1835 the association had outgrown its original quarters, and the property having been sold to the city the institution was removed to a new building in Washington Street, then the centre of the wealth and culture of our young city. The first lecture delivered in the newly completed structure was by Prof. James D. Dana.

In order to broaden the scope of the association, an amended charter was granted by the Legislature in 1843, and the name therein changed to "The Brooklyn Institute." For many years thereafter the Institute was a most important factor in the social, literary, scientific, and educational life of Brooklyn. Its library had a large circulation; in its public hall took place many social and historic gatherings, and from its platform were heard such eminent scientific men as Agassiz, Dana, Gray, Henry, Morse, Mitchell, Torrey, Guyot, and Cooke; such learned divines as Drs. McCosh, Hitchcock, Storrs, and Buddington, and such defenders of the liberties of the people as Phillips, Sumner, Garrison, Emerson, Everett, Curtis, King, Bellows, Chapin, and Beecher.

During this brilliant period of its history (1843-1867), the Institute received from Mr. Graham two very important donations. On July 4, 1848, the building, which had been heavily mortgaged, he presented to the trustees free from all incumbrance, and through his will, made known to the board of directors on November 28, 1851, shortly after his decease, he bequeathed to the Institute the sum of $27,000, as a permanent endowment fund. The will directs that the interest of $10,000 of this sum shall be used in the support of lectures on scientific subjects and in the purchase of apparatus and collections illustrating the sciences; that the interest of $12,000 shall be used in the support of Sunday evening lectures on "The Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God as manifested in His Works," and that the balance of $5,000 shall be used in the support of a school of design and in forming a gallery of fine arts.

For several years, however, prior to 1867, owing to the erection of the Academy of Music and other public buildings, the Institute building was regarded as behind the times. The income from rental of portions of the building was dwindling to a low figure, and the financial support of the free library was becoming inadequate. Under these circumstances the directors remodeled the building in 1867, at an expense of about $3,000, a part of which was raised by life-membership subscriptions of $50 and $100, and the balance by a mortgage on the building. For twenty years (1867-87) this indebtedness necessitated the application of a portion of the income from the rent of the building and from the Graham endowment fund to the payment of the interest and the principal of the debt. Final payment on the mortgage was made early in 1887.

The causes of the partial inactivity of the Institute during the twenty years (1867-87) are therefore apparent. The most that it was able to do was to circulate its library, keep up its classes in drawing, and provide for the annual addresses on the 22d of February. Freed from debt in 1887, the Institute was enabled once more to use the whole income from its funds and building for educational purposes, and again to become an important agent in the work of education in the city.

The property of the Institute in 1887 consisted of the Institute building and land, valued at $90,000, a library of 12,000 volumes, a collection of paintings valued at $10,000, and endowment funds of $46,000. These last comprise the $27,000 bequeathed by Mr. Graham, the William H. Cary fund of $10,000 for the support of the library, and an increment of $9,000 realized through premiums on the sale of bonds.

During the year 1887-88 a new era in the history of the Institute was inaugurated. The board of trustees determined to make the property of the Institute the nucleus of a broad and comprehensive institution for the advancement of science and art, and its membership a large and active association, laboring not only for the advancement of knowledge, but also for the education of the people, through lectures and collections, in art and science. It was observed that while Boston had the Lowell Institute, a society of natural history, and an art museum; while Philadelphia had the Franklin Institute, an academy of sciences, and a gallery of fine arts; and while New York had the Metropolitan Museum and the American Museum, yet that Brooklyn had nothing corresponding to these institutions. It was felt that Brooklyn should have an institute of arts and sciences worthy of her wealth, her position, her culture, and her people; that it was her duty to do more than she was then doing for the education and enjoyment of her people, and that some step should be taken looking towards the future growth and needs of the city in matters of art and science.

Accordingly, a form of organization was adopted which contemplated the formation of a large association of members, and a continual increase of the endowment funds and the collections of the Institute. Provision was made for a subdivision of the membership into departments, representing various branches of art and science, each department forming a society by itself and yet enjoying all the privileges of the general association. A general invitation was extended to citizens specially interested in science and art to become members of the Institute. Courses of lectures on science and art were provided. The directors' room of the Institute was enlarged to accommodate the meetings of some of the departments contemplated, and a large lecture-room on the third floor of the Institute building was fitted up at an expense of $2600 for the occupancy of those departments that would make use of apparatus and collections at their meetings.

During the first fifteen months after the reorganization of the Institute a membership of three hundred and fifty persons was recorded. The Brooklyn Microscopical Society joined the Institute in a body, with sixty-four members, and became the Department of Microscopy. The American Astronomical Society, whose members resided mostly in New York and Brooklyn, became the Department of Astronomy, with thirty-two members. The Brooklyn Entomological Society united with the Institute, and became the Entomological Department, with forty-one members. The Linden Camera Club of Brooklyn became the Department of Photography, with twenty-six members. Departments of physics, chemistry, botany, mineralogy, geology, zoölogy, and archæology were successively formed. Each of the above twelve departments began to hold monthly meetings. The permanent funds and property of the Institute were increased $3000. Additions were made to the library, and its circulation increased from 12,000 to 36,000 volumes per year. The lecture courses were fully attended. The classes in drawing were enlarged, and a general citizens' movement to secure a museum of arts and sciences for Brooklyn was inaugurated.

The subsequent growth of the Institute has been remarkable. The old building on Washington Street was burned in 1890, and the work was continued in temporary quarters, chiefly in the building of the Young Men's Christian Association on Fulton Street. During the fourth year of active work after the reorganization 632 new members were recorded. The real estate belonging to the old Brooklyn Institute on Washington Street was sold to the trustees of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge, and the old Institute was formally consolidated with the new Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. By an act of the Legislature the city was authorized to expend $300,000 in the erection of a Museum of Arts and Sciences on Prospect Hill, on a favorable site bounded by the Eastern Parkway, Washington Avenue, old President Street, and the Prospect Hill reservoir. In the year 1892, 940 new members were added, bringing the total up to 2622; the number of lectures and class exercises open to members and others, by the payment of a moderate fee, was 1397, as against 1134 the previous year; the number of concerts was increased from eight to fifteen; the average daily attendance on all the exercises of the Institute for the eight months of active work was 936, and the total attendance for the year, 190,900; the annual income was increased from $18,934.20 in the previous year to $31,641.58; special courses of lectures were delivered on American history from the time of Columbus to the beginning of this century, and a special course of addresses was given by college presidents on educational problems; Institute extension courses of lectures were given in the eastern section of the city; the school of political science was established, with four classes and ninety-six pupils; the Brooklyn art school was transferred to new and larger quarters in the Ovington Studio Building, and the number of pupils was increased from ninety-four to one hundred and twenty-eight; the department of architecture, acting through its advisory board, devised a scheme of competition for the best plan and design for the proposed Museum of Arts and Sciences, which was accepted by the board of trustees, and adopted by the Mayor and park commissioner, and the competition so arranged resulted in the award to the distinguished New York architects, McKim, Mead & White.

Foremost among those who have brought the Institute to its present influential position in the city have been Gen. John B. Woodward and Prof. Franklin W. Hooper. Professor Hooper, who had been elected curator of the Institute in 1889, became director of the new Institute of Arts and Sciences in 1891.

Mention has already been made of the establishment of Packer Institute and the Polytechnic Institute. The handsome gift of Mrs. Wm. S. Packer resulted in the opening of an academy for the education of young women. Since the time of the opening in 1854, under the presidency of Dr. Alonzo Crittenden, the Packer Collegiate Institute has enjoyed a peculiar prominence in the educational work of the city, and has won a high, if not a foremost, place among academies of the kind in the United States. Dr. Crittenden was succeeded in 1883 by Dr. Truman G. Backus, who had filled the professorship of English language and literature at Vassar, and whose brilliant attainments as a scholar and director have given new distinction to the institute.

A commanding position likewise has been gained by the Polytechnic Institute, whose establishment as an academy for young men resulted from the successful movement, aided by the gift of Mrs. Packer, for the establishment of a young women's school. A building on Livingston Street was completed and opened in 1855, Dr. John H. Raymond then being president of the faculty. Dr. Raymond was succeeded by Dr. David Henry Cochran, who had for ten years been principal of the State Normal School at Albany. Under a new charter, secured in 1890, the Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute received "all the rights, powers, and dignities given by the law and the ordinances of the regents[46] to a college, including membership in the University of the State of New York." Dr. Henry Sanger Snow, an alumnus and a trustee of the institute, took a leading part in the negotiations which resulted in the significant change. The new building adjoining the old was first occupied in September, 1891.

The Adelphi Academy began its life in 1869 as a private school for both sexes. In 1886 Charles Pratt, then president of the board of trustees, made gifts to the Institute, by means of which it secured a new building that was opened in 1888. The since extended buildings now occupy a large part of the block bounded by Lafayette Avenue, St. James Place, Clifton Place, and Grand Avenue. The preparatory, academic, and collegiate departments are supplemented by a kindergarten and a physical-training school. Art education has always occupied an important place in the Adelphi Academy. Many well-known artists have graduated from the art school superintended by Prof. J. B. Whittaker. The principals of the Adelphi since its establishment have been John Lockwood, Homer B. Sprague, Stephen G. Taylor, Albert C. Perkins, John S. Crombie, and Charles H. Levermore.

It is to Charles Pratt, who took so important a part in bringing Adelphi Academy to its present position, that Brooklyn is indebted for the school which, more than any other educational institution within its borders, is distinctively original and of a national fame. Pratt Institute is frequently compared with Cooper Institute in New York. The comparison between the wise beneficence of Cooper and that of Pratt is, indeed, interestingly close; but the likeness between the two great schools is less perfect. Pratt Institute's remarkable characteristics are the result of a wise idea logically worked out. The buildings on Ryerson Street and Grand Avenue contain a unique combination of departments under a form of management that has proved to be eminently practical and progressive. Its educational plan illustrates manual and industrial training, as well as education in high-school and artistic branches. The methods of teaching domestic art, as well as political, economic, and natural science, have excited the admiration of students of education throughout the country. The large free library is one of many features of the institution.

The kindergarten idea in Brooklyn has had its leading exponent in Froebel Academy on Tompkins Square. Among other private educational institutions are St. John's College, the most prominent of the Roman Catholic schools, situated on Lewis Avenue, between Willoughby Avenue and Hart Street; St. Francis College, Bedford Academy, St. Joseph's Institute, Brooklyn Heights Seminary, Long Island Business College, Brooklyn Latin School, Bryant & Stratton's Business College, Miss Rounds's School for Girls, Kissick's Business College, and Browne's Business College.

In special education the Long Island College Hospital and the Brooklyn College of Pharmacy occupy an important place. The Long Island College Hospital and Training School for Nurses was chartered in 1858. Its history as a hospital and as a college has been notable. The graduates in 1893 numbered 60, bringing the total list of graduates nearly to 1500.

It frequently has been lamented that Brooklyn has no great free library, and the deficiency is one for which the city deserves a mark of discredit. But it is due to Brooklyn to observe that she is by no means without excellent opportunities for those who wish to read.

The Brooklyn Library, which succeeded the old Mercantile Library, is not free to the public, but the subscription rate is so low in comparison with the privileges that the institution is in many respects to be regarded as a great public library. The building on Montague Street was finished in 1868 at a cost of $227,000, and its beautiful Gothic front forms one of the genuine ornaments of the city.

The library contains nearly 200,000 volumes, admirably selected. The catalogue compiled by Stephen B. Noyes was of a character to bring honor alike to library and librarian. Upon the death of Mr. Noyes the management of the library came into the competent hands of W. A. Bardwell, who became librarian in 1888. The reading-rooms are furnished with 300 periodicals and newspapers. In the reference departments there were 75,000 readers in 1893, and in the reading-rooms 100,000 readers. The Brooklyn Library has, indeed, performed an immensely important service in the development of the city.

The Brooklyn Institute Free Library, formerly in the old Institute Building on Washington Street, and now at 502 Fulton Street, contains 16,000 well-selected volumes, and is efficiently managed. Pratt Institute Free Library is a notable instance of a great public service through a private agency. The library of 42,000 volumes includes 2000 German and 2000 French books. There are an Astral Branch at Franklin Avenue and Java Street, and delivery stations at Froebel Academy and 754 Driggs Avenue. Reading-room and library are free to the use of all residents of Brooklyn. The Long Island Free Library, at 571 Atlantic Avenue, is the result of a well-directed movement. There are but 15,000 volumes, but method of selection and distribution have assured the usefulness of the work. To this must be added the free public school libraries, and the substantial free library of the Union for Christian Work on Schermerhorn Street.

The free library of the Long Island Historical Society naturally occupies an important place. The reference department of 48,000 volumes includes the noteworthy publications of the society itself. The Law Library in the Court House contains 15,000 volumes, and there are 7000 volumes in the library of the Kings County Medical Society.

In addition to the libraries of the Young Men's and the Young Women's Christian associations,[47] there are over twenty-five special free reading-rooms throughout the city, most of them connected with churches.

The large number of churches, and the emphasis laid upon church interests, once gave to Brooklyn the title of the City of Churches. The proportion between the number of churches and the population no longer is so exceptional as to justify such a title, but church life in Brooklyn is, in many respects, of unique prominence. The greatest preacher the United States has produced, Henry Ward Beecher,[48] occupied the pulpit of Plymouth Church during a great formative period in the city's history. The Rev. Richard S. Storrs, D. D., pastor of the Congregational Church of the Pilgrims since 1846, the descendant of a distinguished family of preachers and orators, who has been called the "Chrysostom of Brooklyn," occupies a place among the most scholarly of American orators. The popularity of the Rev. T. De Witt Talmage, pastor of the Brooklyn Tabernacle since 1869, has been unexampled in the church history of the country. The thirty years' pastorate of the Rev. Theodore L. Cuyler, at the Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian Church, constituted a notable force in the advancement of the community. The enlightened leadership of the Catholic Church by the Right Reverend John Loughlin, first bishop of Brooklyn, who was succeeded in 1892 by the Right Reverend Charles E. McDonnell, has been a matter for congratulation in the Catholic Church; and the Episcopal Church has been under no less obligation to the first bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Diocese of Long Island, the Right Reverend A. N. Littlejohn, D. D. When Dr. Littlejohn was elected bishop in 1869, he was succeeded as rector of Holy Trinity Church by the Rev. Charles Henry Hall, D. D., who has been one of Brooklyn's strongest preachers.

St. James' Church, at Jay and Chapel streets, has been the cathedral church of the Catholic diocese for nearly half a century. The corner-stone of a great cathedral, to occupy the block bounded by Lafayette, Clermont, Greene, and Vanderbilt avenues, was laid in 1868, but only a part of the structure has been completed.

In 1893 the following were the numbers of churches of different denominations in Brooklyn: Baptist, 40; Congregational, 26; German Evangelical Association, 5; Jewish, 10; Lutheran, 27; Methodist Episcopal, 53; Primitive Methodist, 4; Methodist Free, 1; Methodist Protestant, 1; Presbyterian, 33; Roman Catholic, 63; Reformed Presbyterian, 1; United Presbyterian, 3; Protestant Episcopal, 45; Reformed Episcopal, 2; Dutch Reformed, 19; Unitarian, 4; Universalist, 5; miscellaneous, 23.

In the county towns the churches are numbered as follows: Baptist, 1; Hebrew, 1; Lutheran, 5; Methodist Episcopal, 9; Protestant Episcopal, 8; Methodist Protestant, 1; Reformed, 8; Roman Catholic, 12. In 1893 there were ten so-called Chinese Sunday-schools in Brooklyn, most of them connected with Protestant churches, and said to enroll 200 members.[49]

Religious societies in Brooklyn include a large list of prosperous and efficient bodies. Among these may be mentioned the Catholic Historical Society, the Union Missionary Training Institute, the Baptist Church Extension Society, Baptist Social Union, City Bible Society, Church Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, City Mission and Tract Society, Brooklyn Sunday School Union, Eastern District Sabbath School Association, Brooklyn Theosophical Society, Brotherhood of Christian Unity, Church Charity Foundation, Congregational Church Extension Society, Congregational Club, Foreign Sunday School Association, German Young Men's Christian Association, Greenpoint Sunday School Association, Greenpoint Young Men's Christian Association, Kings County Sunday School Association, Long Island Baptist Association, Order of Deaconesses of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Women's Auxiliary, Unitarian Club, Universalist Club, and the Young People's Baptist Union.

Brooklyn's churches occupy a particularly intimate relation with the intellectual and social life of the city. The circumstances under which the Rev. John W. Chadwick, D. D., became a leader in that highly significant intellectual movement, the Brooklyn Ethical Association, which has held meetings during a number of seasons at the Second Unitarian Church, and under which the Rev. John Coleman Adams, D. D., instituted the free historical lectures to public school children at All Souls Universalist Church, have been typical of a wholesome and progressive tendency in the community.

The work of the churches is supplemented by many and admirable organizations devoted to the relief of the weak, destitute, and incompetent. An important position is occupied by the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. The Brooklyn Bureau of Charities, with central offices on Schermerhorn Street, has "the general purpose of promoting the welfare of the poor, the suffering, and the friendless in the city of Brooklyn. The specific objects and methods include: The promotion of cordial coöperation between benevolent societies, churches, and individuals; the maintenance of a body of friendly visitors to the poor; the encouragement of thrift, self-dependence, and industry; the provision of temporary employment and industrial instruction."

The Society of St. Vincent de Paul undertakes the general relief of the poor, without regard to color or creed, the work being done by a conference in each church (Catholic). The society is governed by a council composed of the president and vice-president of each conference.

A number of industrial agencies have been devised for the purpose of supplying temporary work for men and women. A bureau of relief for needy veterans of the Rebellion was established in Grand Army quarters at the City Hall. In recent years the number of free dispensaries throughout the city has greatly increased.

The Brooklyn Hospital, incorporated in 1845, received valuable aid from Augustus Graham, the founder of the Brooklyn Institute. The present hospital at Raymond Street and De Kalb Avenue has been in operation since 1852. St. Catherine's Hospital was established in 1869. The Memorial Hospital for women and children was founded in 1881; the Methodist Episcopal Hospital in the same year; St. Mary's Hospital in 1878; St. John's Hospital in 1871; the German Hospital in 1889; the Lutheran Hospital in 1881; the Brooklyn Hospital for Contagious Diseases in 1891; St. Peter's Hospital in 1864; the Brooklyn Home for Consumptives in 1864; the Eastern District Dispensary and Hospital in 1851; the Long Island Throat and Lung Hospital in 1889; the Brooklyn Throat Hospital in 1889; the Brooklyn Homoeopathic Hospital in 1852; the Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital in 1868; the Kings County Hospital (a county institution) in 1837; the Brooklyn Maternity in 1870; the Faith Home for Incurables in 1878; the Inebriates' Home for Kings County in 1867.

