CHAPTER XII

THE CULTURAL INFLUENCE OF SUMER IN EGYPT, ASIA AND THE WEST

Relations of Sumer and Akkad with other lands--Cultural influences, carried by the great trade-routes, often independent of political contact--The prehistoric relationship of Sumerian culture to that of Egypt--Alleged traces of strong cultural influence--The hypothesis of a Semitic invasion of Upper Egypt in the light of more recent excavations--Character of the Neolithic and early dynastic cultures of Egypt, as deduced from a study of the early graves and their contents--Changes which may be traced to improvements in technical skill--Confirmation from a study of the skulls--Native origin of the Egyptian system of writing and absence of Babylonian influence--Misleading character of other cultural comparisons--Problem of the bulbous mace-head and the stone cylindrical seal--Prehistoric migrations of the cylinder--Semitic elements in Egyptian civilization--Syria a link in the historic period between the Euphrates and the Nile--Relations of Elam and Sumer--Evidence of early Semitic influence in Elamite culture and proof of its persistence--Elam prior to the Semitic conquest--The Proto-Elamite script of independent development--Its disappearance paralleled by that of the Hittite hieroglyphs--Character of the earlier strata of the mounds at Susa and presence of Neolithic remains--The prehistoric pottery of Susa and Mussian--Improbability of suggested connections between the cultures of Elam and of predynastic Egypt--More convincing parallels in Asia Minor and Russian Turkestan--Relation of the prehistoric peoples of Elam to the Elamites of history--The Neolithic settlement at Nineveh and the prehistoric cultures of Western Asia--Importance of Syria in the spread of Babylonian culture westward--The extent of early Babylonian influence in Cyprus, Crete, and the area of Aegean civilization

APPENDICES

I. Recent Explorations in Turkestan in their Relation to the Sumerian Problem

II. A Chronological List of the Kings and Rulers of Sumer and Akkad

INDEX

LIST OF PLATES

I. Stele of Narâm-Sin, representing the king and his allies in triumph over their enemies Frontispiece

II. Doorway of a building at Tello erected by Gudea; on the left is a later building of the Seleucid Era

III. Outer face of a foundation-wall at Tello, built by Ur-Bau

IV. Limestone figure of an early Sumerian patesi, or high official

V. Fragment of Sumerian sculpture representing scenes of worship

VI. The Blau monuments

VII. Diorite statue of Gudea, represented as the architect of the temple of Gatumdug

VIII. Clay relief stamped with the figure of a Babylonian hero, and fragment of limestone sculptured in relief; both objects illustrate the symbol of the spouting vase

IX. Impressions of early cylinder-seals, engraved with scenes representing heroes and mythological beings in conflict with lions and bulls

X. South-eastern facade of a building at Tello, erected by Ur-Ninâ

XI. Limestone figures of early Sumerian rulers

XII. Plaques of Ur-Ninâ and of Dudu

XIII. Portion of these "Stele of the Vultures" sculptured with scenes representing Eannatum leading his troops in battle and on the march

XIV. The burial of the dead after battle

XV. Portion of a black basalt mortar bearing an inscription of Eannatum

XVI. Brick of Eannatum, recording his genealogy and conquests and commemorating the sinking of a well in the temple of Ningirsu

XVII. Marble gate-socket, bearing an inscription of Entemena

XVIII. Silver vase dedicated to the god Ningirsu by Entemena

XIX. Mace-heads and part of a diorite statuette dedicated to various deities

XX. Mace-head dedicated to the Sun-god by Shar-Gani-sharri, and other votive objects

XXI. Cruciform stone object inscribed with a votive text of an early Semitic king of Kish

XXII. Impressions of the cylinder-seals of Ubil-Ishtar, Khashkhamer, and Kilulla

XXIII. Clay cones of Galu-Babbar and other rulers

XXIV. Brick pillar at Tello, of the time of Gudea

XXV. Seated figure of Gudea

XXVI. Votive cones and figures

XXVII. Gate-socket of Gudea, recording the restoration of the temple of the goddess Ninâ

XXVIII. Brick of Ur-Engur, King of Ur, recording the rebuilding of the temple of Ninni in Erech

XXIX. Votive tablets of Dungi, King of Ur, and other rulers

XXX. Clay tablets of temple-accounts, drawn up in Dungi's reign

XXXI. Circular tablets of the reign of Bûr-Sin, King of Ur

XXXII. Bricks of Bûr-Sin, King of Ur, and Ishme-Dagan, King of Isin

XXXIII. Specimens of clay cones bearing votive inscriptions

XXXIV. (i and ii) The North and South Kurgans at Anau in Russian Turkestan. (iii) Terra-cotta figurines of the copper age culture from the South Kurgan at Anau

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

1-2. Figures of early Sumerians engraved upon fragments of shell. Earliest period: from Tello