For the protection and relief of children, the city has the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, the Children's Aid Society, the Industrial School Association, with six branches, the Nursery and Infants' Hospital, the Howard Colored Orphan Asylum, the Hebrew Orphan Asylum, the Orphan Asylum Society, the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum Society, with three branches; the Eastern District Industrial School, the Sheltering Arms Nursery, St. Giles's Home, St. Vincent's Home for Boys, St. Christopher's Day Nursery, and St. Malachi's Home.

Brooklyn's right to the title of the City of Homes, rather than to that of the City of Churches, is excellently supported by a study of its social life; and in no phase is this peculiarity more apparent than in the club life of the city, which is distinctly in harmony with the general social life of the city. Several of the city clubs have "ladies' nights," or special receptions to which ladies are invited, and to some of the clubs ladies are admitted at certain hours of the day. "The Union League, with its Romanesque front of cinnamon brick and brownstone on a semi-square, is near the south end of Bedford Avenue. Its location is fine, and during the political campaigns it is an important centre. Medallions of Grant and Lincoln adorn the front, an eagle with outstretched wings holds up a 'bay,' and a carved bear stands on the roof, a symbol of the 'grip' that clubdom has on the modern man. The great hall in this house is one of the finest in the country. Across the city, a square below the Park plaza, stands the Montauk, a fine structure, ornate, in light tones of brick, and with a Greek frieze above the third story, which is unique in architectural decoration and is a replica of old bas-reliefs. Near by is the mammoth building of the Riding and Driving Club, the largest and best arranged structure of the kind in this country. The Hamilton, one of the older clubs, has a tall building on the corner of Clinton and Remsen streets, showing an expanse of red brick and brownstone. It has no distinctive architectural style. Architecturally, a most elaborate club-house is the Germania on Schermerhorn Street. Its style is a rich but modified Florentine. The material is pale brown brick. A feature of it is the great arched doorway. The Bush wick Democratic club-house on Bushwick Avenue is, architecturally, on the same lines, a reduced version in stone and terra cotta. The club has but recently taken possession of this new house. Out in Flatbush, on the avenue, is the Midwood, an old colonial manse, unaltered, with wide-spreading grounds, its façade marked by great white columns, such as are almost unknown elsewhere in the county of Kings to-day. The Hanover, on Bedford Avenue, is a fine modern double house, with extensions and remodelings. The Brooklyn and the Oxford clubs have recently enlarged their rather unpretentious buildings without special reference to architectural beauty. The Excelsior is a plain city house. The Lincoln has the appearance of several buildings joined together, but is ornate and striking. Out of town the Crescent and the Field and Marine clubs have charming country homes, turreted and porticoed, and surrounded with trees and lawns."[50]

In literary, artistic, musical, dramatic, and social clubs, the city has become populous. The Academy of Music had its origin in the success of the Brooklyn Philharmonic Society, the leading organization for the patronage of music, which was incorporated in 1857. It had been remarked that the audiences which patronized the concerts of the New York Philharmonic Society were, in a great part, made up of Brooklyn people. In 1856 or 1857 it occurred to the heads of several families, who were the best and most appreciative patrons of the New York society, that Brooklyn might and ought to have a Philharmonic Society of its own. The project was inaugurated, and was attended with success. The subscription list doubled the second season. There were, the second year, over seven hundred subscribers, and numerous patrons besides. The Athenæum was entirely inadequate for the purposes of the society. In 1858, the leading members of the Philharmonic Society, by circulars, called the attention of several leading citizens to the relative change that was going on between the two cities, and pointed to the success of their society as the best evidence that the time had come when a large lyric hall was demanded by the necessities of our city. About fifty gentlemen responded to this call, and a preliminary meeting was held at the Polytechnic Institute, in October, 1858.[51] A public meeting followed, a popular stock company was formed, and the Academy was incorporated in 1859. Land in Montague Street was bought for $41,000. The total expenditure reached $200,000. The Academy became and has remained the city's leading opera house, and largest place of public meeting. Most of the greatest musical artists, actors, and orators in the country have been heard under its roof.

Among the leading musical associations of the city are the Apollo Club, the Seidl Society, the Brooklyn Choral Society, the Arion Society, the Brooklyn Maennerchor, the Zoellner Maennerchor, the Amphion Musical Society, the Cæcilia Ladies' Vocal Society, the Concordia Maennerchor, the Euterpe Chorus and Orchestra, the Deutscher Liederkranz, the Saengerbund, and the Prospect Heights Choral Society. In recent years there has appeared a disposition to regard Brooklyn as a musical city. The increase in the number of musical societies and the patronage of opera and concert have unquestionably been great. Among the musical composers, resident in the city, who have made national reputations, Dudley Buck has been of first prominence.

The Brooklyn Art Association, a development of the Sketch Club, formed by Brooklyn artists in 1857, erected a handsome building adjoining the Academy of Music in 1872. The exhibitions held in the association galleries have been the chief displays of pictures seen within the city. In recent years the Brooklyn Art Club, a society composed of artists solely, has attained a large membership, and has exhibited annually in the Art Association galleries. The Art Association maintains a free art school. The leading society of art connoisseurs is the Rembrandt Club.

The Society of Old Brooklynites, the Franklin Literary Society, and the Bryant Literary Society have won prominence, and a position of influence has been assumed by the Brooklyn Woman's Club.

In private libraries and art collections Brooklyn has grown rich within the past twenty-five years. The development of certain valuable picture collections has induced the wish that the city had a great museum similar to the Metropolitan in New York, which might receive contributions by bequest. The advancement of the Brooklyn Institute promises to supply this need.

The newspapers of Brooklyn have acquired an increasingly influential position in the life of the city. We have seen how the "Eagle," the "Times," and the "Freie Presse" attained their established positions. The "Standard-Union" represents some interesting newspaper history. The "Union" was started in the midst of the war period, its first editor being Edward Cary. The paper was purchased in 1870 by Henry C. Bowen, and Gen. Stewart L. Woodford became editor-in-chief, and H. E. Bowen (son of Henry C.), the publisher. When General Woodford retired a few months later, he was succeeded by Theodore Tilton, whose skillful pen was in the service of the paper until January, 1872, when Henry C. Bowen assumed the editorship. In the following year the control of the paper passed to Benjamin F. Tracy, F. A. Schroeder, John F. Henry, and others associated with them, and Robert Burch, who afterward became managing editor of the "Eagle," took the post of editor-in-chief. Later the property came into the hands of Lorin Palmer, and in 1877 the purchase of the name and good-will of the Brooklyn "Argus," which had been established as a weekly in 1866 and as a daily in 1873, resulted in the change of title to "Union-Argus." When the Union Publishing Company was formed, the name "Argus" was dropped, and the paper was again known as the "Union" during the aggressive editorship of John Foord, formerly of the New York "Times," and afterward editor of "Harper's Weekly." In 1887 the "Standard," which had been established in 1884, was consolidated with the "Union," and John A. Hatton assumed the editorship of the "Standard-Union." Soon afterward William Berri became principal owner of the paper, and in 1890 Murat Halstead, long the master spirit of Ohio journalism, was called to the chair of editor-in-chief. The qualities which gave Halstead a national reputation while editor of the Cincinnati "Commercial Gazette" have not failed to make his pen a power in Brooklyn and throughout the State.

The "Citizen," established in 1886 by leading Democrats of the city, since has been a forceful and consistent organ of the local Democracy. The editorship of Andrew McLean has been one of eloquence and energy, uniting a consummate knowledge of Brooklyn with a rare sagacity in estimating men and affairs.

The establishment of "Brooklyn Life" by Frederick Mitchell Munroe and John Angus McKay was a felicitous stroke in Brooklyn journalism. "Life" has enjoyed a unique popularity as a weekly review of Brooklyn social, artistic, and literary affairs.

Brooklyn journalism has been quick to reflect the life and sentiment of the city. It has been energetic, original, and clean. The fact that only two of the newspapers, the "Eagle" and the "Citizen," publish Sunday editions, is one which of itself indicates the presence of a conservative element in the city. The establishment of Travelers' Bureaus by the "Eagle," under the direction of the assistant business manager, Herbert F. Gunnison, was a piece of characteristic enterprise.

The political complexion of Brooklyn and Kings County during the past two or three decades has become increasingly Democratic, with periodical Republican relapses. In the incumbency of the sheriff's office, for example, there has been an interesting alternation in parties since 1875. During the same period the two parties have been represented with approximate evenness in the Mayor's office. In leadership of the Democratic party Henry C. Murphy was succeeded by his energetic lieutenant, Hugh McLaughlin, who has retained the position at the head of the party since before the Rebellion. The period and completeness of this local leadership probably finds no parallel in American political history. No analogous situation has ever existed in the Republican party, which has never had a generally recognized leader, and whose successes at the polls have been those of a party or a public feeling in opposition to the dominant organized party. Both independent Democratic and independent Republican movements and leaderships have played an important part in the later activities of political life.

Of the commercial development of Brooklyn since 1876, it is to be said that it has advanced more remarkably on the water front than elsewhere. The traffic in grain, sugar, and oil, with the extensive cooperage and ship-building and repairing operations, constitutes an important element in any estimate of the city's prominence in manufactures.

In the value of products[52] the sugar industry stands first, the foundry and machine-shop interests coming second, and slaughtering and meat-packing third. Fourth and fifth positions are to be given respectively to chemical industries and the grinding of coffee and spices. Cordage and twine making has for a long time occupied a prominent place in Brooklyn. Other prominent industries are in boots and shoes, furnishing goods, and paper hangings. The National Meter Company plant in South Brooklyn is the largest in the world.

One of the most striking illustrations of Brooklyn's advancement in commercial affairs has been the increase in the number and importance of its financial institutions. The city's first banks were the Long Island Bank,[53] incorporated in 1824; the Brooklyn Savings Bank, incorporated in 1827; the Atlantic Bank, incorporated in 1836; the Bank of Williamsburgh, incorporated in 1839; the South Brooklyn Savings Bank, incorporated in 1850; and the Williamsburgh Savings Bank, incorporated in 1851. The first fire insurance company (the Brooklyn) was contemporaneous with the first bank. The Long Island Insurance Company was organized in 1833. In 1893 four insurance companies had their home offices in Brooklyn; there were twenty-three banks of deposit, fourteen savings banks, four safe deposit companies, seven trust companies, four title guarantee companies, and four savings institutions. In the same year there were about one hundred and ten strictly local securities.

APPENDIX

I

FRANCIS LEWIS[54]

One of the names ever to be remembered in the history of Brooklyn, and of the State and country, is that of Francis Lewis, who was an ardent patriot, and sacrificed his all to secure the independence of the colonies. As he resided for more than twenty years on Long Island, he can justly be claimed as one of her sons, and as such richly deserves a place in her history. Few men displayed so much zeal in the cause of liberty, or evinced such readiness to endure the hardships which the struggle necessarily entailed.

His career covered a period of fourscore years and ten. He spent sixty-eight of these years in the New Netherlands,--forty-one of them under the rule of England; seven years in the cause of the Revolution; and twenty years as a citizen of the Republic of the United States, upon whose banner he ever looked with pleasure and delight.

Born amidst the wilds of rocky Wales, in the town of Llandaff, in 1713, he possessed the sturdy endurance and perseverance for which the ancient Britons, from whom he was descended, were proverbial. In such a clime, and under such circumstances, he early learned to bear patiently the privations of life, and thus was fitted and prepared for the great work which characterized his eventful career.

His father, the Rev. William Lewis, was a worthy minister of the Established Church of England, and his mother was the daughter of the Rev. Dr. Pettingill, a clergyman of the same faith, whose parish was in the north of Wales. Young Lewis did not long enjoy a parent's care, being left an orphan at the early age of four or five. His education and training were now committed to a maternal aunt, who ever manifested a deep interest in his welfare. This relative and adopted mother took particular pains to have him thoroughly instructed in his native language, and instilled into him those deep religious principles, which formed a marked and striking phase of his character. Not satisfied with the means of education to be obtained in his mountain home, she sent her ward to Scotland to visit some relatives in the Highlands, amongst whom he soon acquired a perfect familiarity with the Gaelic tongue. Remaining in Scotland a short time, he was transferred to the care of an uncle, who held the position of Dean of St. Paul's in London. The Dean at once gave him the advantages of the celebrated school at Westminster. The opportunities thus afforded were embraced and appreciated. By his assiduity and proficiency he soon won a distinguished place as a scholar. His progress was rapid, and when he left the school he had obtained a complete classical education.

On leaving school the natural bent of his mind appeared to be for commercial pursuits. In order to prepare him for the path he had chosen, he was apprenticed to a merchant in London.

When Lewis reached manhood he came into possession of the little fortune left by his father, and thereupon resolved to engage in ventures on his own account. Perceiving that the old world did not present a suitable field of operation for a young man with a small capital, he anticipated the advice of the Sage of Chappaqua, and determined to seek his fortune in the new and promising western world. Collecting his effects together, he converted them into money, which he invested in such articles of merchandise as he thought marketable, and, with his stock in trade, sailed for New York, where he arrived in the spring of 1735. He was disappointed in finding that his stock of goods could not be sold in New York, by reason of the limited demand. A man of his energy was ready to overcome all difficulties. In the emergency he entered into a partnership with Edward Annesly, with whom he left a portion of his goods for sale, shipping the remainder to Philadelphia, whither he himself went to superintend their disposal. In the latter city he remained two years, and then returned to New York. Once more in New Amsterdam, he entered into business, becoming extensively engaged in foreign trade. While thus employed, and on June 15, 1745, realizing the truth of Scripture "that it is not good for man to be alone," he entered the holy and sacred relation of marriage with Miss Elizabeth Annesly, his partner's sister. The issue of this marriage was seven children, three only of whom survived infancy. One of his sons, Morgan Lewis, greatly distinguished himself, subsequently becoming governor of the State of New York.

During the remarkably severe winter of 1741 Lewis drove his horse and sleigh from New York to Barnstable, the entire length of Long Island Sound, on the ice. This must have been an interesting episode in his life. Referring to the intensity of the cold season, the "Boston Post" of January 12, 1741, says: "For these three weeks we have had a continued series of extreme cold weather, so that our harbors and rivers are continually frozen up. On Charles River a tent is erected for the entertainment of travellers. From Point Alderton, along the South Shore, the ice is continued for the space of above 20 miles."

The Boston "News Letter" of March 5, 1741, contains the statement that "people ride every day from Stratford, Conn., to Long Island, which is three leagues across, which was never known before."

It appears that the temperature did not moderate with the appearance of spring, as the same paper, on April 2, again alludes to the subject, saying, "that people from Thompson Island, Squantum, and the adjacent neighborhood have come fifteen Sabbaths successively upon the ice to our meeting."

Francis Lewis being an active and industrious man, his business often required his presence abroad, and led him to travel extensively in Europe. At various times he visited Russia, the Orkney and Shetland Islands, and on two occasions endured the terror and discomfort of shipwreck on the coast of Ireland.

On his return from the old world he found the affairs of the colony in a very unsettled condition. The French war was engaging the attention of the people. During a short period he was employed as agent to supply the wants of the British troops. The romance of his life was now about to commence. In the performance of his duties, he was present in August, 1756, when Fort Oswego was reduced, and compelled to surrender to the French General de Montcalm. The fort at this time was commanded by Colonel Mersey, one of his warm personal friends. In the emergency attending the bombardment, Lewis, to serve his friend, acted as his aid. Montcalm on the 10th of August approached the fort at the head of a mixed array of 5000 men, consisting of Europeans, Canadians, and Indians. The garrison having used up all their ammunition, Mersey spiked the cannon, and crossed the river to Little Oswego, without the loss of a single man. Montcalm at once took possession of the deserted fort, and immediately began a heavy fire, which was kept up without intermission. The next day Mersey was killed by a shot while standing by the side of Lewis. The commander having fallen, the garrison at once capitulated, surrendering themselves prisoners of war. It consisted of 1400 men, composing three regiments, one of which was the Jersey Blues, under Col. Peter Schuyler. By the terms of the surrender they were to be exempted from plunder, taken to Montreal, and treated with humanity. The French, however, did not regard the promise which they had made. When the surrender was effected, Montcalm soon forgot his pledge, and shamefully allowed one of the Indian warriors to select thirty of the prisoners to treat as he pleased. Lewis was one of the number chosen, and naturally expected a speedy and cruel death. He was, however, saved in a most unexpected manner. The family tradition on the subject, handed down by his son, and communicated to the writer by a gentleman of this city, who received it from Governor Morgan Lewis himself, is that Francis Lewis soon ascertained that he understood their dialect, and could freely converse with them, so that they comprehended what he said. His ability to communicate with the Indians in their own tongue pleased the chieftain, who extended to him the utmost kindness, and on his arrival at Montreal sought by every means within his power to induce the French commander to allow him to return to his family, without being compelled to pay any ransom. The request so urgently made was refused. Lewis was sent as a prisoner of war to France, and upon being exchanged was permitted to return to America.

The British government, in consideration of the services he had rendered, gave him a grant of 5000 acres of land, but as the fees amounted to more than the land was worth he never took out the necessary patent, the warrant for which was left in the Secretary of State's office.

Many have looked upon this tradition concerning Francis Lewis as mythical. Had it been false, a man of his sterling qualities would have contradicted the statements published during his lifetime. Some have supposed that he gathered more or less knowledge of the Indian dialect through business intercourse. It presents a very interesting feature in American history, opening up as it does a wide field for research. As it deserves more than a passing notice, it will not be out of place to turn aside for a moment, and consider how it was that Francis Lewis understood the Indian warrior.

It frequently has been claimed that Madoc, a Welshman, made voyages to America, long before Columbus was born. It has been conceded by many authorities that Prince Madoc, a Welsh navigator, upon the death of his father resolved to seek a new home, and thereby avoid contention with his brothers and relatives as to the succession. This was about the year 1170. He prepared his ships and munitions of war, and sailing westward came to a country theretofore unknown. Upon his return to his native land he gave a glowing account of the richness and beauty of the land he had visited. Restless in spirit, he could not long remain satisfied with the crags of Cambria, and prepared a fleet of ten sails, once more bent his course westward, and was never heard of again. There are many curious evidences that in early times Welsh tribes of Indians, or Indians speaking the Welsh language, were to be found on the continent of America.

Dr. John Williams published in London, in 1791, a very interesting inquiry into the truth concerning the discovery of America by Prince Madoc. In his treatise much valuable information is to be found, and many strong arguments in favor of the claim that the Welsh settled America more than 300 years anterior to the discovery by Columbus. Dr. Williams refers to the Lewis incident, and published his book twelve years before the death of Francis Lewis.

To return from our digression, Francis Lewis could not be idle. On his return from his enforced trip to France, we find him once again engaged in business. He was a man in advance of his time, and well knew the value of newspaper advertisements. The following is a copy of one of his announcements, published in the "New York Gazette and Weekly Post Boy," the leading journal of the day:--

"Just imported and to be sold by Francis Lewis in the Fly, Alamodes, Lutestrings, Ducapes, Damasks, Mantua Silks, Grazettes, Padajoy's Velvets, India Taffities, Groganes, Sewing Silks, etc."

The commercial trips taken by Lewis gave him an enlarged view of men and things. In Europe he had witnessed the aggressions of the rich landed proprietors upon the poorer classes, and the untold wrongs perpetrated upon the white slaves of the mines and manufacturing towns. His natural, inherent sense of right led him to endorse and freely proclaim the doctrine, "that all men are born free and equal." Wherever he went he beheld the outrages which the assumed leaders imposed upon the common people. He saw how utterly powerless they were to remove the burdens and restrictions which stood in the way of their advancement. Everywhere he found power trampling upon human rights. In him the downtrodden and oppressed ever found a faithful friend and helper. As he always kept his eyes and ears open, he was prepared with force and vigor to oppose the encroachments of the British Crown upon the rights of the people. Looking upon America as the home of the oppressed, with whom he always sympathized, he at once became greatly attached to his adopted country.

Watching with close scrutiny every act of the mother country, he early foresaw that the demands of Great Britain would eventually result in a rupture.

George II. died October 25, 1760, and was succeeded by his grandson, George III., a young man of twenty-two years of age. Shortly after his accession, and on the 18th of November, 1761, Lieutenant-Governor Cadwallader Colden assumed control of affairs in the colony of New York, during the temporary absence of Governor Monckton. Governor Monckton returned after capturing the island of Martinique in June, 1762, and remained in office until June, 1763, when he returned to his native land, again leaving the management of affairs in the hands of Lieutenant-Governor Colden.

During Monckton's career, it may be said that the principles of liberty were first invaded by an assault upon the independence of the judiciary by the board of trade. Justice Pratt was appointed chief justice in the place of De Lancey. The board of trade declared that he should hold office during the pleasure of the King, and not during good behavior, as had always been the rule. Such a declaration and assumption gave the King power to remove for political reasons any judge in the land, thus making the judge but a tool of the King, and depriving him of that independence which could alone render his decisions entitled to respect. The people naturally looked upon this action as an invasion of their civil rights, and calculated to destroy the confidence of the community in the expounders of the law. To their credit be it said that both Monckton and Colden boldly opposed the measure.

The Provincial Assembly looked upon the conditions imposed relative to the appointment of the chief justice with detestation. They opposed it bitterly, manifesting their opposition by absolutely refusing to make any provision for the payment of his salary until he received a commission, which would place him above and beyond legislative political control. The board of trade refused to surrender, or in any wise alter the conditions they had adopted. As the Assembly would make no provision for his salary, it was suggested that the royal quit-rents should be applied to the object. The plan was adopted, and thus the judiciary passed under the control of the sovereign, and the death knell of its independence was sounded.

Colden was destined to wield the reins of government during an important and trying time. The storm cloud could be seen gradually rising. At first appearing no larger than a man's hand, it slowly increased until at last the black and heavy clouds seemed ready to break forth at any moment with devastating fury. Everything looked dark and gloomy, and betokened the approaching storm. The mutterings of the people grew louder and more threatening. The government did not heed them, but made their demands more arrogant, seeming to take the Egyptian taskmasters as their guide. Parliament acted as if they considered the colonies fit subjects for plunder.

In 1763 the subject of taxing the colonies was brought up in Parliament, and a measure introduced for its imposition. This was antagonized by the Provincial Assembly of New York, and denounced as arrogant and illegal.

Lord Grenville was the chancellor of the English exchequer. To him belongs the credit of suggesting the proposition of raising a revenue by a direct tax upon the colonies. He, then, was the initiator of the abuses which led to the independence of the people.

Lord Grenville understood human nature, and therefore resolved to accomplish his purpose by degrees. He sought to gradually obtain entire control over the finances and resources of the colonies, take from the people their liberties, and render them merely subservient vassals of the Crown. He proposed as an entering wedge that a tax should be imposed upon foreign productions, and that stamp duties should be created. As such measures were always unpopular, he saw at once that men and means would have to be provided for the collection of the duties. He well knew that the people would not tamely submit to the enforcement of such burdens. In order to carry the law into effect, he proposed the creation of an army of 10,000 men, believing that such a force would act upon the fears of the subjects, and compel them to submit quietly to the great wrong.

The thunderings of discontent grew louder and louder; and the murmurs resounded on every side. Grenville became prime minister in 1764, and by reason of his elevation exerted a great and controlling influence over Parliament. He was now in a position to successfully carry out the schemes he had proposed the year before. Upon assuming his new position, next to the Crown itself, he forcibly urged upon Parliament his peculiar methods to raise revenue. He contended that the home government had the right to impose such duties and taxes as they thought proper, without consulting the wishes of the colonists. An act was passed in accordance with his views, providing a tax upon various articles, which formerly had been admitted free of duty.

The Provincial Assembly of the colony of New York protested against these tyrannical acts, and forwarded a strong and forcible memorial to the ministry. The manliness manifested by the Assembly in thus declaring its rights brought down upon them the animosity of the Crown; led to the suspension of their legislative prerogatives, thereby depriving the people of representation in the affairs of the colony. New York was not the only province that sent protests. While the Assembly of New York spoke boldly and fearlessly, the sister colonies were more suppliant. If the other colonies had displayed the same determination to oppose the inroads upon their rights as New York evinced, it would have resulted at the outset in a repeal of the odious measures.

The Stamp Act was passed on the 22d of March, 1765, to take effect on the 1st of November ensuing. The colonial Governor Colden declared that he would enforce the law. This enunciation did not terrify the people, as a fixed resolve permeated the masses to oppose its enforcement at all hazards. Citizens obtained copies of the act, and in broad daylight hawked them about the street with a death's head bearing the inscription, "The Folly of England and the Ruin of America." Meetings, public and private, were held throughout the city, and in the outlying sections of the colony. The subject was earnestly discussed on the streets and in all places of public resort. Lewis was amongst the first to refuse submission to or acquiescence in the royal demands. Love of liberty and justice induced him to enlist in the cause of the patriots against the enactments of Parliament. This was the grand principle which induced him to unite with the devoted band which sprang into existence, and was known as the "Sons of Liberty." The avowed object of this noble company was to concert and adopt measures whereby the exercise of an undue power by the mother country might be defeated.

When the Provincial Assembly of New York, apprehending danger, and realizing the necessity of united action on the part of all the colonies, deemed it wise and prudent to recommend a congress of delegates to assemble in New York on the 7th of October, 1765, to consider what action should be taken to oppose the repulsive Stamp Act, Mr. Lewis was elected to represent New York as a delegate, and when they met took his seat in the convention. His head, heart, and soul were enlisted in the cause, and he earnestly advocated the adoption of the Bill of Rights.

He was one of the men selected to circulate the principles of the Sons of Liberty, and seek the formation of similar societies throughout the colonies. In this grand work he was associated with Isaac Sears, Marrinus Willett, Gershom Mott, Hugh Hughes, William Wiley, Thomas Robinson, Flores Bancker, and Edward Laight, all of whom were tried patriots, whose deeds of daring and earnest labors will live in the memory of a grateful people while time shall last. Truly have they "left behind them footprints on the sands of time," and "their actions smell sweet and blossom in their dust."

At this time Francis Lewis resided at Whitestone, L. I., having removed with his family to his country home early in 1765. His residence in Queens County did not prevent his acting with the Sons of Liberty. In those days many of the prominent officials lived in Brooklyn and on the Island.

The appointment of this committee resulted in the selection of a correspondent in London, who kept the patriots informed as to the projected movements of the British authorities, by which means they were enabled to adopt measures to thwart the purposes of the Crown. The information received from time to time led to a desire for a closer union of the colonies. The old Dutch maxim, which has been preserved and adopted as part of the seal of our good city of Brooklyn, "In union is strength," was uppermost in their minds, and induced them to invite the respective colonies to send delegates to a congress to assemble in New York on the 7th of October, 1765.

Some New England writers have given the credit of the formation of this congress to Massachusetts. This is an unhistorical assumption. Whilst New England men did yeoman service in the cause, they did not enlist in it until they had been spurred on by the "Sons of Liberty" of New York. This congress of delegates owed its existence to the persistency of New Yorkers, and was by them first called together.

The congress was organized by the election of Timothy Ruggles, of Massachusetts, as president. The session lasted for three weeks. The measures introduced and the work accomplished were mainly initiated by the delegates from New York. A declaration of rights, prepared and submitted by John Cruger, Mayor of New York, was adopted; and a memorial and statement of grievances for presentation to Parliament was prepared and introduced by Robert R. Livingston, also of New York. Livingston subsequently was a member of the Continental Congress, and associated with Jefferson on the committee appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence. Livingston's address to Parliament was signed by nearly all the members. The declaration of rights was a vigorous and forcible document. It announced the grand principle that "taxation without representation is tyranny," and declared that as the colonies were so remote as to preclude representation in Parliament, the right of taxation only vested in the legislative authorities. It boldly denounced the Stamp Act as tyrannical, and demanded its repeal.

Prior to the assembling of this congress a committee waited upon Governor Colden to solicit his aid and encouragement. As Colden had in former times advocated the rights of the people, it was but natural to expect encouragement and support from him in this trying hour. The committee was disappointed. To their infinite surprise and disgust he declared the congress to be "unconstitutional, unprecedented, and unlawful," and announced that he should give it no countenance.

It is within the bounds of reason to say that Jefferson, in the production of his inimitable paper, caught his inspiration from these noble documents emanating from the Dutchmen of New York, and so readily endorsed by their associates in this congress. The doctrine brought over in the Mayflower led for a time to proscription, whilst the lesson taught by the Dutch settlers was freedom and toleration. The forefathers of New England who sought the New World to enjoy religious liberty refused to grant the same privilege to others. The Dutch, on the other hand, extended a welcome to the Pilgrims, gave them a home at Delft Haven for eleven years, afforded an asylum to the persecuted Quakers who fled from New England, and always exercised the precept enunciated at a later day by the martyr Lincoln, "with malice toward none, with charity for all."

The acts and enunciations of the congress were approved by the people, and adopted by the Colonial Assembly which met in November. Shortly after the ratification of the petitions by the Colonial Assembly, Governor Colden wrote to the home government that "whatever happens in this place has the greatest influence on the other colonies. They have their eyes perpetually on it, and they govern themselves accordingly."

The Stamp Act was to take effect on the 1st of November, 1765. The merchants on the eve of the 1st were greatly excited. With one accord, they congregated at Burns's Coffee House, near the Battery, and with united voice passed the following resolution: "To import no goods from England until the Stamp Act be repealed; to countermand all orders already sent for spring goods; to sell no goods from England on commission; to abide by these resolutions until they should be rescinded by a general meeting called for that purpose."

The Sons of Liberty, in order to carry on their work so well commenced, appointed from their number a committee of five, which was termed the non-importation committee, whose duty it was to enter into correspondence with the other colonies, and, by enlisting their sympathy, induce them to coöperate in the work, and adopt a similar policy.

The stamps reached New York October 29, 1765. In order to protect them from the rage of the people, they were placed on board of a British man-of-war, in the harbor. Governor Colden declared that he could not be intimidated; that the stamps should be delivered in due time. The Governor was in a dilemma, as neither threats nor persuasion could induce the people to aid or assist in the removal.

The 1st of November came. Business was entirely suspended. Every heart was burdened with anxiety. The flags on the shipping were placed at half-mast, and the church bells tolled mournfully. Many private residences displayed the insignia of mourning. On every side it appeared as if a great and dire calamity had visited the colony. Handbills denouncing the administration appeared in public places as if by magic, and the people were warned not to give in their adhesion to the Crown by purchasing the condemned stamps. Activity marked the rank and file of the Sons of Liberty. During the day they bent their energies in making preparations for an evening display. Shortly after dark they assembled and proceeded to the Commons, in the neighborhood of the present City Hall, where a gallows was quickly erected, and an effigy of Governor Colden suspended therefrom. A piece of stamped paper was placed in his hand, a drum at his back, and a placard on his breast with the inscription, "To the Rebel Drummer of 1745." Another company carried a life-sized figure of Colden, seated in a chair, through the streets to the Fort. When they reached Colden's residence they broke open his stable, took therefrom his coach of state, placed the image in the coach, and with it returned and joined their companions in the park. With them they formed into line, and once again proceeded to the Fort and demanded admission. At this time the Fort was under the command of General Gage, who wisely withheld his fire, well knowing that the first shot would madden and infuriate the populace. As admission to the Fort was refused, the citizens repaired to the Bowling Green, kindled a fire, and placed thereon the Governor's coach, image, and the effigy which had been suspended on the gallows. The Sons of Liberty could not hold the people in check. The residence of James, one of the Crown officers, was visited, and because he had advocated the Stamp Act his house was reduced to ashes.

The excitement did not abate. Colden well knew that his successor was expected daily, and he was anxious to lift the responsibility from his own shoulders, and place it on those of his successor. This proffer on the part of Colden did not satisfy the people; they wanted the entire control of the stamps themselves. Again the Sons of Liberty assembled, fully equipped, resolved to obtain the stamps at all hazards, and, if needs be, storm the Fort itself. The Governor became alarmed, and agreed to deliver them to the Mayor and Corporation. The stamps were thereupon transferred to John Cruger, the Mayor, who gave a receipt on behalf of the city, "to take charge, and care of, and be accountable in case they shall be destroyed or carried out of the province." The Sons of Liberty, satisfied with the results of their labors, quietly dispersed. This was the 5th of November. Peace and quietude once again reigned.

Sir Henry Moore, the new Governor, arrived November 13, 1765, and wisely declared at the outset that he would have nothing to do with the detested stamps, and directed that those he had brought with him should be deposited with the others in the City Hall.

The spirit of hatred to the Stamp Act, manifested in the province of New York, proved contagious. The colony of Maryland caught the infection, and drove from her midst a stamp agent, who sought a refuge on Long Island. Hither the Sons of Liberty followed him, and compelled him to resign his office, under the solemnity of an oath. This act on the part of the Sons of Liberty was greatly appreciated by the inhabitants of Maryland.

The spirit displayed by the inhabitants of New York continued to spread, until at last the different colonies became one in spirit. Parliament saw it would be useless to attempt the enforcement of the Stamp Act, and repealed it February 20, 1766. The news reached New York March 20, 1766, filling the community with untold joy. A dinner was given, and a liberty pole erected, bearing the inscription, "The King, Pitt, and Liberty." This pole was destined to become the rallying-spot of the Sons of Liberty.

Peace did not last long. In 1767, the chancellor of the exchequer introduced and secured the passage of a bill, imposing duties on all tea, glass, paper, painters' colors, and lead, imported into the colony. This measure was looked upon as a fresh invasion of their rights by the inhabitants, and a new burst of feeling appeared.

In 1768 a new Assembly was convened. Kings County was represented by Simon Boerum, John Rapalje, and Abraham Schenck. At the opening of the session in October, a correspondence was entered into with the colony of Massachusetts, responsive to a circular sent by that colony, asking their aid, sympathy, and coöperation in securing a removal of common grievances. In unmistakable terms the Assembly denounced the outrages. The public prints were equally emphatic. The boldness of the Assembly led to its dissolution, and a new one in the interest of the Crown was convened in 1769. The new body catered to the Royalists, passing resolutions in the interest of the Crown, thereby exciting the Sons of Liberty to renewed efforts. In December, 1769, the patriots again circulated handbills, denouncing the Assembly as base betrayers of the sacred trust reposed in them. The Assembly received no consideration at the hands of the malcontents.

In January, 1770, the Royalist soldiers, to show contempt for the citizens of the city, attempted to destroy the liberty pole. They even, in their fury at the failure of the effort, broke into the building occupied by the Sons of Liberty, and destroyed its windows and furniture. During several nights in succession the soldiers renewed their endeavors to destroy the emblem of liberty. At last they succeeded, manifesting their spite by cutting it in small pieces, which they placed in front of the headquarters of the patriots. The insult was understood, and fresh conflicts arose, the soldiers and the people finally coming into violent collision in the so-called battle of Golden Hill.

Early in 1770 Parliament repealed all the duties except that on tea.

In 1771 Francis Lewis removed his family to New York, and entered into business with his son. This connection did not last long. The political atmosphere was surcharged with dissatisfaction. The storm cloud of dissension still hung threateningly, and the future looked black and dismal. In such a state of affairs his course was not doubtful.

The English authorities resolved to enforce the duty on tea. The vessels containing it sailed from England October 26, 1773. The events that followed are familiar in American history.

The New York "tea party" was a greater success than the one in Boston, as the New Yorkers not only threw the tea overboard, but also confiscated one of the vessels, and sent the captains of both back in the other craft, disheartened and crestfallen.

On the 22d of April, 1775, Lewis, having relinquished business, was elected by a convention of delegates from Kings, Queens, New York, and the other counties, to represent the province in the Continental Congress to assemble in Philadelphia. At this time Lewis lived on Long Island. The colony had two governors. Tryon represented the Crown and the Royalists, and General Nathaniel Woodhull, of Suffolk County, was president pro tem. of the Provincial Council, possessing the functions of a governor. Antagonism existed between the two. The Provincial Council directed the guns to be removed from the Battery. This was opposed by Tryon. On the 23d of August, 1775, the committee proceeded to discharge the duty assigned them. The British ship Asia was in the harbor, having just arrived from Boston, and by direction of Tryon at once opened her broadside. Morgan Lewis, son of Francis Lewis, during his lifetime stated that at this time the first ball shot from an English ship, during the war, struck his father's house on the Long Island shore, shattering the beam under his mother's foot. The family were greatly terrified, and hastily sought a refuge in the neighboring hills.