3-5. Later types of Sumerians, as exhibited by heads of male statuettes from Tello

6-8. Examples of sculpture of the later period, representing different racial types

9-11. Fragments of a circular bas-relief of the earliest period, commemorating the meeting of two chieftains and their followers

12. Limestone panel representing Gudea being led by Ningishzida and another deity into the presence of a seated god

13. Figure of the seated god on the cylinder-seal of Gudea

14-15. Examples of early Sumerian deities on votive tablets from Nippur

16. Fragment of an archaic relief from Tello, representing a god smiting a bound captive with a heavy club or mace

17-19. Earlier and later forms of divine headdresses

20. Perforated plaque engraved with a scene representing the pouring out of a libation before a goddess

21. Fragments of sculpture belonging to the best period of Sumerian art

22. Limestone head of a lion from the corner of a basin in Ningirsu's temple

23. Upper part of a female statuette of diorite, of the period of Gudea or a little later

24. Limestone head of a female statuette belonging to the best period of Sumerian art

25. One of a series of copper female foundation-figures with supporting rings

26-27. Heads of a bull and goat, cast in copper and inlaid with mother-of-pearl, lapis-lazuli, etc.

28. Stamped terra-cotta figure of a bearded god, wearing a horned headdress

29. Scheme of decoration from a libation-vase of Gudea, made of dark green steatite and originally inlaid with shell

30. Convex panel of shell from the side of a cup, engraved with a scene representing a lion attacking a bull

31-33. Fragments of shell engraved with animal forms, which illustrate the growth of a naturalistic treatment in Sumerian design

34-37. Panels of mother-of-pearl engraved with Sumerian designs, which were employed for inlaying the handles of daggers

38. Archaic plaque from Tello, engraved in low relief with a scene of adoration

39. Figure of Lupad, a high official of the city of Umma

40. Statue of Esar, King of Adah

41. Emblems of Lagash and of the god Ningirsu

42. Mace-head dedicated to Ningirsu by Mesilim, King of Kish

43. Early Sumerian figure of a woman, showing the Sumerian dress and the method of doing the hair

44. Plaque of Ur-Ninâ, King of Lagash

45. Portion of a plaque of Ur-Ninâ, sculptured with representations of his sons and the high officials of his court

46. Part of the Stele of the Vultures representing Ningirsu clubbing the enemies of Lagash in his net

47. Part of the Stele of the Vultures sculptured with a sacrificial scene which took place at the burial of the dead after battle

48. Part of the Stele of the Vultures representing Eannatum deciding the fate of prisoners taken in battle

49-51. Details from the engravings upon Entemena's silver vase

52-53. Seal-impression of Lugal-anda, patesi of Lagash, with reconstruction of the cylinder-seal

54-55. A second seal-impression of Lugal-anda, with reconstruction of the cylinder

56. White marble vase engraved with the name and title of Urumush, King of Kish

57. Alabaster statue of Manishtusu, King of Kish

58. Copper head of a colossal votive lance engraved with the name and title of an early king of Kish

59. Stele of Narâm-Sin, King of Akkad, from Pir Hussein

60. Portion of a Stele of Victory of a king of Akkad, sculptured in relief with battle-scenes; from Tello

61. Other face of Fig. 60

62-63. Copper figures of bulls surmounting cones, which were employed as votive offerings in the reigns of Gudea and Dungi

64-65. Tablets with architect's rule and stilus from the statues B and F of Gudea

66. Figure of a god seated upon a throne, who may probably be identified with Ningirsu

67. Mace-head of breccia from a mountain near the "Upper Sea" or Mediterranean, dedicated to Ningirsu by Gudea

68. Designs on painted potsherds of the Neolithic period (Culture I.) from the North Kurgan at Anau

69. Designs on painted potsherds of the Aeneolithic period (Culture II.) from the North Kurgan at Anau

MAPS AND PLANS

I. Plan of Tello, after De Sarzec

II. Plan of Jôkha, after Andrae

III. Plan of Fâra, after Andrae and Noeldeke

IV. Plan of Abû Hatab, after Andrae and Noeldeke

V. Plan of Warka, after Loftus

VI. Plan of Muḳayyar, after Taylor

VII. Plan of Abû Shahrain, after Taylor

VIII. Early Babylonian plan of the temple of Enlil at Nippur and its enclosure; cf. Fisher, "Excavations at Nippur" I., pl. 1

IX. Plan of the Inner City at Nippur, after Fisher, "Excavations at Nippur," I., p. 10

X. Plan of the store-house of Ur-Ninâ, at Tello, after De Sarzec

XI. Plan of early building at Tello, after De Sarzec

XII. Map of Babylonia, showing the sites of early cities. Inset: Map of Sumer and Akkad in the earliest historical period

A HISTORY OF SUMER AND AKKAD