The Provincial Congress met in New York in December, 1775. Francis Lewis was continued a delegate to the Continental Congress for 1776. His appears as one of the immortal fifty-six names appended to the Declaration of Independence. On that occasion, in the impetuosity of his enthusiasm, he exclaimed: "Now we must hang together or we shall hang separately."

The convention of representatives of the State of New York, which met at White Plains, July 9, 1776, unanimously ratified the acts of their delegates. Two of the signers of the Declaration from New York, to wit, Francis Lewis and William Floyd, were residents of Long Island. It will thus be seen that our island sent one half of the State delegation.

Lewis was now kept busy in political matters. During several subsequent years he was appointed to represent the State in national affairs. Whilst in Congress his advice was often sought, and his prudence and business tact made him a valuable member. Always maintaining a spotless reputation, he secured and retained the confidence of his associates. Matters which required caution and discretion were referred to him. Valuable service was rendered by him in purchasing clothing for the army, and in importing arms and ammunition. Besides all this he was frequently employed on committees and in the secret service of the government.

At the time the Tories occupied New York, and terror and consternation filled the hearts of all, he, with Messrs. Sherman and Gerry, was appointed a committee by Congress to repair to New York, ascertain the condition of the army, and devise means to supply its wants.

In 1775 Lewis removed his family to his country residence at Whitestone, L. I. It did not prove wise on his part, as it was stepping into the hornet's nest. Shortly after the occupation of the island by General Howe, and on August 23, 1776, a party of British light horse, under Colonel Burch, plundered his home, destroyed his library and valuable papers, and removed such articles as they could conveniently carry away, leaving him barely sufficient means with which to pay his debts. At this time he was sixty-three years old, and by this wanton act was placed in a truly pitiable condition. They were not satisfied with the destruction of his property, but thirsted for vengeance on the man who dared to proclaim himself a friend of liberty by signing the Declaration of Independence, which was an indictment by the grand jury of the people against the tyranny of Great Britain. The vandal invaders took Mrs. Lewis a prisoner, and retained her in close confinement several months, without allowing her either a bed to rest upon or a change of clothing.

The attention of Congress was directed to her situation in November, 1776. A resolution was passed to exchange Mrs. Grace Kempe, wife of John Tabor Kempe, the Tory attorney-general of New York, whom the Americans held as a prisoner, for Mrs. Lewis. In the effort they were unsuccessful. Washington became greatly interested in her behalf, and through his instrumentality she was at last released. She had endured intense suffering, which impaired her constitution, and resulted in her death within two years thereafter. She was buried in the graveyard of Christ Church, Philadelphia.

About this time Lewis's son Francis was married to a Miss Ludlow. The Ludlow family strenuously opposed the match, saying that his father was a notorious rebel and would certainly be hanged, and they did not want to be allied to a family whose head was destined to meet such a fate.

By the terms of the resolution passed by Congress, October 14, 1777, each State was entitled to a representation of seven members, and unless two members were in attendance, the State would have no vote. The cabal took advantage of the fact that New York had but two members in town, and, as one of them was sick and unable to attend, the State would thereby have no vote in the deliberations of Congress. They determined to raise the issue in Congress by appointing a committee to arrest Washington at Valley Forge. Francis Lewis was the only member from New York capable of taking his seat. The other member, Col. Wm. Duer, was very sick; but, loving his country more than his life, immediately upon learning the necessity of his presence sent for his physician, and demanded to know whether he could be removed and taken to the halls of Congress. The doctor replied, "Yes; but at the expense of your life!" "Do you mean that I would expire before reaching the place?" "No; but I would not answer for your life twenty-four hours afterwards." "Very well, sir," the noble Roman replied; "you have done your duty, prepare a litter for me; if you refuse, some one else shall do it; but I prefer your care in this case." The litter was prepared, and the patient made ready to sacrifice his life, to defeat the machinations of the misguided men who sought to degrade Washington. Fortunately the sacrifice was prevented by the opportune arrival of Gouverneur Morris, another delegate, who, on reaching the headquarters of the New York delegation, found Colonel Duer on the litter, covered with blankets, attended by his physician and carriers, ready to go to the Court House, where Congress was to meet. Lewis and Morris being present gave New York a vote, and forced the evil-minded members to see that their scheme could not be safely advocated, and the effort was abandoned.

When Lewis retired from Congress, that body, in consideration of his services, and remembering his many sacrifices, appointed him commissioner of the board of admiralty, which position he accepted. In April, 1784, Lewis was an earnest worker in the reorganization of the Chamber of Commerce, which he had been instrumental in founding, and assisted in procuring its charter, which passed the Legislature April 13, 1784.

Lewis lived to see the accomplishment of his heart's desire, and was permitted to live in the infant republic for which he had spent his time and fortune for a period of twenty-seven years.

His children followed in his footsteps. One of them, Francis Lewis, Jr., represented Queens County in the Assembly of 1788. The other son, Morgan, was born October 16, 1754, graduated at Princeton College in 1773, studied law with John Jay, and joined the army under Washington in 1775. At first he was captain of a rifle company, but rose rapidly, becoming, in 1776, colonel and chief-of-staff under General Gates. He was at the battle of Saratoga, and distinguished himself under General Clinton in the Mohawk Valley. After the war, he continued his legal studies, and was admitted to the bar. Soon after he was appointed judge of the court of common pleas. In 1791 he was elected attorney-general, as the successor of Aaron Burr, holding the position until December 24, 1792, when he became a justice of the Supreme Court. On the 28th of October, 1801, he took his seat as chief justice of the Supreme Court of the State of New York. Other honors awaited him. He was Governor of the State from 1804 to 1807, succeeding Governor Clinton as the third Governor of the Commonwealth. At the election, party spirit and feeling were manifested to a great degree. Aaron Burr was his opponent, and displayed great anxiety to secure the election. Although Lewis was a Jeffersonian, he received the warm support of Alexander Hamilton. It was mainly through the efforts of Hamilton that his success in the contest was secured. Hamilton's labors in behalf of Lewis embittered Burr, and formed one of the main causes which a few months later led to his untimely end at the hands of the miscreant intriguer Burr. Burr was a student with Lewis at Princeton, and graduated in 1772, one year in advance of the Governor.

On several subsequent occasions, Morgan Lewis was elected state senator, and also chancellor of the University. In 1812 he was appointed quartermaster, and became a major-general in 1813. During that year he was engaged in operations on the Niagara River, and commanded the defenses in New York city in 1814. In 1828, when seventy-four years of age, he was elected a presidential elector for the fifth district of New York.

Lewis Avenue, Brooklyn, was named in his honor.

Morgan Lewis was a man of great scholastic attainments. The New York Historical Society elected him their president in 1835. In 1839 he was chosen president of the Society of the Cincinnati, holding the office until his death, April 7, 1844. He was the last but one of the Revolutionary soldiers who filled that position. He was grand master of the Free Masons at the time of his death, and was buried by the craft with their impressive ceremonies. He was married at Clermont on the Hudson in May, 1779, to Gertrude, the sister of Chancellor Livingston.

On the 6th of August, 1784, Morgan Lewis purchased eighty acres of land in Brooklyn, bounded by the Gowanus Road, and the road leading from Brooklyn to Flatbush. It was a portion of the estate belonging to John Rapelje, which became forfeited by his allegiance to the Tories, and was sold by the commissioners appointed to sell the property of all who adhered to the Crown.

Francis Lewis, the hero and patriot, spent his last days in comparative poverty; but his heart was cheered by the fact that he had given his fortune to his country, and spent his life in her service.

On the 30th of December, 1803, at the ripe age of ninety years, having witnessed the inauguration of three Presidents, all of whom were his warm and personal friends, his life-work closed.

II

DUTCH NOMENCLATURE

In a letter written from Holland to the Brooklyn "Eagle," Henry C. Murphy gave an interesting explanation of the chief characteristics of Dutch nomenclature. In the course of this letter Mr. Murphy said:--

"In order to show what difficulties the peculiar system adopted in this country (Holland), and continued by the settlers in our own home, throw in the way of tracing genealogies, it is to be observed that the first of these, in point of time, was the patronymic, as it is called, by which a child took, besides his own baptismal name, that of his father, with the addition of _zoon_, or _sen_, meaning son. To illustrate this: if a child were baptized Hendrick, and the baptismal name of his father were Jan, the child would be called Hendrick Jansen. His son, if baptized Tunis, would be called Tunis Hendricksen; and the son of the latter might be Willem, and would have the name Willem Tunisen. And so we might have the succeeding generations called successively Garret Willemsen, Marten Garretsen, Adrien Martensen, and so on, through the whole of the calendar of Christian names; or, as more frequently happened, there would be repetition, in the second, third, or fourth generation, of the name of the first; and thus, as these names were common to the whole people, there were in every community different lineages of identically the same name. This custom, which had prevailed in Holland for centuries, was in full vogue at the time of the settlement of New Netherland. In writing the termination _sen_, it was frequently contracted into _se_, or _z_, or _s_. Thus the name of William Barretsen, who commanded in the first three Arctic voyages of exploration, in 1594, 1595, and 1596, is given in the old accounts of those voyages, Barretsen, Barentse, Barentz, Barents; sometimes in one way, sometimes in another, indifferently. Or, to give an example nearer home, both of the patronymic custom and of the contraction of the name, the father of Garret Martense, the founder of a family of that name in Flatbush, was Martin Adriense, and his father was Adriæ Ryerse, who came from Amsterdam. The inconveniences of this practice, the confusion to which it gave rise, and the difficulty of tracing families, led ultimately to its abandonment, both in Holland and in our own country. In doing so, the patronymic, which the person originating the name bore, was adopted as the surname. Most of the family names thus formed and originating amongst us may be said to be of American origin, as they were first fixed in America, though the same names were adopted by others in Holland. Hence we have the names of such families of Dutch descent amongst us as Jansen (_anglice_, Johnson), Garretsen, Cornelisen, Williamsen or Williamson, Hendricksen or Hendrickson, Clasen, Simonsen or Simonson, Tysen (son of Mathias), Arendsen (son of Arend), Hansen, Lambertsen or Lambertson, Paulisen, Remsen,[55] Ryersen, Martense, Adrience, Rutgers, Everts, Phillips, Lefferts, and others. To trace connection between these families and persons in this country, it is evident, would be impossible, for the reason stated, without a regular record.

"Another mode of nomenclature, intended to obviate the difficulty of an identity of names for the time being, but which rendered the confusion worse confounded for the future genealogist, was to add to the patronymic name the occupation or some other personal characteristic of the individual. Thus, Laurens Jansen, the inventor of the art of printing, as the Dutch claim, had affixed to his name that of Coster--that is to say, _sexton_--an office of which he was in the possession of the emoluments. But the same addition was not transmitted to his son; and thus the son of Hendrick Jansen Coster might be called Tunis Hendrickson Brouwer (brewer), and his grandson might be William Tunissen Bleecker (bleacher)....

"A third practice, evidently designed, like that referred to, to obviate the confusions of the first, was to append the name of the place where the person resided, not often of a large city, but of a particular, limited locality, and frequently of a particular form or natural object. This custom is denoted in all the family names which have the prefix of _Van_, _Vander_, _Ver_ (which is a contraction of _Vander_), and _Ten_, meaning, respectively, _of_, _of the_ and _at the_.... The prefixes _Vander_ or _Ver_ and _Ten_ were adopted where the name was derived from a particular spot, thus: Vanderveer (of the ferry); Vanderburg, of the hill; Vanderbilt (of the bildt, that is, certain elevations of ground in Guederhoff and New Utrecht); Vanderbeck (of the brook); Vanderhoff (of the court); Verplanck (of the plank); Verhultz (of the holly); Verkerk (of the church); Ten Eyck (at the oak); Tenbroeck (at the marsh)."

III

NEW YORK AND BROOKLYN FERRY RIGHTS

New York City's exclusive claims to the ferry rights are almost as old as Brooklyn itself. Brooklyn was settled in 1636, and in less than twenty years, and while there was but a handful of people on this side of the river, the ferry from Peck Slip to Nassau Island, at a point corresponding to the present foot of Fulton Street, had become a public question. In the natural course of things, New York had first started the ferry. When the English conquered New Netherland, and Peter Stuyvesant stepped down (with his wooden leg) from the governorship of New Amsterdam, the conquered province was patented by Charles II. of England to the Duke of York, who afterwards became James II., and in whose honor New Amsterdam was re-named New York. The Dutch Governor was succeeded by an English Governor, the Duke's representative, Nicolls; and Dutch traditions and codes were succeeded by the famous "Duke's Laws." The new Governor granted to the little hamlet of Brooklyn a patent confirmatory of that received from the Dutch Governor, a measure that was in conformity with the general policy of the conquerors.

This patent, after naming the patentees, and describing the bounds of the town, and bounding by the river, and not by high or low water mark, proceeded to say: "Together with all havens, harbors, creeks, marshes, waters, rivers, lakes, and fisheries." The charter adds: "Moreover, I do hereby give, ratify, and confirm unto the said patentees and their associates, and their heirs, successors, and assigns, all the rights and privileges belonging to a town within their government." Under this patent the town of Brooklyn first claimed the ownership of land between high and low water mark on the Brooklyn side, and an equal right with New York to erect and maintain ferries.

We find no adverse claim on the part of New York until nineteen years afterward, in 1686, when the Corporation of New York obtained from Governor Dongan a charter by which the ferries were granted to New York. But this charter says nothing about water rights, and expressly reserves the rights of all other persons and bodies corporate or politic. Moreover, Brooklyn in the same year secured from Dongan a patent fully confirming that of Nicolls. A similar confirmation was secured in 1691. But New York was still running the ferry, and to fortify its claims bought land on the Brooklyn side in 1694.

In the reign of Queen Anne the Corporation of New York induced that infamous trickster and reprobate, Governor Cornbury, to give New York a charter, by which it was to be entitled to all "vacant and unappropriated land" below high water mark from the Wallabout to Red Hook. The charter was really void, for there was no unappropriated land in the region named, previous patents and charters having given them to Brooklyn as a town. In 1721 the colonial legislature confirmed Brooklyn's rights, but New York's politicians bought for a specific sum ($5000) a new charter from Governor Montgomerie confirming the pretended right of New York to ownership in land to high-water mark on the Brooklyn shore. New York secured a charter ownership in 400 feet of land under water around the whole lower part of the city, and step by step, with money and unfaltering political trickery, the city set itself against the development and independence of Brooklyn. By Section 37 of the Montgomerie charter, the ferry franchise was confirmed "forever," with a provision that no other person or persons whomsoever should have the right to establish a ferry or ferries in the premises. Legislative acts and legal decisions have been piled up around a pretense, the fallacy and injustice of which appear upon examination of the early records.

New York was not satisfied with the crafty legislation by which it sought to overawe the village across the river. It began to question the right of Brooklyn people to cross to New York in their own boats. The result was that a Brooklyn man, Hendrick Remsen, sued the New York Corporation. He won his case; the Corporation appealed to the King, and the matter remained undecided in consequence of the Revolution. Although the Constitution of the State confirms all grants of land within the State made by authority of the King of Great Britain or his predecessors, prior to August 14, 1775, New York afterward adhered to its false claims to the river rights. However, by State rulings within the present century, Brooklyn was permitted to exercise jurisdiction to low-water mark. A Supreme Court decision in 1821 declares that the City and County of New York includes the whole of the rivers and harbor adjoining to actual low-water mark on the opposite shores. It was only in 1824 that Brooklyn was able to secure from the Legislature concurrent jurisdiction with New York in the service of process, in actions civil and criminal, on board of vessels attached to its own wharves.

When Brooklyn sought to erect itself into a city, New York met the proposition with the same spirit of unwillingness to recognize in the sister town any right to individual existence. Every step that Brooklyn took toward securing municipal rights was hampered by the opposition of New York politicians. Brooklyn became a city in 1834, in spite of New York's opposition. New York retired from the fight with its fraudulent ownership of the river and the "ferry rights," by which it was and still is able to levy a continuous tax upon Brooklyn.

IV

_STATISTICS FROM THE FEDERAL CENSUS OF 1890_

BROOKLYN MANUFACTURES[56]

FEDERAL CENSUS OF 1890

The tabulated statements presented herewith include only establishments which reported a product of $500 or more in value during the census year, and, so far as practicable, only those establishments operating works located within the corporate limits of the city.

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF TOTALS

================================================================ Industries | Industries | Establishments | Capital[57] | Reported | Reporting | ---------------------+------------+----------------+------------ All Industries {1880 | 180 | 5,201 | $61,646,749 {1890 | 229 | 10,561 | 125,849,052 ---------------------+------------+----------------+------------

============================================================ Industries | Hands | Wages Paid | Cost of | Employed | | Materials | | | Used ---------------------+----------+-------------+------------- All Industries {1880 | 47,587 | $22,487,457 | $129,085,091 {1890 | 103,683 | 61,975,702 | 137,325,749 ---------------------+----------+-------------+-------------

==================================================================== Industries | Miscellaneous | Value of Product | Population | Expenses[58] | | ---------------------+---------------+------------------+----------- All Industries {1880 | | $177,223,142 | 566,663 {1890 | $14,824,466 | 248,750,184 | 806,343 ---------------------+---------------+------------------+-----------

========================================================= Industries | City Assessed | Municipal Debt[59] | Valuation | ---------------------+---------------+------------------- All Industries {1880 | $232,925,699 | $38,040,000 {1890 | 445,038,201 | 34,639,542 ---------------------+---------------+-------------------

DETAILED STATEMENT FOR 1890 BY IMPORTANT INDUSTRIES IN BROOKLYN ELEVENTH CENSUS

================================================================= CLASSIFICATION OF | Boots and | | Coffee and INQUIRIES[60] | shoes-- | Chemicals | spice-- | factory | | roasting and | products | | grinding _Establishments_:-- | (65) | (36) | (13) ------------------------+------------+-------------+------------- CAPITAL EMPLOYED-- | | | Aggregate | $1,327,119 | $8,483,835 | $2,963,392 |============|=============|============= HIRED PROPERTY-- | | | Total | 366,230 | 275,000 | 306,300 +------------+-------------+------------- PLANT--Total | 385,934 | 4,888,250 | 546,696 +------------+-------------+------------- Land | 56,700 | 1,196,800 | 198,400 Buildings | 113,400 | 1,532,821 | 194,350 Machinery, tools, | | | and implements | 215,834 | 2,158,629 | 153,946 LIVE ASSETS--Total | 574,955 | 3,320,585 | 2,110,396 +------------+-------------+------------- Raw materials | 137,612 | 1,365,535 | 721,678 Stock in process and | | | finished product | 154,802 | 878,468 | 930,671 Cash, bills, and | | | accounts | | | receivable, and | | | all sundries not | | | elsewhere reported | 282,541 | 1,076,582 | 458,047 | | | WAGES PAID--Aggregate | $1,032,547 | $1,140,475 | $479,036 |============|=============|============= Average number of | | | hands employed | 2,050 | 1,848 | 794 +------------+-------------+------------- Males above 16 years | 840 | 1,295 | 477 Females above 15 years | 326 | 289 | 10 Children | 24 | 31 | Pieceworkers | 860 | 233 | 307 MATERIALS USED-- | | | Aggregate cost | $1,432,934 | $7,329,134 | $11,047,538 +============+=============+============= Principal materials | 1,381,752 | 7,050,313 | 10,711,647 Fuel | 3,888 | 195,545 | 14,752 Mill supplies | | 9,206 | 20,656 All other materials | 47,294 | 74,070 | 300,483 EXPENSES, MISCELLANEOUS | | | --Ag'gate | $73,249 | $612,809 | $84,334 +============+=============+============= Paid for contract work | 1,450 | | Rent | 25,636 | 22,110 | 21,445 Power and heat | 3,720 | 900 | 3,800 Taxes | 4,494 | 48,950 | 11,439 Insurance | 4,420 | 29,190 | 11,382 Repairs, ordinary, of | | | b'ld'gs and mach'y | 5,842 | 149,644 | 6,635 Interest on cash used | | | in the business | 1,549 | 43,651 | All sundries not | | | elsewhere reported | 26,138 | 318,364 | 29,633 GOODS MANUFACTURED | | | --Aggregate | $2,813,209 | $10,467,109 | $12,247,162 +============+=============+============= Principal product | 2,770,689 | 10,425,949 | 12,044,967 All other products, | | | including custom | | | work and repairing | 42,520 | 41,160 | 202,195 ------------------------+------------+-------------+-------------

=============================================================== CLASSIFICATION OF | | | Foundry and INQUIRIES[60] | Confec- | Cordage | machine | tionery | and twine | shop | | | products _Establishments_:-- | (197) | (3) | (169) ------------------------+------------+------------+------------ CAPITAL EMPLOYED-- | | | Aggregate | $2,923,509 | $2,256,400 | $13,725,518 |============|============|============ HIRED PROPERTY-- | | | Total | 1,047,500 | | 1,473,750 +------------+------------+------------ PLANT--Total | 1,028,053 | 1,854,300 | 6,046,228 +------------+------------+------------ Land | 251,085 | 303,000 | 1,617,500 Buildings | 311,225 | 701,000 | 1,362,670 Machinery, tools, | | | and implements | 465,743 | 850,300 | 3,066,058 LIVE ASSETS--Total | 847,956 | 402,100 | 6,205,540 +------------+------------+------------ Raw materials | 207,660 | 175,600 | 1,182,099 Stock in process and | | | finished product | 269,041 | 60,500 | 1,525,807 Cash, bills, and | | | accounts | | | receivable, and | | | all sundries not | | | elsewhere reported | 371,255 | 166,000 | 3,497,634 | | | WAGES PAID--Aggregate | $1,096,252 | $650,256 | $5,641,132 |============|============|============ Average number of | | | hands employed | 2,237 | 1,612 | 7,753 +------------+------------+------------ Males above 16 years | 1,387 | 1,012 | 6,868 Females above 15 years | 552 | 600 | 42 Children | 22 | | 2 Pieceworkers | 276 | | 841 MATERIALS USED-- | | | Aggregate cost | $1,833,791 | $4,352,63 | $5,125,183 +============+============+============ Principal materials | 1,738,998 | 4,206,13 | 4,626,489 Fuel | 25,621 | 105,00 | 210,767 Mill supplies | 3,835 | 6,00 | 47,386 All other materials | 65,337 | 35,50 | 240,541 EXPENSES, MISCELLANEOUS | | | --Ag'gate | $194,993 | $63,18 | $799,912 +============+============+============ Paid for contract work | | | 12,000 Rent | 73,320 | | 117,888 Power and heat | 120 | | 14,664 Taxes | 9,981 | 10,14 | 60,267 Insurance | 5,050 | 7,54 | 36,223 Repairs, ordinary, of | | | b'ld'gs and mach'y | 5,730 | 25,00 | 74,565 Interest on cash used | | | in the business | 13,462 | | 22,009 All sundries not | | | elsewhere reported | 87,330 | 20,50 | 462,296 GOODS MANUFACTURED | | | --Aggregate | $3,731,202 | $5,625,79 | $15,350,776 +============+============+============ Principal product | 3,721,071 | 5,622,91 | 14,222,090 All other products, | | | including custom | | | work and repairing | 10,131 | 2,88 | 1,128,686 ------------------------+------------+------------+------------

================================================================ CLASSIFICATION OF | | | Slaughtering INQUIRIES[60] | Furnishing | Paper | and meat | goods | hangings | packing | | | _Establishments_:-- | (67) | (5) | (63) ------------------------+------------+------------+------------- CAPITAL EMPLOYED-- | | | Aggregate | $1,507,853 | $1,790,121 | $2,120,822 |============|============|============= HIRED PROPERTY-- | | | Total | 377,650 | 303,482 | 380,560 +------------+------------+------------- PLANT--Total | 427,420 | 401,946 | 918,400 +------------+------------+------------- Land | 110,100 | 31,500 | 317,550 Buildings | 142,550 | 121,584 | 346,752 Machinery, tools, | | | and implements | 174,770 | 248,862 | 254,098 LIVE ASSETS--Total | 702,783 | 1,084,693 | 821,862 +------------+------------+------------- Raw materials | 312,438 | 61,890 | 114,907 Stock in process and | | | finished product | 142,902 | 186,974 | 197,490 Cash, bills, and | | | accounts | | | receivable, and | | | all sundries not | | | elsewhere reported | 247,443 | 835,829 | 509,465 | | | WAGES PAID--Aggregate | $1,203,461 | $445,510 | $532,120 |============|============|============= Average number of | | | hands employed | 2,218 | 852 | 623 +------------+------------+------------- Males above 16 years | 868 | 660 | 607 Females above 15 years | 485 | 146 | 3 Children | 10 | 20 | Pieceworkers | 855 | 26 | 13 MATERIALS USED-- | | | Aggregate cost | $1,443,218 | $1,067,697 | $11,769,741 +============+============+============= Principal materials | 1,389,325 | 1,042,362 | 11,637,737 Fuel | 27,893 | 18,045 | 32,256 Mill supplies | 10,308 | 290 | All other materials | 15,692 | 7,000 | 99,748 EXPENSES, MISCELLANEOUS | | | --Ag'gate | $84,811 | $300,754 | $130,096 +============+============+============= Paid for contract work | | | Rent | 26,441 | 22,000 | 34,252 Power and heat | 600 | | Taxes | 4,429 | 15,863 | 13,902 Insurance | 10,573 | 7,343 | 9,490 Repairs, ordinary, of | | | b'ld'gs and mach'y | 9,502 | 1,700 | 8,387 Interest on cash used | | | in the business | 1,895 | 61,833 | 3,691 All sundries not | | | elsewhere reported | 31,371 | 192,015 | 60,374 GOODS MANUFACTURED | | | --Aggregate | $3,315,691 | $2,143,023 | $13,317,789 +============+============+============= Principal product | 3,268,994 | 2,143,023 | 13,118,381 All other products, | | | including custom | | | work and repairing | 46,697 | | 199,408 ------------------------+------------+------------+-------------

====================================== CLASSIFICATION OF | Sugar and INQUIRIES[60] | molasses | refining | _Establishments_:-- | (8) ------------------------+------------- CAPITAL EMPLOYED-- | Aggregate | $3,999,510 |============= HIRED PROPERTY-- | Total | 255,622 +------------- PLANT--Total | 1,821,000 +------------- Land | 399,000 Buildings | 527,500 Machinery, tools, | and implements | 894,500 LIVE ASSETS--Total | 1,922,888 +------------- Raw materials | 186,214 Stock in process and | finished product | 335,016 Cash, bills, and | accounts | receivable, and | all sundries not | elsewhere reported | 1,401,658 | WAGES PAID--Aggregate | $330,558 |============= Average number of | hands employed | 596 +------------- Males above 16 years | 583 Females above 15 years | 2 Children | Pieceworkers | 11 MATERIALS USED-- | Aggregate cost | $14,816,112 +============== Principal materials | 14,412,045 Fuel | 100,342 Mill supplies | 15,986 All other materials | 287,739 EXPENSES, MISCELLANEOUS | --Ag'gate | $227,760 +============== Paid for contract work | Rent | 20,450 Power and heat | 900 Taxes | 21,877 Insurance | 21,397 Repairs, ordinary, of | b'ld'gs and mach'y | 29,171 Interest on cash used | in the business | 65,449 All sundries not | elsewhere reported | 68,516 GOODS MANUFACTURED | --Aggregate | $16,629,982 +============== Principal product | 16,623,134 All other products, | including custom | work and repairing | 6,848 ------------------------+--------------

STATEMENT OF CITY DEBT, DECEMBER 31, 1893

======================================================================= Title of Loan | Amount | Amount | Dec. 31, 1892 | Dec. 31, 1893 --------------------------------------+----------------+--------------- PERMANENT DEBT PAYABLE FROM TAXATION: | | Prospect Park | $8,697,000.00 | $8,697,000.00 New York Bridge | 10,013,000.00 | 10,013,000.00 Soldiers' Aid Fund | 112,000.00 | 60,000.00 Arrearage Fund | 2,350,000.00 | 2,350,000.00 Local Improvement | 200,000.00 | Certificates of Indebtedness | 505,160.93 | 434,160.93 City Bonds (Arrearage of County | | Taxes) | 549,000.00 | 549,000.00 Main Sewer Relief and Extension | | Fund | 1,250,000.00 | 1,250,000.00 Local Improvement (Laws of 1888) | 1,300,000.00 | 1,300,000.00 Local Improvement (Laws of 1889) | 900,000.00 | 900,000.00 Local Improvement (Laws of 1892) | 300,000.00 | 445,000.00 School Improvement (Laws of 1888) | 400,000.00 | 400,000.00 School Improvement (Laws of 1889) | 800,000.00 | 800,000.00 Public Site, Purchase and | | Construction | 500,000.00 | 500,000.00 Municipal Site | 265,000.00 | 265,000.00 Fourth Precinct Station House | 50,000.00 | 50,000.00 Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument | 220,000.00 | 205,000.00 Park Purchase | 650,000.00 | 650,000.00 New York and Brooklyn Bridge, § 4, | | Laws of 1891 | 1,000,000.00 | 1,000,000.00 New York and Brooklyn Bridge, § 5, | | Laws of 1891 | 1,400,000.00 | 1,450,000.00 Public Market | 750,000.00 | 750,000.00 School Building Fund | 304,000.00 | 606,000.00 Certificate of Indebtedness, | | ch. 48, Laws of 1892 | 162,844.92 | 54,830.18 Certificate of Indebtedness, | | ch. 50, Laws of 1892 | 125,000.00 | 148,852.55 Certificate of Indebtedness, | | ch. 45, Laws of 1891 | 15,000.00 | Asphalt Repavement Fund | | 37,000.00 Museums of Art and Science | | 8,000.00 +----------------+--------------- Total | $32,818,005.85 | $32,932,843.66 |================|=============== WATER DEBT | $14,566,000.00 | $15,316,000.00 +================+=============== TEMPORARY DEBT PAYABLE FROM TAXATION, | | ETC.: | | Fourth Avenue Improvement | 51,000.00 | 34,000.00 Eighth Ward Improvement | 650,000.00 | 650,000.00 Twenty-sixth and adjacent Ward | | Sewers | 315,000.00 | 499,000.00 Sewerage Fund(1892) | 50,000.00 | 119,000.00 North Second Street Improvement | | 15,000.00 Tax Certificate (Contagious | | Disease Hospital) | | 7,000.00 +----------------+--------------- Total | $1,066,000.00 | $1,324,000.00 +================+=============== TAX CERTIFICATES | $2,700,000.00 | $3,400,000.00 --------------------------------------+----------------+---------------

================================================================ Title of Loan | Increase | Decrease | | --------------------------------------+--------------+---------- PERMANENT DEBT PAYABLE FROM TAXATION: | | Prospect Park | | New York Bridge | | Soldiers' Aid Fund | | $52,000 Arrearage Fund | | Local Improvement | | 200,000 Certificates of Indebtedness | | 71,000 City Bonds (Arrearage of County | | Taxes) | | Main Sewer Relief and Extension | | Fund | | Local Improvement (Laws of 1888) | | Local Improvement (Laws of 1889) | | Local Improvement (Laws of 1892) | $155,000.00 | School Improvement (Laws of 1888) | | School Improvement (Laws of 1889) | | Public Site, Purchase and | | Construction | | Municipal Site | | Fourth Precinct Station House | | Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument | | 15,000 Park Purchase | | New York and Brooklyn Bridge, § 4, | | Laws of 1891 | | New York and Brooklyn Bridge, § 5, | | Laws of 1891 | 50,000.00 | Public Market | | School Building Fund | 302,000.00 | Certificate of Indebtedness, | | ch. 48, Laws of 1892 | | 108,014 Certificate of Indebtedness, | | ch. 50, Laws of 1892 | 3,852.55 | Certificate of Indebtedness, | | ch. 45, Laws of 1891 | | 15,000 Asphalt Repavement Fund | 37,000.00 | Museums of Art and Science | 8,000.00 | +--------------+---------- Total | $575,852.55 | $461,014 |==============|========== WATER DEBT | $750,000.00 | +==============+========== TEMPORARY DEBT PAYABLE FROM TAXATION, | | ETC.: | | Fourth Avenue Improvement | | $17,000 Eighth Ward Improvement | | Twenty-sixth and adjacent Ward | | Sewers | 184,000.00 | Sewerage Fund(1892) | 69,000.00 | North Second Street Improvement | 15,000.00 | Tax Certificate (Contagious | | Disease Hospital) | 7,000.00 | +--------------+---------- Total | $275,000.00 | $17,000 +==============+========== TAX CERTIFICATES | $700,000.00 | --------------------------------------+--------------+----------

RECAPITULATION

======================================================================= Title of Loan | Amount | Amount | Dec. 31, 1892 | Dec. 31, 1893 --------------------------------------+----------------+--------------- Permanent Debt | $32,818,005.85 | $32,932,843.66 Water Debt | 14,566,000.00 | 15,316,000.00 Temporary Debt | 1,066,000.00 | 1,324,000.00 Tax Certificates | 2,700,000.00 | 3,400,000.00 +----------------+--------------- Gross Debt | 51,150,005.85 | 52,972,843.66 Sinking Fund | 4,636,893.90 | 4,935,344.55 +----------------+--------------- | $46,513,111.95 | $48,037,499.11 Less 3 and 8 months' Tax | | Certificates | | 700,000.00 +----------------+--------------- Net City Debt | $46,513,111.95 | $47,337,499.11 --------------------------------------+----------------+---------------

================================================================ Title of Loan | Increase | Decrease | | --------------------------------------+--------------+---------- Permanent Debt | $114,837.81 | Water Debt | 750,000.00 | Temporary Debt | 258,000.00 | Tax Certificates | 700,000.00 | +--------------+---------- Gross Debt | 1,822,837.81 | Sinking Fund | 298,450.65 | +--------------+---------- |$1,524,387.16 | Less 3 and 8 months' Tax | | Certificates | | +--------------+---------- Net City Debt |$1,524,387.16 | --------------------------------------+--------------+----------

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Stiles, i. p. 326.

[2] In 1888 the State Legislature, at the request of the Society of Old Brooklynites, passed a resolution urging Congress to provide for the erection of a monument. A petition containing 25,000 names was sent to Washington, and the matter was favorably reported from committee, but no act was passed.

[3] _Historical Sketch of Fulton Ferry_, 1879.

[4] Furman, p. 243.

[5] The state recognition of Brooklyn as a town took place in 1788.

[6] In 1806, the Legislature of New York enacted a law allowing the incorporation of a State and of County Medical Societies. Under this act the State Medical Society was organized at once. The medical men of this county did not act in the matter, however, for several years, and it was not till March, 1822, that the Kings County Medical Society was organized. From the organization of the society to the present time the following gentlemen have been its presidents: Cornelius Low, 1822-1825; J. G. T. Hunt, 1825, till his death in 1830; Thomas W. Henry, 1831-1833; Charles Ball, 1833-1835; Isaac I. Rapelye, 1835; Matthew Wendell, 1836; Adrian Vanderveer, 1837-1839; John B. Zabriskie, 1839; Purcell Cooke, 1840-1842; Theodore L. Mason, 1842-1844; Bradley Parker, 1844; Purcell Cooke, 1845; J. Sullivan Thorne, 1846; Lucius Hyde, 1847; Chauncey L. Mitchell, 1848; Henry J. Cullen, 1849; James H. Henry, 1850; Samuel J. Osborne, 1851; George Marvin, 1852; Andrew Otterson, 1853-1855; George I. Bennet, 1855; T. Anderson Wade, 1856; Samuel Boyd, 1857; Chauncey L. Mitchell, 1858-1860; Daniel Brooks, 1860; C. R. McClellan, 1861; Samuel Hart, 1862; DeWitt C. Enos, 1863; Joseph C. Hutchinson, 1864; John T. Conkling, 1865; Andrew Otterson, 1866; William W. Reese, 1867; R. Cresson Stiles, 1868-1870; J. H. Hobart Burge, 1870-1872; William Henry Thayer, 1872-1874; A. J. C. Skene, 1874-1876; A. Hutchins, 1876-1879; J. S. Prout, 1879; Charles Jewett, 1880-1883; G. G. Hopkins, 1883. In 1829 there were thirty-six active members belonging to the society. In 1836 the Code of Ethics of the state society was adopted, and in 1848 the Code of Ethics of the American Medical Association. From its foundation in 1822, till the repeal of that power by the Legislature in 1881, the Kings County Society conferred sixteen licenses to practice medicine.--S. M. O.

[7] The first post-office at Gravesend was established in 1843.

[8] J. C. Vanderbilt's _Social History of Flatbush_ gives some exceedingly interesting glimpses of life in this region during and after the Revolutionary period.

[9] The "public whipper" received a salary of $15 a year.

[10] Tunis G. Bergen was born at New Utrecht in 1806. The Cropsey family, prominent at New Utrecht, is descended from Geerte Jans Kasparse, who came from Holland, with her two sons, Joost and Johannis, in 1652. Joost, third son of this Joost, had one son, Casper, who held office in New Utrecht, and died in 1806, leaving six sons and several daughters. Other descendants were Jerome Ryersen Cropsey, Andrew G. Cropsey, and William Cropsey. The last named was for several terms supervisor of New Utrecht.

[11] _History of Kings County_, p. 279.

[12] This fine specimen of old Dutch architecture is still standing on Evergreen Avenue.

[13] _Historic and Antiquarian Scenes in Brooklyn and its Vicinity_, p. 47.

[14] The assumption that the Dutch youth required to be taught "convivial customs" by the "arrogant Anglo-American youngers" is scarcely supported by definite testimony.

[15] The ancestral farm and home of the Wyckoffs is on the boundary line between Brooklyn and Newtown, beyond Metropolitan Avenue.

[16] "History of Williamsburgh," in Stiles's _History of Kings County_.

[17] Printed in the _Long Island Star_, February 14, 1811.

[18] Furman's MS.

[19] Fulton and Livingston had obtained from the Legislature the monopoly of steam navigation on all the waters of New York for thirty years from 1808.

[20] _Historical Sketch of Fulton Ferry._

[21] _Corporation Manual_, 1870.

[22] The Corporation of New York at one time even questioned the right of Brooklyn's inhabitants to cross the river, ferriage free, in their own boats.

[23] See Appendix III.

[24] Walt Whitman was born at West Hills, Long Island, in 1819. During the time of his residence in Brooklyn he did editorial writing for both the _Times_ and the _Eagle_. In the following letter to Mr. Charles M. Skinner, of Brooklyn, he describes his newspaper work in this city:--

328 MICKLE STREET, CAMDEN, NEW JERSEY, _January 19, '85_.

DEAR SIR,--In hasty answer to your request asking me to specify over my own signature what year I worked as an editorial writer in the Brooklyn _Times_ office, I would say that if I remember right it was along in 1856, or just before. I recollect (doubtless I am now going to be egotistical about it) the question of the new Water Works (magnificently outlined by McAlpine, and duly carried out and improved by Kirkwood, first-class engineers both) was still pending, and the works, though well under way, continued to be strongly opposed by many. With the consent of the proprietor, I bent the whole weight of the paper steadily in favor of the McAlpine plan, as against a flimsy, cheap, and temporary series of works that would have long since broken down, and disgraced the city.

This, with my course on another matter,--the securing to public use of Washington Park (old Fort Greene), stoutly championed by me some thirty-five years ago, against heavy odds, during an editorship of the Brooklyn _Eagle_,--are "feathers in my wings" that I would wish to preserve.

I heard lately with genuine sorrow of the death of George C. Bennett. I remember him well as a good, generous, honorable man.

I send best greetings to your staff, and, indeed, to all the Brooklyn journalists.

WALT WHITMAN.

Whitman's poem "Crossing the Williamsburgh Ferry" is familiar to readers of his _Leaves of Grass_.

[25] _Brooklyn Compendium._

[26] The Young Men's Christian Association of Brooklyn was organized during the same year.

[27] Up to the time of present writing morning journalism has never been successful in Brooklyn, the metropolitan newspapers of New York having from the outset filled the field, and prevented a financial success for any but the evening papers.

[28] "Yet, although Brooklyn had thus, at a single bound, jumped from the seventh to the third position among the cities of the American Union, it could by no means claim the same relative position in point of wealth, business, or commercial importance, being outranked in these respects by several cities of less population. Nor had it risen to its eminence by virtue of its own inherent vigor and enterprise. Candor certainly compels the acknowledgment that it was chiefly attributable to the overflowing prosperity and greatness of its giant neighbor, New York."--Stiles's _History of Kings County_, vol. i. p. 485.

[29] Martin Kalbfleisch was elected Mayor on the Democratic ticket, receiving a majority of 5136, in a total vote of 28,280, over his opponent, Frederick Scholes.

[30] The statue was unveiled in October, 1869. A. A. Low presided, and the presentation address was made by James P. Wallace, on behalf of the War Fund Committee. The oration was by Dr. Storrs.

[31] Mr. Beecher was appointed chaplain of the Thirteenth Regiment in 1878. Dr. Storrs had already occupied this post.

[32] Colonel Meserole was made brigadier-general in 1868.

[33] The same name had been chosen by Colonel Roehr's father, Edward Franz Roehr, for a newspaper first issued in 1854, and running for one year. Edward Roehr's Williamsburgh printing office and bookstore also sent forth a Masonic journal called _Der Triangel_, which flourished for twenty-five years.

[34] In connection with the cupola of the City Hall, a very interesting incident occurred in 1852. It was noticed that this feature of the building swayed, and needed to be strengthened. The necessary steps were taken to render it firm and secure. At the time the men were engaged in the work the court of oyer and terminer was holding a session in the room known and distinguished as the Governor's room, Judge N. B. Morse presiding. One day while the court was engaged in a criminal trial, a beam which was being raised slipped from the rope, and fell upon the roof above the court-room, causing the plaster and ceiling to give way. At once the court officers, jurors, and spectators became alarmed; some ran for the door, some for the windows, and others sought refuge under the tables. Judge Morse took a position by one of the windows, and, shaking his fist at the audience, exclaimed, "The wicked flee when no man pursueth." A few of the frightened ones got on their knees and fervently prayed. The prisoner at the bar was the only one unmoved.--S. M. O.

[35] Manuscript history.

[36] _Brooklyn Eagle_, May 24, 1884.

[37] The single exception to Roebling's plan offered by the commission was that they demanded a central height of 135 feet, instead of 130 feet, in the central span.

[38] Samuel T. Powell had occupied the Mayor's chair for two terms, closing in 1861. He again entered the office in 1872.

[39] Mr. Beecher came to Brooklyn in 1847, and died at his post forty years later, on March 8, 1887. His relations to the city of Brooklyn were exceptional, and in many respects marvelous. No other single personality in this city ever won a prominence so significant, so salutary, so momentous. One of Brooklyn's most brilliant thinkers, writers, and speakers, the Rev. John W. Chadwick, D.D., has spoken of Mr. Beecher as 'the most unique and splendid personality of our civic history; one of the most unique and splendid in the history of the United States and their colonial beginnings.' The homage to Beecher's genius as a teacher and leader of men has come from thinking men wherever the English language is spoken. The homage which belongs to him as a citizen, as a pastor, as a humanitarian, as a patriot, has been enthusiastically offered by his fellow-countrymen, and particularly by his neighbors in the city of Brooklyn. The bronze monument to Mr. Beecher, designed by John Q. A. Ward, was placed in front of the City Hall in 1891.

[40] Seth Low on "Municipal Government," in Bryce's _American Commonwealth_, vol. i. p. 626.

[41] Commenting on the Brooklyn system, Fiske says: "It insures unity of administration, it encourages promptness and economy, it locates and defines responsibility, and it is so simple that everybody can understand it. The people, having but few officers to elect, are more likely to know something about them. Especially since everybody understands that the success of the government depends upon the character of the Mayor, extraordinary pains are taken to secure good mayors; and the increased interest in city politics is shown by the fact that in Brooklyn more people vote for Mayor than for Governor or for President."

[42] The increase in the bulk of the city vote since 1877 is shown by the fact that the vote for Howell had been 36,343, as against 33,538 for John F. Henry.

[43] Joseph C. Hendrix was appointed postmaster of Brooklyn in 1886, and made a record in that office unequaled by any postmaster the city ever had. Indeed, his reforms and innovations made for him a conspicuous reputation at Washington. In 1892, Hendrix was elected to Congress. He has rendered highly important service to the city in the board of education.

[44] See p. 166.

[45] The history of the Institute is taken from the fifth _Year Book_, 1893.

[46] The Regents of the University of the State of New York, who had granted a provisional charter in 1889.

[47] The present building of the Young Men's Christian Association, at Fulton and Bond streets, has been occupied since 1885. It has a circulating library of over 13,000 volumes, a finely equipped gymnasium, running-track, bowling-alleys, and swimming-tank, two large lecture-halls, and evening classes registering 700 men. The fine building of the Young Women's Christian Association, at the junction of Schermerhorn Street and Flatbush Avenue, has been occupied since 1888. It has eighteen class-rooms for educational work, a library with about 6000 volumes, a lecture-hall seating 650, assembly-rooms seating 400, an excellent gymnasium and running-track, and medical department.

[48] See p. 165 of this volume.

[49] The practice of establishing classes for Chinamen in connection with Sunday-schools has occasioned many and prolonged discussions in Brooklyn, and has been strongly assailed, particularly in those instances where the teaching of mature Chinamen was intrusted to young unmarried women.

[50] _Eagle Almanac_, 1894.

[51] _Corporation Manual_, for 1863, compiled by Henry McCloskey, City Clerk.

[52] See Appendix.

[53] Leffert Lefferts was the first president of the Long Island Bank.

[54] Read by Mr. Ostrander before the Long Island Historical Society, February 1, 1881.

[55] Understood to have originated in the shortening of Rembrandt into Rem.

[56] From compilation in _Eagle Almanac_, 1892.

[57] The value of hired property is not included for 1890, because it was not reported in 1880.

[58] No inquiry in 1880 relating to "Miscellaneous expenses."

[59] The amount stated represents the "net debt," or the total amount of municipal debt less sinking fund.

[60] To avoid disclosure of operations of individual establishments, only such industries as have 3 or more establishments engaged therein are included.

INDEX

Simple page numbers refer to Vol. I.; page numbers preceded by "ii." refer to Vol. II.

Academy of Music, ii. 116, 226.

Adams, John, 229.

---- Julius A., ii. 149.

---- Rev. John Coleman, ii. 221.

Adelphi Academy, ii. 212.

Aertsen, Huyck, 59, 63.

---- Ryniere, 126.

Ainslie, Robert, ii. 103.

American Astronomical Society, ii. 208.

Amersfoort (Flatlands), 55.

Amphion Musical Society, ii. 228.

Amphion Theatre, ii. 198.

Andros, Maj. Ed., 116, 133.

Apollo Club, ii. 228.

Apprentices' Library, ii. 73, 75.

"Arbitration Rock," ii. 42.

Arion Society, ii. 228.

Arnold, S. G., ii. 89.

Assembly, State, meets in Brooklyn, 188; patriotic resolutions, 200; and Colonial Congress, 208.

Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, ii. 221.

Atkinson, John P., ii. 152.

Atlantic Bank, ii. 234.

Atlantic Basin, ii. 191.

Atlantic Dock Company, ii. 92.

Aycrigg, Benjamin, ii. 15, 17.

Backhouse, E. T., 237.

Backus, Dr. Truman G., ii. 211.

Baker, John H., ii. 23.

Ball, Charles, ii. 32.

Bank of Williamsburgh, ii. 234.

Barbarin, Captain, ii. 51.

Bardwell, W. A., ii. 216.

Barnes, Demas, ii. 156.

Barnet, Wm., 179.

Barnum, Ed. B., 190.

Barre, Daniel, ii. 56.

Battle of Brooklyn, 247-274.

Bayard, Nich., 136, 167.

Bayles, Rich. M., 7.

Bedford, settled, 101; schoolhouse, 102, 161.

Bedford Academy, ii. 214.

Bedford Corners, ii. 72.

Bedford Road, 237.

Beecher, Henry Ward, ii. 119, 125, 126, 164, 218.

Bellomont, Governor, 147, 152, 153.

Bennett, George C, ii. 89, 106.

---- George I., ii. 32.

---- Wm. Adriaense, 29.

Benson, A. W., ii. 152, 154.

Bentyn, Jacques, 29.

Bergen, Hans Hansen, 39, 67.

---- Jacob, ii. 53.

---- Jan Hans, 101.

---- Johannes, 285.

---- John T., 214; ii. 56.

---- Michael Hans, 101.

---- Tunis G., 102; ii. 92, 97.

Bergen Hill, 239.

Berri, Wm., ii. 231.

Berrian, Cornelius, 126.

Berry, Abraham J., ii. 104.

Bibaut, John, 155.

Bill, Charles E., ii. 151.

Billing, Th., 235.

Bird, George L., ii. 70.

---- Major, 249.

Birdsall, T. W., ii. 69.

Blanco, Jn., 235.

Bloom, Jacob, 235.

Board of Health, first, ii. 66.

Boerum, Isaac, 235.

---- Simon, 201, 204, 207.

---- William, 220, 300.

Boerum house, ii. 41.

Bogert (Bogaert), Nich., 208.

---- Teunis Gysbert, 101.

Bokee & Clem, ii. 75.

Boome, Jacob, ii. 25.

Booth, Samuel, ii. 129, 132, 151.

Boughton, Samuel, ii. 23.

Bout, Jan Evertsen, 59, 63, 108.

Bowen, Henry C., ii. 230.

---- H. E., ii. 230.

---- James, ii. 116.

Boyd, Samuel, ii. 32.

Boys' High School, ii. 202.

Bradford, Wm., 145.

Breuckelen, of Holland, 59.

Brevoort, J. Carson, ii. 152.

Broadhead, Henry, 190.

Brodhead (quot.), 24.

Bronson, Greene C., ii. 86.

Brooklyn, name, 59; first sale ofland in region of, 29-30; early days, 53-68; beginning of official existence, 66; first houses, 73; first preacher, 93; first schoolmaster, 97; leads Long Island towns, 167; State Assembly meets in, 188; battle of Brooklyn, 247-274; first school, 99; during Revolution, 211-304; after the Revolution, ii. 1-46; recognized as a town, 28; during war of 1812, 51-56; incorporated as a village, 62; markets, 65; incorporated as a city, 79-81; property valuations before 1860, 83; receives Bushwick and Williamsburgh, 107; during Civil War, 117-131; bridge, 149-159; "Brooklyn System," ii. 169-171.

Brooklyn Academy of Music, ii. 116, 226.

Brooklyn and Long Island Fair, ii. 122-124.

Brooklyn Art Association, ii. 228.

Brooklyn Art Club, ii. 228.

Brooklyn Auxiliary of the U. S. Sanitary Commission, ii. 122.

Brooklyn Bridge, ii. 94, 149-159, 168, 178-190.

Brooklyn Choral Society, ii. 228.

Brooklyn City Hospital, ii. 93.

Brooklyn City Railroad, ii. 94.

Brooklyn Club, ii. 226.

Brooklyn College of Pharmacy, ii. 215.

Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Inst., ii. 100, 212.

"Brooklyn Daily Argus," ii. 230.

"Brooklyn Daily Citizen," ii. 231.

"Brooklyn Daily Eagle," ii. 88-91, 128, 229.

"Brooklyn Daily Standard," ii. 230.

"Brooklyn Daily Times," ii. 89, 128, 229.

"Brooklyn Daily Union," ii. 128, 229.

Brooklyn Entomological Society, ii. 208.

Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital, ii. 223.

Brooklyn Female Academy, ii. 100.

Brooklyn Fire Insurance Co., ii. 234.

"Brooklyn Freie Presse," ii. 128, 229.

Brooklyn Gaslight Company, ii. 78.

Brooklyn Heights Seminary, ii. 214.

Brooklyn Home for Consumptives, ii. 223.

Brooklyn Homoeopathic Hospital, ii. 223.

Brooklyn Hospital, ii. 223.

Brooklyn Hospital for Contagious Diseases, ii. 223.

Brooklyn Institute, ii. 69, 91, 93, 202-211, 216, 229.

Brooklyn Latin School, ii. 214.

Brooklyn Library, ii. 215.

"Brooklyn Life," ii. 231.

Brooklyn Lyceum, ii. 91, 93.

Brooklyn Maennerchor, ii. 228.

Brooklyn Maternity, ii. 223.

Brooklyn Microscopical Society, ii. 208.

Brooklyn Museum, ii. 197.

"Brooklyn Phalanx," ii. 122.

Brooklyn Philharmonic Society, ii. 226.

Brooklyn Saengerbund, ii. 228.

Brooklyn Select Academy, ii. 31.

Brooklyn Sunday School Union Society, ii. 64, 110.

"Brooklyn System," ii. 169-176.

Brooklyn Theatre, ii. 166, 197.

Brooklyn Throat Hospital, ii. 223.

Brooks, Daniel, ii. 32.

---- Elbridge S., 142.

Brower, Abraham, 183.

---- Nich., 183.

---- Wm., 214.

Brown, Henry K., ii. 126.

---- Laurence, ii. 62.

Brown's Business College, ii. 214.

Brush, Conklin, ii. 94.

Bryant, William C., ii. 107.

Bryant Literary Society, ii. 229.

Bryant & Stratton's Business College, ii. 214.

Buck, Dudley, ii. 228.

Building Department, ii. 137.

Bunce, Postmaster, ii. 29.

Burch, Robert, ii. 230.

Burge, J. H. Hobart, ii. 32.

Burnet, Wm., 179.

Bushwick, land purchase, 99; town plot, 100; first school, 100; first schoolmaster, 101; old church, ii. 37-40; patriots, 38; after Revolution, 38; during war of 1812, 55; and Williamsburgh, 101, 102; consolidate with Brooklyn, 107.

Bushwick Creek, 100.

Bushwick Democratic Club, ii. 225.

Butler, Wm. H., ii. 104.

Cæcilia Ladies Vocal Society, ii. 228.

Calvary Cemetery, ii. 194.

Campbell, Douglass, 42, 95.

---- Patrick, ii. 161.

Canaver, Peter, ii. 76.

Carlyle, Thomas, 17.

Carnaville, Chas. A., ii. 129.

Carpenter, Geo., 214.

Carroll Park, ii. 143.

Cary Fund, ii. 206.

Casper, Andrew, 235.

Catholic Cathedral, ii. 160.

Catholic Historical Society, ii. 220.

Cemetery of the Evergreens, ii. 93, 194.

Central Grammar School, ii. 200.

Chadbourne, Zebulon, ii. 85.

Chadwick, Rev. J. W., ii. 165, 221.

Chardavogne, Wm., 221.

Charles II., 104, 110.

Charter of 1872, ii. 162.

Chester, Mrs., ii. 69.

Chinese Sunday-schools, ii. 220.

Chittenden, S. B., ii. 151.

Christian Commission, ii. 124.

Church Charity Foundation, ii. 160, 220.

Churches, first in Kings County, 88; Reformed Dutch, 145; First Baptist, ii. 75; in 1835, 83; in 1893, 219.

City Bible Society, ii. 220.

City Hall, ii. 71, 84, 96, 99.

City Park, ii. 143.

Clarke, Governor, 188, 190.

Clausen, Hendrick, 162.

Clinton, Governor, 188.

---- Jas., 213.

---- Sir Henry, 217, 231.

Clinton Ave. Congregational Church, ii. 120.

Clove Road, 278.

Clubs, ii. 224.

Cob dock, ii. 2.

Cobble Hill, 239; ii. 55.

Cochran, Dr. David Henry, ii. 212.

Coffee, Peter, ii. 60.

Colden, Governor, 210.

Cole, John, ii. 29.

Collard, Geo. W., 189.

College of Nineteen, 61.

Collier, Jurian, 183.

Colman's Point, 22.

Columbia College, 198.

Columbia Theatre, ii. 198.

Colve, Governor, 113.

Committee of Sixty, 206.

Common lands, 158.

Concordia Maennerchor, ii. 228.

Coney Island, 55, 122; ii. 33.

Congregational Church Extension Society, ii. 220.

Congregational Club, ii. 220.

Congress of Representatives, 290, 291.

Conkling, John T., ii. 32, 132.

Conselyea, Wm., ii. 38.

Consolidation of Brooklyn and N. Y., ii. 163.

Continental Congress, 223, 230, 261, 280.

Cook, Purcell, ii. 32.

Coombs, John W., ii. 152.

Coope, Ed., ii. 69.

Copeland, Edward, ii. 93.

---- Ed., 189.

"Corkscrew Fort," 239.

Corlaer's Hook Ferry, ii. 42.

Corlies, E. W., ii. 152.

Cornbury, Lord, 167-175; ii. 262.

Cornell, John, ii. 71.

---- T. B., ii. 152.

Cornell House, 257.

Cornwallis, Earl, 243.

Cortelyou, Isaac, 185.

---- Jacques, 129.

Cortelyou, Peter, 161.

Coudrey, Samuel, ii. 16.

Council of Twelve, 61.

Courts, 127-131; ii. 30, 72, 73, 75, 95, 98, 99, 111.

Cowenhoven, 59.

---- Captain Peter, ii. 56.

---- John, 161.

---- Nicholas, 180, 214, 224, 284, 290.

Cozzens, Issachar, ii. 16.

Crane, Dr. Jas., ii. 133.

Craven, A. W., ii. 152.

Crescent Club, ii. 226.

Cripplebush, i. 101.

Crisper, Casper, 285.

Crist, Abraham, ii. 86.

Criterion, ii. 198.

Crittenden, Dr. Alonzo, ii. 211.

Crombie, John S., ii. 213.

Crook, Abel, 190.

Cropsey, Andrew, ii. 38.

---- Andrew G., ii. 38.

---- Casper, ii. 38.

---- Geerte Jans (Kasparse), ii. 38.

---- Jerome Ryerson, ii. 38.

---- Johannis (Kasparse), ii. 38.

---- Joost (Kasparse), ii. 38.

---- William, ii. 38.

Cross, Colonel, ii. 122.

---- John A., ii. 85.

Cullen, Edgar M., 189.

---- Henry J., ii. 32.

Cunningham, 268; ii. 4.

---- Robert, ii. 69.

Cutting, Wm., ii. 61.

Cuyler, Rev. Theo. L., ii. 218.

Cypress Hills Cemetery, ii. 93, 194.

Dana, Prof. James D., ii. 203.

Dankers, Jasper, 119.

Darbee, Levi, ii. 106.

De Bevoice, Charles, 235.

---- Johannes, 285.

De Hart, Simon Aertsen, 121.

De Heister, General, 243.

De Lancey, Lieut.-Governor, 189.

De Launcey, 262.

De Mille, Richard M., 189.

De Sille, Nicasius, 100, 118.

De Witt, Benjamin, ii. 20.

Dean, Capt. Wm., 56.

---- John, 64.

Debevoise, James, ii. 97.

---- Jost, 213.

Debtors' Prison, ii. 73.

Declaration of Independence, 230, 232.

Denice, Denys, 207.

Denton, Daniel, 10.

Deutscher Liederkranz, ii. 228.

Dewyre, Capt. Wm., ii. 56.

Dickinson, P. P., ii. 152.

Dircksen, Cornelis, 53.

---- Joris, 59.

Dongan, Governor, 108, 117, 132, 133, 163; ii. 262.

Dorlant, John Garretse, 162, 163.

Doughty, John, ii. 24.

---- John, ii. 62, 64, 71.

---- Rev. Jno., 41.

Draft Riots, ii. 121.

Draper, 96.

Dress among the Dutch, 76.

Driggs, Daniel D., ii. 161.

---- Edmund, ii. 152.

"Drum Beat," ii. 123.

Duke of York, 104.

"Duke's Laws," 108, 131.

Duness, Count, 243.

Dunmore, Governor, 205, 206.

Duryea, Maria, 14.

Dutch, and American Exploration, 17; and Puritans, 42; manners and customs, 69-105; and education, 94-99; and English, 103; nomenclature, ii. 258.

Dwight, Rev. Dr., 189.

"Eagle and Brooklyn," vi.

East New York, 274.

Eastern Dist. Industrial School, ii. 224.

Edson, Franklin, ii. 179, 181.

Education under the Dutch, 94, 124.

Elections in early Brooklyn, 159 (note).

Ely, Smith, Jr., ii. 151.

Embargo Act, ii. 50.

English, and Dutch, 103; take New York, 105.

Enos, De Witt C., ii. 32.

Episcopalians, at Jamaica, 174; in Brooklyn after the Revolution, ii. 24.

Erie Basin Docks, ii. 134.

Erskine, Sir Wm., 243.

Etherington, Sam., 220.

Euterpe Chorus and Orchestra, ii. 228.

"Evening Star," ii. 78.

Everdell, Colonel, ii. 127.

Everett, Thomas, 220.

---- William, 221.

Everit, Th., ii. 62.

Excelsior Club, ii. 226.

Faith Home for Incurables, ii. 223.

Farmers' and Citizens' Bank, ii. 104.

Federal Building, ii. 195.

Ferry, the, 53, 120, 153; ii. 27, 77; ferry and river rights, 132; ii. 261.

Ffilkin, Henry, 155, 158, 162.

Field, Thos. W., ii. 38.

Field and Marine Club, ii. 226.

Fire Department, early organization, ii. 24; first legislation relating to, 26; fire limits, 139; reorganized, 146.

Fish, Colonel, 257.

Fiske, John, ii. 48, 169, 171.

Flatbush, county court, 35; Erasmus Hall, 35; settled, 55; establishes a church, 88; population in 1738, 188; first mill, ii. 34.

Flatbush Ave. and Amersfoort Road, 55.

Flatlands, called New Amersfoort, 29; settled, 54; new church, ii. 33.

Fleet estate, ii. 72.

Fletcher, Benj., 144.

Floyd, Wm., 230.

Flushing Bridge and Road Company, ii. 28.

Fly Market, 221.

Foord, John, ii. 230.

Fort Amsterdam, 31, 52.

Fort Greene, 237; ii. 23, 120.

Fort Hamilton, 122, 243.

Fort James, 116.

Fort Orange, 23.

"Four Chimneys," 257.

Fowler, Wm. A., ii. 151.

Foy, Joseph D., ii. 19.

Franklin, Benjamin, 229.

Franklin Literary Society, ii. 229.

Freeck's Mill, 239; ii. 41.

Fricke, Geo., ii. 69.

Froebel Academy, ii. 214.

Fulton, Robert, ii. 56-58.

Fulton Ferry, ii. 27, 57, 159.

Fulton Street, 161.

Furman, Gabriel, 172, 173; ii. 68, 69.

---- William, ii. 69.

Galbraithe, Robert, 221.

Gardiner, Lyon, 39.

Garrison, John, ii. 64, 69, 71.

Garritsen, Wolfert, 28, 54.

Garritson, Samuel, 163, 188, 203.

"Gazette," 146, 186.

George III., 199.

Gerbritse, Jan, 162.

German Hospital, ii. 223.

German Young Men's Christian Ass'n, ii. 221.

Germania Club, ii. 225.

Germania Savings Bank, ii. 166.

Gibbons, John, ii. 31.

Girls' High School, ii. 202.

Golden Hill, battle of, 205.

Good Hope, prison ship, ii. 5.

Gowanus Mill, 29, 183.

Graham, Augustus, ii. 69, 93, 202.

Grand Opera House, ii. 198.

Grant, General, 243.

Gravesend, settled, 55; population in 1810, ii. 33.

Graydon, Colonel, 295.

Green, Andrew H., ii. 152.

Greene, General, 229, 233, 237, 240.

Greenwood, John, ii. 86.

Greenwood Cemetery, ii. 94.

Gunnison, Herbert F., ii. 232.

Guy's picture of Brooklyn in 1820, ii. 68.

Hagerman, Joseph, 155.

Hale, Nathan, 267.

Half Moon, 20.

Hall, George, ii. 81, 108, 111.

---- Rev. Chas. H., ii. 219.

Hall of Records, ii. 195.

Hamilton, Alexander, 216.

---- Andrew, 188.

---- George, ii. 31.

Hamilton Club, ii. 225.

Hamilton Literary Association, ii. 91.

Hammond, Annie A., xiii.

Hanover Club, ii. 226.

Hanssen, Jacob, 163.

Hanssen, Joris, 162, 163.

---- Michael, 159.

Harper, James, ii. 70.

Harrison, Gabriel, ii. 196.

Hart, Samuel, ii. 32.

Hatton, John A., ii. 230.

Havens, Thomas, ii. 24.

Hayward, John W., ii. 152.

Hazard, Thomas, 221.

Hazzard, Wm. H., ii. 129.

Hebrew Orphan Asylum, ii. 224.

Hegeman, Adriaen, 99, 164, 284.

---- Joseph, 161.

Heights, 54, 233.

Hell Gate, ii. 167.

Hendrix, Joseph C., ii. 176.

Henry, James H., ii. 32.

---- John F., ii. 172, 230.

---- Thomas W., ii. 32.

Herman, George G., ii. 129.

Hessians, 255.

Hester, Col. Wm., ii. 90.

---- Wm. Van Auden, ii. 90.

Hewell, A. S., ii. 179, 182.

Hicks, Jacob, ii. 69.

---- John, 221-223.

---- "Milk," ii. 70.

---- "Spetler," ii. 70.

Hildreth, John T., ii. 23.

Hobart, John Silas, 292.

Hodgkinson, Worthington, ii. 86.

Hoffman, John T., 151.

Hogan, Capt. W. H., ii. 118.

Holland, and Spain, 17; education in, 94-96.

Holland Society, xii.

Hooley's Opera House, ii. 197.

Hopkins, G. G., ii. 32.

Hotchkiss, Maj. E. O., ii. 127.

Houston Street Ferry, ii. 101.

Howard, Henry W. B., vi.

---- William, 276-279.

Howard Colored Orphan Asylum, ii. 224.

Howell, James, Jr., ii. 168.

Hubbard, 284.

Hudde, Andries, 28, 39, 54.

Hudson, Henry, 17, 19, 22.

Hudson River, 17.

Hunt, J. G. T., ii. 32.

Hunter, John W., ii. 162.

---- Robert, 175-178.

---- William, Jr., ii. 152, 155.

Husted, Seymour L., ii. 150, 154.

Hutchins, A., ii. 32.

---- John, 167.

Hutchinson, Anne, 41.

---- Joseph C., ii. 32.

Huybertsen, Lambert, 39.

Hyde, Lucius, ii. 32.

Hyde & Behman's Theatre, ii. 198.

Indians, Long Island, 11-15; and the Dutch, 15, 42-52; and Hudson, 20; and early settlers, 42-52; and Puritans, 42.

Industrial School Association, ii. 224.

Inebriates' Home for Kings County, ii. 136.

Ingersoll, Wm. H., 190.

"Iphetanga," 54.

Ireland, Rev. John, ii. 62.

Jackson, John, ii. 14, 29.

Jamaica, Pres. Church, 174.

Janssen, Abraham, 92; ii. 41.

Janvier, Thomas A., 31; ii. 42.

Jefferson, Thomas, 229.

Jenks, G. T., ii. 151, 155.

Jervis, Arthur N., vi.

Jewett, Charles, ii. 32.

Johnson, Barent, 213, 234.

---- Barnet, ii. 97.

---- David, ii. 103.

---- Gen. Jeremiah, ii. 14, 46, 55, 67, 87, 149.

---- Hornbeck, 235, 287.

---- Samuel E., 187.

---- Rev. Dr. S. R., 190.

---- William, 284.

Johnson estate, 214.

Jong, Lodewyck, 92.

Joralemon, Teunis, ii. 72.

Joralemon's Lane, ii. 71.

Jourdan, Maj.-Gen. Jas., ii. 179.

"Journal," 186.

Kalbfleisch, Martin, ii. 117, 122, 129, 148, 151, 154, 160.

Kemper, Jacob, 221.

Kennedy, Platt, ii. 31.

Kenney, James F., 104.

Kershaw, Martin, 235.

Kidd, Captain, 148-151.

Kieft, William, 27.

"Kiekout," 99.

King, Gamaliel, ii. 129.

---- John S., ii. 52.

Kings County, settled, 26; first church, 88; organized, 118; during Revolution, 211-304; during War of 1812, ii. 51-56; during the Civil War, ii. 117-131; churches in, 219.

Kings County Court House, ii. 128-130.

---- _See_ Courts.

Kings County Hospital, ii. 223.

Kings County Medical Society, ii. 32, 119, 217.

Kings County Sunday-school Ass'n, ii. 221.

King's Highway, 161, 179-183.

Kingsley, Harry S., ii. 90.

---- William C., ii. 150, 179, 189.

Kingsley & Keeney, ii. 155.

Kinsella, Thomas, ii. 90, 150.

Kirk, Thomas, ii. 70.

Kissam, Daniel, 204.

Kissick's Business College, ii. 214.

Knowles, Edwin, ii. 198.

Knyphausen, General, 243.

Labadists, 119.

Lafayette, 257.

Lambertson, Thomas, 129.

Lamb, Capt. John, 216.

Lambert, Edward C., ii. 94.

---- John, ii. 50, 51.

Laughlin, Rt. Rev. John, ii. 217.

Law Library, ii. 217.

Lawrence, John, 139.

Lee, General, 217, 227.

Lefferts, Barent, 213.

---- John, 189, 224, 289; ii. 66.

---- Leffert, 210, 285; ii. 2, 68, 234.

Leisler, Jacob, 135-143.

Leislerian party, 164.

Leonard, John, ii. 103.

Levermore, Chas. H., ii. 213.

Lewis, Francis, 207, 230; ii. 235-257.

---- Francis, Jr., ii. 255.

---- John W., ii. 155.

---- Morgan, ii. 255.

Lincoln Club, ii. 226.

Lincoln statue, ii. 126, 195.

Linden Camera Club, ii. 208.

Littlejohn, Bishop, ii. 179, 219.

Livingston, Col. H. B., 294.

---- Philip, 205, 207, 230; ii. 71 Rev. Dr. John H., ii. 36.

---- Robert, 165, 229, 230.

Livingston, Robert R., ii. 57.

Locke, Richard Adams, ii. 88.

Lockwood, John, 189.

---- John, ii. 213.

Loisian Academy, ii. 62.

Long Island, geology, 1-10; trees, 10; Indians, 11; discovery, 16-20; land, 37; first houses, 73; under English rule, 107; named Nassau, 146; slavery on, 172; during Revolution, 211-304; travel on, ii. 27; first post route, 28.

"Long Island Anzeiger," ii. 128.

Long Island Bank, ii. 65, 234.

Long Island Baptist Ass'n, ii. 221.

Long Island Business College, ii. 214.

Long Island College Hospital, ii. 116, 215.

Long Island Free Library, ii. 216.

Long Island Historical Society, xii. 119, 217.

Long Island Insurance Co., ii. 234.

Long Island Railroad, ii. 190.

"Long Island Star," ii. 31, 47, 51, 59, 105.

Long Island Throat and Lung Hospital, ii. 223.

"Long Island Weekly Intelligencer," ii. 29.

Lott, Abraham, 188, 201, 203.

---- Engelbert, 284.

---- Jeremiah, ii. 56.

---- Johannis, 188, 284.

---- John A., ii. 91, 129.

---- Petrus, 285.

Lovelace, Governor, 109.

Low, A. A., ii. 122.

---- Cornelius, ii. 32.

---- Seth, ii. 87, 97.

---- Seth, 190; ii. 170, 171-178, 180, 195, 199.

Lowe, Doctor, ii. 29.

---- John, 129.

Lubbertsen, Frederick, 37, 108.

Luqueer's mill, ii. 41.

Lutheran Hospital, ii. 223.

Macloy, Rev. Dr. Archibald, ii. 54.

Mahon, John, ii. 31.

Manhattan Beach R. R., ii. 168.

Manhattan Island, 23.

Manning, Captain, 110.

Manufacturers' National Bank, ii. 104.

Mapes, General, ii. 53.

Marriage among the Dutch, 79.

Marsh, William B., ii. 89.

Marshall, Wm., ii. 152, 155.

Martense, Roetiff, 155.

Martin, Geo. H., 189.

Martyn, Jan, 92.

Mason, Theodore L., ii. 32.

Maspeth, 100.

Mauje, Jan, 39.

Maxwell, James H., ii. 44.

---- William H., ii. 199, 200.

McClellan, C. R., ii. 32.

McCloskey, Henry, ii. 89.

McCue, Alexander, 189; ii. 150, 151, 154.

McDonnell, Rt. Rev. Charles E., ii. 219.

McLaughlin, Hugh, ii. 232.

McLean, Andrew, ii. 90, 231.

---- Samuel, ii. 152, 154.

McDougall, Alexander, 213.

McKelway, St. Clair, ii. 90.

Meeker, Benjamin, ii. 69.

---- Rev. Stephen H., 189.

---- S. M., ii. 103.

Megapolensis, Johannes, 88.

Memorial Hospital for Women and Children, ii. 223.

Mercerin, Andrew, ii. 64.

Meserole, Abraham, 101.

---- Jean, 99.

---- Jeremiah V., 99; ii. 119, 127.

---- John A., ii. 38.

---- John I., ii. 38.

Methodist Episcopal Hospital, ii. 223.

Metropolitan police, ii. 116.

Metropolitan Sanitary District, ii. 133.

Meyers, T. Bailey, ii. 151.

Michaelius, Jonas, 87.

Middagh, Mrs., ii. 69.

Midwood Club, ii. 225.

Midwout, 55.

Milburne, 138, 143.

Military, in Civil War, ii. 118-127.

Military Garden, ii. 71, 197.

Mill, first on L. I., ii. 34.

Miller, David, ii. 38.

---- Eleazar, 204.

---- Peter, 235.

Mills, E. S., ii. 152.

Minuit, Peter, 23.

Miss Rounds's School for Girls, ii. 214.

Mitchell, Chauncey L., ii. 32, 151.

Monitor, ii. 121.

Montauk Club, ii. 225.

Montgomerie, Governor, 185.

Moody, Lady Deborah, 56, 57.

Moore, Thomas, ii. 195.

Morrell, Th., ii. 44.

Morris, Lewis, 230.

Morse, Judge N. B., ii. 131.

Morton, Brig.-General, ii. 19.

---- John, ii. 152.

Moser, Joseph, ii. 76.

Mudie, A. E., ii. 136.

Municipal Building, ii. 195.

Municipal Union Society, ii. 163.

Murphy, George I., 189.

---- Henry C., 59, 119, 189; ii. 22, 60, 91, 92, 150, 151, 154, 156, 188, 232, 258.

---- Henry C., Jr., 189.

---- John G., ii. 60.

Nagel, Philip, 284.

Nanfan, Governor, 164-168.

Nassau ferry-boat, ii. 59.

Nassau Island, 146, 289.

Nassau Water Company, ii. 110, 146.

National Guard, in Civil War, 118-127; in 1893, 198.

Naval Hospital, ii. 194.

Neilson, Judge, ii. 194.

Nelson, Chief Justice, ii. 86.

New Amersfoort, 29.

New Amsterdam, 71.

New Netherland, 24, 36.

New Orange, 112.

New Utrecht, 122; ii. 36, 37.

New York, taken by English, 105; new charter, 106; retaken by Dutch, 112; named New Orange, 112; restored to English, 116; during Revolution, 211-304.

New York and Brooklyn Ferry Co., ii. 190.

Newspapers, 191.

Newtown Creek, 100.

Nicholas the Frenchman, 92.

Nicholson, Francis, 133.

Nicoll, William, 204.

Nicolls, Governor, 106.

North Dutch Church, ii. 4.

Northrup, Daniel W., 190.

Nostrand, John, 235.

Noyes, Stephen B., ii. 215.

Nyack (Najack), 122.

Nye, James W., ii. 116.

Ocean Parkway, ii. 145, 167.

Odeon, ii. 197.

Old Brooklynites, Society of, xii.; ii. 23, 229.

Old Jersey, prison ship, ii. 5, 6.

Olympia, ii. 29.

Onderdonk, Right Rev. Henry Ustick, 189.

Osborn, Albert H., ii. 86, 113.

---- Sir Danvers, 189.

---- William J., 189.

Osborne, Samuel J., ii. 32.

Ostrander, Abraham Duryea, ix.

---- Geertje, vii.

---- George A., ix.

---- Hendrick, viii.

---- Peter Wilson, ix.

---- Pieter, vii.

---- Pieter Pieterszen, vii.

---- Stephen, viii.

---- Stephen M., vii.-xiii.

---- Tryutje, vii.

Otterson, Andrew, ii. 32.

Oxford Club, ii. 226.

Packer, Mrs. W. S., ii. 211, 212.

Packer Collegiate Institute, ii. 100, 211.

Paine, Colonel, ii. 157.

Palmer, Lorin, ii. 230.

Parade Ground, ii. 143, 145.

Park Theatre, ii. 197.

Patchen, Jacob, ii. 69.

Payne, Elijah Freeman, 212.

---- John Howard, ii. 195.

---- Thomas, 226.

Penitentiary, ii. 97, 98.

Percy, Earl, 243.

Perkins, Albert C., ii. 213.

Perry, Colonel, ii. 120.

Peters, Bernard, ii. 106.

---- Leffert, 183.

Pierrepont, H. B., ii. 62, 70, 72.

---- H. E., ii. 151.

Pierrepont Mansion, 257, 304; ii. 71.

Pierson, Joseph B., ii. 31.

Pirates, 146.

Plymouth Church, ii. 119.

Polhemus, Rev. Johannes Theodoras, 88-93.

---- Theodorus, 207, 224, 232, 285.

Police Department, ii. 160.

Polytechnic Institute, ii. 212.

Pope, Thomas, ii. 149.

Powell, Samuel S., ii. 116.

---- Samuel T., ii. 162.

Powers, George, 221, 222.

Pratt, Chas., ii. 212, 213.

Pratt Institute, 213, 214, 216.

Prentice, John H., ii. 152, 155.

Presbyterians at Jamaica, 174.

Prime, Nathaniel S., 1, 10, 12.

Prince, L. Bradford, 190.

Prison ships of the Wallabout, ii. 3-23.

Prospect Park, ii. 143.

Prout, J. S., ii. 32.

Provincial Congress, 215, 219, 227, 229, 289.

Provost, John, ii. 38.

Public School No. 1, ii. 62.

Public Schools, ii. 147, 199-202.

Puritans, 40, 42.

Putnam, Fort, 237, 254.

Putnam, General, 229, 237, 266.

Queens County, organized, 118.

"Rain-water Doctor," ii. 32.

Rapalje, Daniel, 235.

---- Diana, ii. 69.

---- John, 180, 204, 301.

---- Joramus, 164.

---- Joris Jansen, 30-35, 101.

---- Mrs., 259-261.

---- Sarah, 33-35.

Rapelye, Isaac I., 32.

Raymond, Dr. John H., ii. 212.

Reade, John, 221.

Reese, W. W., ii. 32.

Religion, under the Dutch, 85-87; under English, 133, 144.

Religious societies, ii. 220.

Remsen, Abraham, ii. 31.

---- Col. Jeromus, 290.

---- Derick, 284.

---- Hendrick, ii. 263.

---- Jacob, ii. 27.

---- Jan, 126.

---- Jeremiah, 224, 285.

---- Peter, ii. 71.

---- Rem, 164, 221; ii. 41.

Remsen house, ii. 41.

Remsen's mill, ii. 41.

Revolution, 211-304.

Riding and Driving Club, ii. 225.

Rising Sun Tavern, 274.

Roach, John, ii. 151.

Robertson & Little, ii. 29.

Roebling, John A., ii. 155, 156, 188.

---- Washington A., ii. 155, 157, 188.

Roehr, Col. Henry E., ii. 128.

---- Edward Franz, ii. 128.

Romaine, Benjamin, ii. 19.

Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum Society, ii. 224.

Ruggles, Edward, ii. 151.

Rushmore, Merwin, 190.

---- W. C., ii. 152.

Rycken, Abraham, 38.

Ryerse, Adriaen, 126.

Ryersen, John, 255.

Sands, Comfort, 208, 300, 301, 303.

---- Joshua, 301; ii. 62, 69.

Sanford, Lewis, ii. 101.

Schenck, Abraham, 201, 204.

---- Gilliam, ii. 129.

---- Martin, 213.

Schenck property, 214.

Schepens, 63.

Schoonmaker, Dominie, ii. 53.

Schouts, 65.

Schroeder, Frederick A., ii. 165, 230.

Schuyler, General, 272.

---- Peter, 165, 178.

Scorpion, ii. 5.

Sea Beach R. R., ii. 168.

Seaman, Benjamin, 235.

---- Henry L., ii. 92.

---- John, ii. 64.

---- Zebulon, 204.

Sebring, Isaac, 220.

---- Jacob, 220.

Selyns, Rev. Henricus, 93.

Seymour, Rt. Rev. George F., 190.

Sharpe, Jacob, ii. 2.

Sheltering Arms Nursery, ii. 224.

Sherman, Roger, 229.

Sickels, Garret, ii. 19.

"Single head" bill, ii. 169.

Skene, A. J. C., ii. 32.

Skillman, John, ii. 97.

Skinner, Chas. M., 3; ii. 89.

Slavery, 84, 170, 171, 177.

Slocum, Hy. W., ii. 155, 156.

Sloughter, Henry, 136.

Sluyter, Peter, 119.

Smallpox, 188.

Smith, Abel, ii. 126.

---- Capt. John, 20.

---- Col. William, 164.

---- Cyrus P., ii. 87.

---- George, ii. 71.

---- Hugh, ii. 155.

---- Isaac A., ii. 106.

---- Joseph, 221.

---- Samuel, ii. 94.

---- Selah, ii. 69.

Snedeker, Isaac, 235.

Snedicor, John, 88.

Snow, Dr. Henry Sanger, ii. 212.

Society for Improving the Condition of the Poor, ii. 135.

Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, ii. 136.

Society of St. Vincent de Paul, ii. 222.

Soldiers' and Sailors' Memorial Arch, ii. 195.

Sons of Liberty, 280.

South Brooklyn, 5.

South Ferry, ii. 78.

Southampton, 40.

Southold, 40.

Spooner, Alden, ii. 62, 69.

Sprague, Homer B., ii. 213.

---- Joseph, ii. 73, 75, 87, 92.

St. Francis College, ii. 214.

St. Catherine's Hospital, ii. 223.

St. Mary's Hospital, ii. 223.

St. Peter's Hospital, ii. 223.

St. John's College, ii. 214.

St. John's Hospital, ii. 223.

St. Joseph's Institute, ii. 214.

Staats, John, 163.

Stagg, Peter, ii. 103.

Stamp Act, 200, 202.

Standard Oil Company, ii. 193.

Stanton, Henry, ii. 24.

Stearns, John M., ii. 43, 45.

Stebbins, H. G., ii. 151.

Steddiford, Brig.-General, ii. 19.

Stellenwerth, Jacob, 214.

Stevens, Alfred C., ii. 86.

Stiles, Henry R., v., 25.

---- R. Cresson, ii. 32, 133.

Stillman, Capt. Francis, ii. 56.

Stillwell, Nicholaus, 155.

Stillwell, Rich., 129, 207, 284.

Stirling, Lord, 219.

Stoffelsen, Jacob, 59.

Stoothoof, Abraham, ii. 24.

---- Wihls, 285.

Storrs, Rev. R. S., ii. 123, 125, 126, 129, 179, 184, 218.

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, ii. 165.

Stranahan, J. S. T., ii. 116, 143, 150, 154, 156, 179, 189, 195.

---- Mrs. J. S. T., ii. 124.

Stryker, Burdett, ii. 16, 69.

---- John, 88.

Stuyvesant, Peter, 68, 70.

Sugar Refineries, ii. 192.

Sullivan, General, 233.

Suydam, Bernardus, 234, 235.

---- Evert, 284.

---- Ferdinand, 214.

---- Hendrick, 235; ii. 37.

---- Jacob, 235, 295.

---- Lambert, 234, 235.

---- Roger, 235.

Sweeny, Peter B., ii. 155.

Swift, General, ii. 149.

Talbot, Charles A., ii. 129.

Talmage, Rev. T. DeWitt, ii. 218.

Tammany Society, ii. 15-17.

Taylor, Chas. G., ii. 96, 97.

---- Stephen G., ii. 213.

"Tea Party," 206.

Teckritz, Henry, ii. 129.

Terhune, Roelof, 235.

Terry, D. D., 190.

Thayer, William H., ii. 32.

Theatres, ii. 196-198.

Thomasen, William, 53.

Thompson, George, ii. 104.

Thoms, Major Richard, 290.

Thorne, J. Sullivan, ii. 32.

Tienpont, Adrien Jorissen, 22.

Tilton, Theodore, ii. 230.

Titus, Abiel, ii. 69.

---- "Charlum," ii. 41.

---- Daniel, 221.

---- Francis J., ii. 44, 56.

---- Johannes, 214.

---- John, 234.

Tonneman, Sheriff, 92.

Townsend, Charles A., ii. 151.

---- Robert, ii. 16.

Tracy, Benj. F., ii. 230.

Traphagen, Wm. Janssen, viii.

Trial for Treason, 154-156.

Trinity Church, 279.

Trotter, Jonathan, ii. 82.

Trumbull, Colonel, 252.

---- Governor, 242.

Tryon, Governor, 206, 286.

Tweed, Wm. M., 155.

Twenty-eighth Regiment Armory, ii. 160.

Union for Christian Work, ii. 216.

Union Ferry Co., ii. 119.

Union League Club, ii. 224.

Union Missionary Training Institute, ii. 220.

Unitarian Club, ii. 221.

Universalist Club, ii. 221.

University of Leyden, 95.

Usselinx, Wm., 19.

Utrecht, treaty of, 178.

Van Auden, Isaac, ii. 88, 150, 152, 154, 161.

Van Bommel, Elizabeth, viii.

Van Brunt, Adrian, 234.

---- Albert C., ii. 56.

---- Rutgert, 214, 224, 235.

---- William, 285.

Van Cott, J., ii. 24, 38.

Van Corlaer, Jacob, 26.

Van Eckkellen, Johannes, 126.

Van Dam, Nicholas, 221.

---- Rip, 185.

Van Naerden, Claes Jansen, 39.

Van Northwyck, Joostje Willems, viii.

Van Nostrand, Losee, ii. 76.

Van Pelt, Petrus, 285.

Van Ruyven, 100.

Van Schaick, Alex., 213.

Van Vaas, Jansen, 37.

Van Wagner, Henry W., ii. 161.

Vande Water, Benjamin, 161.

---- Jacob, 160, 162.

Vanderbilt, Jeremiah, 203, 207, 224, 284.

---- John, 214, 224, 234, 285.

---- J. C., ii. 34.

Vanderveer, Adrian, ii. 32.

---- D., 204.

---- John, 234, 235.

---- John C., ii. 34.

Vandervoort, Jacob, ii. 16.

---- Peter, 235.

Vanderwick, Cornelis Baren, 126.

Vandewenter, Jacobus, 285.

Vanduyk, Cornelius, 163.

Vanzuren, Casparus, 126.

Vecht, Hendrick, 113, 183.

Voorhies, Abram, 285.

---- Adrian, 285.

---- Stephen, 284.

Wade, T. Anderson, ii. 32.

Waertman, Janse, 19.

Walden, D. T., ii. 129.

Waldron, Adolf, 220, 223.

Wall, Wm., ii. 104.

Wallabout, 25, 26; ii. 137.

Wallabout and Brooklyn Toll Bridge Company, ii. 28.

Wallabout Road, 238.

Wallace, James P., ii. 126.

Walloons, 24-26.

War Fund Committee, ii. 122.

War of 1812, ii. 51-56.

Ward, Colonel, 219.

---- John Q. A., ii. 165.

---- F. A., 190.

Wartman, homestead, ii. 41.

Washington, George, 217, 225, 226, 229, 231, 241, 244, 253-260, 264, 272, 273, 280; ii. 13.

Washington Engine Co. No. 1, ii. 25.

Washington Park, 237; ii. 143.

Water and Sewerage Commissioners, ii. 146.

Water Rights, ii. 78.

Water Supply, ii. 146.

Waterbury, Noah, ii. 46, 101.

Watson, Benjamin, ii. 16.

Wendell, Matthew, ii. 32.

West India Company, 19, 22, 36.

West Riding, 109.

Whaley, Alexander, ii. 38.

"Whig-Hog-Rum Party," ii. 82.

Whiting, W. Leggett, 190.

Whitman, Walt, ii. 89.

Whittaker, Prof. J. B., ii. 213.

Williams, Colonel, ii. 43.

---- Francis, ii. 123.

---- Henry, 300.

Williamsburgh, ii. 43-46, 100-107.

Williamsburgh City Bank, ii. 104.

Williamsburgh City Fire Insurance Co., ii. 104.

"Williamsburgh Democrat," ii. 101.

"Williamsburgh Gazette," ii. 101.

Williamsburgh Lyceum, ii. 101.

Williamsburgh Medical Society, ii. 104.

"Williamsburgh Morning Post," ii. 106.

Williamsburgh Savings Bank, ii. 103, 148, 234.

"Williamsburgh Times," ii. 105-107.

Williamson, Rem, 234.

Wilson, Capt. John, ii. 51.

---- Margaret T., ix.

---- Peter, ix.

---- P. L., 190.

Wit, Peter Janse, 59.

Wolckertsen, Dirck, 100.

Wolfertsen, Gerrit, 59.

Woman's Relief Association, ii. 122.

Wood, Colonel A. M., ii. 122, 127, 152.

---- Silas, 46.

---- Wm. W. W., ii. 151.

Woodford, Stewart L., 189, 230.

Woodhull, Nathaniel, 119, 215, 227, 233, 262, 263.

---- Richard M., ii. 42.

Woodward, John B., ii. 126.

---- Martin, ii. 24.

Wyckoff, Cornelius, 285.

---- Garret, 284.

---- Hendrick, 235.

---- Nicholas, ii. 38.

---- Nicholas, ii. 42, 103.

---- Peter, 235.

---- Van Brunt, 189.

Wyckoff farm, ii. 41.

Yellow fever, 173.

Yorkton, ii. 45.

Young Men's Christian Ass'n of Brooklyn, ii. 104, 217.

Young Men's Christian Ass'n of Williamsburgh, ii. 104.

Young Women's Christian Ass'n, ii. 217.

Zabriskie, John B., ii. 32.

Zenger, Jn. Peter, 186-188.

Zoellner Maennerchor, ii. 228.

Transcriber's Notes: