CHAPTER XI.

A. CORNELIUS CELSUS—HIS MERITS—CICERO MEDICORUM—SCRIBONIUS LARGUS DESIGNATIANUS—POMPONIUS MELA—L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA—S. JULIUS FRONTINUS—DECLINE OF TASTE IN THE SILVER AGE—FOREIGN INFLUENCE ON ROMAN LITERATURE—CONCLUSION.

Such were the principal writers who adorned and illustrated the literature of the silver age: it remains only to speak briefly of those whose works, although of minor interest, must not be passed over without notice.

AURELIUS CORNELIUS CELSUS.

Celsus was the author of many works on various subjects, of which one, in eight books, on Medicine, is now extant. The place of his birth and the age at which he flourished are unknown, but he probably lived in the reign of Tiberius. He was a man of comprehensive, almost encyclopædic knowledge, and wrote on philosophy, rhetoric, agriculture, and even strategy. It has been doubted whether he ever practised medicine, or was only theoretically acquainted with the subject; but the independence of his views, the practical as well as the scientific nature of his instructions, are inconsistent with any hypothesis except that he had himself patiently watched the phenomena of morbid action and experimented upon its treatment. Above all, his knowledge of surgery, and his clear exposition of surgical operations, necessarily imply that practical experience and reality of knowledge which never could have been acquired from books.

If we compare the masterly handling of the subject by Celsus with the history of medicine by Pliny,[1368] it is easy to distinguish the man of practical and experimental science from the collector and transcriber of others’ views. His manual of medicine embraces the following subjects: Diet,[1369] Pathology,[1370] Therapeutics,[1371] Surgery;[1372] and without entering into its peculiar merits, a task which could only be performed satisfactorily by a professional writer, the highest testimony is borne to its merits by the fact of its being used as a text-book even in the present advanced state of medical science.

The study of medicine has a tendency to predispose the mind for general scientific investigations in other departments not immediately connected with it. Hence the medical profession has numbered amongst its members many men of general scientific attainments; and Celsus was an example of this versatility. The taste of the age in which he lived turned his attention also to polite literature; and to this may be ascribed the Augustan purity of his style, which gained for him the appellation of “Cicero Medicorum.”

SCRIBONIUS LARGUS DESIGNATIANUS.

The “Cicero of physicians” was followed by Scribonius, an obsequious court physician, in the reign of Claudius. He was the author of several works, one of which, a large collection of prescriptions, is extant. In the language of impious flattery, he calls the imbecile emperor a god. He is said to have accompanied him in his expedition to Britain.

POMPONIUS MELA.

Pomponius Mela may be considered as the representative of the Roman geographers. He was a native of Tingentera, a town in Spain, and lived in the reign of Claudius. His treatise is entitled, “De Situ Orbis, Libri iii.” It is systematic and learned. The stores of information derived from the Greek geographers are interspersed with entertaining myths and lively descriptions. The knowledge, however, contained in it is all taken from books: it is an epitome of former treatises, and is not enriched by the discoveries of more recent travellers. The simplicity of the style, and the almost Augustan purity of the Latinity, prevent even so bare a skeleton and list of facts from being dry and uninteresting.

L. JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA.

The didactic work of Columella gives, in smooth and fluent, though somewhat too diffuse, a style, the fullest and completest information on practical agriculture amongst the Romans, in the first century of the Christian era. Pliny is the only classical author who mentions him; but he refers to him as a competent authority. Columella himself informs us that he was born at Gades (Cadiz,[1373]) and resided at Rome,[1374] but had travelled in Syria and Cilicia.[1375] It is generally supposed that he died and was buried at Tarentum.

His work, “_De Re Rusticâ_,” is divided into twelve books. It treats of all subjects connected with the choice and management of a farm,[1376] the arrangement of farm buildings,[1377] the propagation and rearing of stock,[1378] the cultivation of fruit trees,[1379] and household economy.[1380] A calendar is attached to the eleventh book, pointing out the cosmical risings and settings of the constellations, which marked the successive seasons for various labours and other practical points of rustic astronomy. The tenth book, the subject of which is horticulture, is in hexameters. It never rises quite to the height of poetry: it is rather metrical prose, characterized, like the rest of his work, by fluency, and also expressed in correct versification. The reason which he gives for this variation from his plan is, that it is intended as supplementary to the Georgics of Virgil, and that in so doing he is following the great poet’s own recommendations. In his preface to his friend Silvinus he thus expresses his intention:—“Postulatio tua pervicit ut poeticis numeris explerem Georgici carminis omissas partes, quas tamen et ipse Virgilius significaverat posteris se memorandas relinquere.”

SEXTUS JULIUS FRONTINUS.

Sex. Jul. Frontinus deserves a place amongst Roman classical writers as the author of two works, both of which are still extant. The first, entitled, “Stratagematicon, Libri iv.,” was a treatise on military tactics. The form in which he has enunciated his doctrines is that of precepts and anecdotes of celebrated military commanders. In this way the necessary preparations for a battle, the stratagems resorted to in fighting, the rules for conducting sieges, and the means of maintaining discipline in an army, are explained and illustrated in a straight-forward and soldier-like style.

As the object which he had in view in adducing his anecdotes is scientific illustration rather than historic truth, he is not very particular as to the sources from which his examples are derived. It is interesting, however, to the antiquarian, if not of practical utility to the tactician, as displaying the theory and practice of ancient warfare. This subject had in early times been treated of by Cato and Cincius, and afterwards by Hyginus in a treatise on Field Fortification (_de Castrametatione_,) and also in the epitome of Vegetius.

His other work, which has descended to modern times in a perfect state, is a descriptive architectural treatise, in two books, on those wonderful monuments of Roman art, the aqueducts. But besides these, fragments remain of other works, which assign Frontinus an important place in the estimation of the student of Roman history. These are treatises on surveying, and the laws and customs relating to landed property. They were partly of a scientific, partly of a jurisprudential character, and are to be found amongst the works of the _Agri-mensores_, or _Rei Agrariæ Scriptores_. The difficulty and obscurity of everything connected with Roman agrarian institutions is well known; and every fragment relating to them is valuable, because of the probability of its throwing light upon so important a subject. Niebuhr[1381] saw their value, and pronounced that “the fragments of Frontinus were the only work amongst the _Agri-mensores_ which can be counted a part of classical literature, or which was composed with any legal knowledge.” These fragments, therefore, may be taken as a favourable specimen of this class of writers, amongst whom were Siculus Flaccus, Argenius Urbicus, and Hyginus (Grammaticus.)

Of the life of Frontinus himself very few facts are known. He was city prætor in the reign of Vespasian,[1382] and succeeded Cerealis as governor of Britain. He made a successful campaign against the Silures[1383] (S. Wales,) and was succeeded by Agricola, A. D. 78. He was subsequently _curator aquarum_,[1384] an office which probably suggested the composition of his practical manual on aqueducts. He also had a seat in the college of augurs, in which, after his death,[1385] he was succeeded by the younger Pliny.

With this third epoch a history of Roman classical literature comes to a close. In the silver age taste had gradually but surely declined; and although the Roman language and literature shone forth for a time with classic radiance in the writings of Persius, Juvenal, Quintilian, Tacitus, and the Plinies, nothing could arrest its fall. In vain emperors endeavoured to encourage learning by pecuniary rewards and salaried professorships: it languished together with the death of constitutional freedom, the extinction of patriotism, and the decay of the national spirit. Poetry had become declamation. History had degenerated either into fulsome panegyric, or the fleshless skeletons of epitomes; and at length Romans seemed to disdain the use of their native tongue—that tongue which laborious pains had brought to such a height of polish and perfection, and wrote in Greek, as they had in the infancy of the national literature, when Latin was too rude and imperfect to imbody the ideas which they had derived from their Greek instructors.

The Emperor Hadrian resided long at Athens, and became imbued with a taste and admiration for Greek; and thus the literature of Rome became Hellenized. From this epoch the term Classical can no longer be applied to it, for it did not retain its purity. To Greek influence succeeded the still more corrupting one of foreign nations. Even with the death of Nerva the uninterrupted succession of emperors of Roman or Italian birth ceased. Trajan himself was a Spaniard; and after him not only barbarians of every European race, but even Orientals and Africans were invested with the imperial purple. The empire also over which they ruled was an unwieldy mass of heterogeneous materials. The literary influence of the capital was not felt in the distant portions of the Roman dominions. Schools were established in the very heart of nations just emerging from barbarism—at Burdegala (Bourdeaux,) Lugdunum (Lyons,) and Augusta Trevirorum (Treves;) and, although the blessings of civilization and intellectual culture were thus distributed far and wide, still literary taste, as it filtered through the minds of foreigners, became corrupted, and the language of the imperial city, exposed to the infectious contact of barbarous idioms, lost its purity.[1386]

The Latin authors of this period were numerous, and many of them were Christians; but few had taste to appreciate and imitate the literature of the Augustan age. The brightest stars which illuminated the darkness were A. Gellius, L. Apuleius, T. Petronius Arbiter, the learned author of the Saturnalia; the Christian ethical philosopher, L. Cœlius Lactantius; and that poet, in whom the graceful imagination of classical antiquity seems to have revived, the flattering and courtly Claudian.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

────────┬────────┬──────────────────────────┬────────────────────────── B. C. │A. U. C.│ LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. │ CIVIL CHRONOLOGY. ────────┼────────┼──────────────────────────┼────────────────────────── │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ FIRST ERA. │ │ │ │ 753–510│ 1–244│Chant of the Arvalian │Regal period. │ │ Brotherhood; Saturnian │ │ │ measure; Salian hymn; │ │ │ Pontifical annals; Libri│ │ │ Lintei. │ 449│ 305│Laws of the Twelve Tables;│The Decemvirs deposed. │ │ the so-called Leges │ │ │ Regiæ. │ 390│ 364│ - - - │Rome taken by Gauls. 364│ 390│Stage-players sent for │The year following the │ │ from Etruria. │ death of Camillus. 326–304│ 428–450│The Tiburtine inscription │Second Samnite War. │ │ - │ 280│ 474│Appius Claudius Cæcus; Ti.│The year following the │ │ Coruncanius. │ arrival of Pyrrhus. 264│ 490│ - - - │Commencement of first │ │ │ Punic war. 260│ 494│The Columna Rostrata; │Fifth year of the first │ │ epitaphs on the Scipios.│ Punic war. 241│ 513│ - - - │CONCLUSION OF THE FIRST │ │ │ PUNIC WAR. 240│ 514│Livius Andronicus. │ 239│ 515│Birth of Ennius. │ 235│ 519│Cnæus Nævius flourished. │The Temple of Janus closed │ │ │ for the second time. 227│ 527│Birth of Plautus; funeral │ │ │ oration of Q. Metellus. │ 219│ 535│Q. Fabius Pictor; L. │ │ │ Cincius Alimentus; birth│ │ │ of Pacuvius │ 204│ 550│Ennius brought to Rome; │ │ │ Corn. Cethegus; P. │ │ │ Licinius Crassus. │ 201│ 553│Speech of Fabius │Conclusion of second Punic │ │ Cunctator; Sextus Ælius │ war. │ │ Catus. │ 195│ 559│M. Porcius Cato consul; │ │ │ Licinius Tegula. │ 186│ 568│Senatus-consultum │The year following the │ │ respecting the │ condemnation of L. │ │ Bacchanals. │ Scipio. 184│ 570│Cæcilius Statius │Censorship of M. Porcius │ │ flourished; he died │ Cato. │ │ A. U. C. 586; death of │ │ │ Plautus. │ 183│ 571│ - - - │Deaths of Hannibal and │ │ │ Scipio Africanus. 181│ 573│The (so-called) books of │ │ │ Numa found. │ 179│ 575│ - - - │Accession of Perseus. 170│ 584│Attius born. │ 168│ 586│ - - - │Defeat of Perseus at │ │ │ Pydna. 166│ 588│Terence exhibits the │ │ │ Andrian; Sp. Carvilius; │ │ │ C. Sulpicius Gallus; │ │ │ Lavinius Luscius; T. │ │ │ Manlius Torquatus. │ 155│ 599│The three Attic │ │ │ philosophers visit Rome;│ │ │ C. Acilius Glabrio; │ │ │ Crates Mallotes. │ 154│ 600│M. Pacuvius; Scipio │ │ │ Æmilianus; Lælius. │ 150│ 604│L. Afranius; S. Sulpicius │ │ │ Galba. │ 148│ 606│Birth of C. Lucilius; │Second year of the third │ │ Cassius Hemina; A. │ Punic war. │ │ Postumius Albinus │ 146│ 608│ - - - │End of third Punic war; │ │ │ Carthage and Corinth │ │ │ taken. 138│ 616│L. Attius flourished; Q. │Dec. Jun. Brutus consul. │ │ F. M. Servilianus; C. │ │ │ Fannius; Vennonius; C. │ │ │ Sempronius │ 133│ 621│M. Junius Brutus; P. │Murder of Tib. Gracchus; │ │ Mucius Scævola; L. │ Numantia taken. │ │ Cælius Antipater; Cn. S.│ │ │ and A. Gellii; L. │ │ │ Calpurnius Piso Frugi; │ │ │ Papirius Carbo; Lepidus │ │ │ Porcina; Ælius Tubero. │ 129│ 625│ - - - │Death of Scipio Æmilianus; │ │ │ æt. 56. 123│ 631│C. Sempronius Gracchus; │ │ │ Sextus Turpilius; C. │ │ │ Lucilius flourished; │ │ │ Lævius; (?) C. Junius │ │ │ Gracchanus; M. Julius │ │ │ Pennus. │ 119│ 635│L. Licinius Crassus │ │ │ accuses Carbo; M. │ │ │ Antonius (born B. C. │ │ │ 144.) │ 113│ 641│ - - - │War begun with the Cimbri. 111│ 643│ - - - │First year of Jugurthine │ │ │ war. 109│ 645│Publius Sempronius │ │ │ Asellio; M. Æmilius │ │ │ Scaurus; P. Rutilius │ │ │ Rufus; Q. Lutatius │ │ │ Catulus. │ 106│ 648│Birth of Cicero │Birth of Cn. Pompeius. 100│ 654│L. Ælius Stilo │Birth of Julius Cæsar. 95│ 659│Cotta; the Sulpicii; │ │ │ Hortensius; Q. Mucius │ │ │ Scævola; Lucretius born.│ 91│ 663│Death of the orator │ │ │ Crassus. │ 90│ 664│C. Licinius Macer; Q. │Commencement of the Social │ │ Claudius Quadrigarius; │ war. │ │ Q. Valerius Antias; L. │ │ │ Lucullus; Sulla; Plotius│ │ │ Gallus. │ 87│ 667│M. Antonius killed; │Massacres by Cinna and │ │ Catullus born. │ Marius. 86│ 668│Birth of Sallust │Death of Marius. 84│ 670│Attius probably died about│ │ │ this time, and Latin │ │ │ acting tragedy │ │ │ disappeared; L. │ │ │ Cornelius Sisenna. │ 82│ 672│Births of Varro Atacinus │Sulla’s proscription. │ │ and Licinius Calvus │ │ │ Valerius Cato. │ 78│ 676│Commencement of Sallust’s │Death of Sulla. │ │ history. │ 76│ 678│Birth of Asinius Pollio. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ SECOND ERA. │ │ │ │ 74│ 680│Roman prose literature │Third Mithridatic war │ │ arrived at its greatest │ began. │ │ perfection; Cicero │ │ │ twenty-two years of age.│ 72│ 682│ - - - │Murder of Sertorius. 71│ 683│ - - - │Defeat of Spartacus. 70│ 684│Cicero accuses Verres; │ │ │ Virgil born. │ 67│ 687│C. Aquilius Gallus; C. │Pompey, entrusted with the │ │ Juventius; Sext. │ war against the Pirates. │ │ Papirius; L. Lucilius │ │ │ Balbus. │ 65│ 689│Birth of Horace │First Catilinarian │ │ │ conspiracy. 63│ 691│Pomponius Atticus; M. │Consulship of Cicero; │ │ Terentius Varro │ birth of Augustus; │ │ Reatinus; L. Lueceius; │ Jerusalem taken by │ │ Nigidius Figulus; │ Pompey. │ │ Orbilius came to Rome in│ │ │ the fiftieth year of his│ │ │ age (Suet. de Ill. Gram.│ │ │ 9;) Q. Cornificius. │ 61│ 693│Oration for Archias │Acquittal of Clodius. 60│ 694│ - - - │First triumvirate. 59│ 695│Birth of T. Livius. │ 55│ 699│ - - - │Cæsar’s first invasion of │ │ │ Britain. 54│ 700│Julius Cæsar; Lucretius │Cæsar’s second invasion of │ │ Carus; C. Val. Catullus;│ Britain. │ │ Æsopus; Q. Roscius; │ │ │ Licinius Calvus; Helvius│ │ │ Cinna; Ticida; │ │ │ Bibaculus; Varro │ │ │ Atacinus; Cornelius │ │ │ Nepos; A. Hirtius; C. │ │ │ Oppius; S. Sulpicius │ │ │ Rufus. │ 52│ 702│Death of Lucretius. │ 49│ 705│D. Laberius; C. Matius; P.│J. Cæsar appointed │ │ Syrus. │ Dictator. 48│ 706│ - - - │Battle of Pharsalia; │ │ │ murder of Pompey. 46│ 708│ - - - │Cæsar reforms the │ │ │ calendar. 44│ 710│C. Sallustius Crispus; │Murder of Julius Cæsar. │ │ Atteius Philologus; │ │ │ Asinius Pollio. │ 43│ 711│Death of Cicero; Valgius │Second triumvirate formed. │ │ Rufus; birth of Ovid; │ │ │ death of Laberius. │ 42│ 712│Horace at Philippi. │ 40│ 714│ - - - │Treaty of Brundisium. 34│ 720│Death of Sallust. │ 32│ 722│Death of Atticus. │War declared against │ │ │ Antony. 31│ 723│Virgilius Maro (born B. C.│Battle of Actium. │ │ 70;) Mæcenas; Horatius │ │ │ Flaccus; L. Varius; │ │ │ Albius Tibullus; │ │ │ Cornelius Gallus; │ │ │ Plotius Tucca; │ │ │ Bathyllus; Pylades; │ │ │ Trogus Pompeius. │ 29│ 725│ - - - │The three triumphs of │ │ │ Octavius; temple of │ │ │ Janus closed. 28│ 726│Palatine library founded; │ │ │ death of Varro. │ 27│ 727│ - - - │Octavius receives the │ │ │ title of Augustus. 25│ 729│J. Hyginus; S. Aurelius │ │ │ Propertius; Æmilius │ │ │ Macer; Ovidius Naso; │ │ │ Gratius Faliscus; Pedo │ │ │ Albinovanus; A. Sabinus;│ │ │ T. Livius; Ateius │ │ │ Capito; Vitruvius; Q. │ │ │ Cæcilius Epirota. │ 19│ 735│Death of Virgil. │ 18│ 734│Death of Tibullus. │ 17│ 737│Carmen seculare of │Ludi sæculares. Porcius │ │ Horatius; │ Latro. 15│ 739│ - - - │Tiberius and Drusus │ │ │ conquer the Vindelici. 9│ 745│History of Livy │ │ │ terminates. │ 8│ 746│Death of Horace │The month Sextilis named │ │ │ Augustus. 4│ 750│ - - - │BIRTH OF OUR LORD JESUS │ │ │ CHRIST. │ │ │ A. D.│ │ │ 4│ 758│Death of Asinius Pollio. │ 9│ 763│Exile of Ovid │Defeat of Quintilius │ │ │ Varus. 14│ 767│ - - - │Death of Augustus. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │THIRD ERA. │ │ │ │ 16│ 769│T. Phædrus │Sejanus the imperial │ │ │ favourite. 18│ 771│C. Asinius Gallus; deaths │ │ │ of Ovid and Livy; │ │ │ Valerius Maximus. │ 23│ 776│Birth of C. Plinius │Murder of Drusus. │ │ Secundus. │ 25│ 778│Birth of Silius Italicus; │ │ │ death of Cremutius │ │ │ Cordus; M. Annæus │ │ │ Seneca; A. Cornelius │ │ │ Celsus; Arellius Fuscus;│ │ │ Valerius Maximus. │ 30│ 783│Velleius Paterculus writes│ │ │ his history. │ 31│ 784│ - - - │Fall of Sejanus. 34│ 787│A. Persius Flaccus born. │ 37│ 790│ - - - │Death of Tiberius. 40│ 793│Lucan brought to Rome. │ 41│ 794│Exile of Seneca │Caligula assassinated; │ │ │ Claudius emperor. 43│ 796│Birth of Martial; │Expedition of Claudius to │ │ Pomponius Mela; L. │ Britain. │ │ Junius Columella; │ │ │ Remmius Fannius Palæmon.│ 49│ 802│Recall of Seneca. │ 54│ 807│L. Annæus Seneca; M. │Accession of Nero. │ │ Annæus Lucanus; │ │ │ Cornutus; Persius; │ │ │ Cæsius Bassus; C. Silius│ │ │ Italicus; Q. Curtius │ │ │ Rufus. │ 59│ 812│ - - - │Murder of Agrippina. 61│ 814│Pliny the Younger born │Boadicea conquered by │ │ │ Suetonius Paullinus. 62│ 815│Death of Persius. │ 65│ 818│Deaths of Seneca and │ │ │ Lucan. │ 66│ 819│Martial came to Rome. │ 69│ 822│ - - - │Accession of Vespasian. 70│ 823│Saleius Bassus; C. │Jerusalem taken by Titus. │ │ Valerius Flaccus. │ 74│ 827│The dialogue _De │ │ │ Oratoribus_ supposed to │ │ │ have been written. │ 77│ 830│C. Plinius Secundus Major │ │ │ flourished. │ 78│ 831│ - - - │Agricola Governor of │ │ │ Britain. 79│ 832│Death of Pliny the Elder │Destruction of Herculaneum │ │ │ and Pompeii. 80│ 833│ - - - │The Coliseum built. 81│ 834│ - - - │Accession of Domitian. 90│ 843│M. F. Quintilianus; the │ │ │ Philosophers expelled by│ │ │ Domitian; Papinius │ │ │ Statius; Martialis. │ 93│ 846│ - - - │Death of Agricola. 96│ 849│ - - - │Assassination of Domitian. 98│ 851│C. Cornelius Tacitus; C. │Accession of Trajan. │ │ Plinius Minor; Julius │ │ │ Frontinus; Suetonius │ │ │ Tranquillus; Annæus │ │ │ Florus; Julius │ │ │ Obsequens; D. Junius │ │ │ Juvenalis. │ 104│ 857│Pliny’s letter respecting │ │ │ the Christians. │ 117│ 870│ - - - │Accession of Hadrian. 138│ 891│S. Pomponius; Gaius │Accession of Antoninus │ │ │ Pius. 161│ 914│L. Appuleius; Minucius │Accession of M. Aurelius. │ │ Felix; Tertullian. │ ────────┴────────┴──────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────

THE END.

Footnote 1:

B. C. 210; A. U. C. 514.

Footnote 2:

A. D. 138; A. U. C. 891.

Footnote 3:

See Forster’s Essay on Greek Quantity, c. vi.

Footnote 4:

Pol. Hist. iii. 22; see Donaldson’s Varron.

Footnote 5:

Plin. N. H. iii. 14.

Footnote 6:

See Thucyd. ii. 6.

Footnote 7:

Lib. v. 33.

Footnote 8:

Müller, Etrusk. iv. 7, 8.

Footnote 9:

See authorities quoted by Dennis, Cities of Etruria, i. xxiv.

Footnote 10:

Lib. i. 94.

Footnote 11:

Tac. Ann. iv. 55.

Footnote 12:

Lib. i. p. 22, 24.

Footnote 13:

Lib. i. 93.

Footnote 14:

Cistell. II. iii. 20.

Footnote 15:

A Cyclopean or Pelasgian wall, built of polygonal stones, without mortar, exists so far north as Düsternbrook, near Kiel, in Schleswig-Holstein.

Footnote 16:

Ueber die Tyr. Pel. in Etr. Leips. 1842.

Footnote 17:

Varronianus, i. sec. 10.

Footnote 18:

Heyne, Exc. Virg. Æn. iii.

Footnote 19:

The religion of Rome furnishes many other traces of Etruscan influence:—_ex. gr._, the ceremonies of the augurs and haruspices were Etruscan, and the lituus, or augur’s staff, may be seen on old Etruscan monuments. The Tuscan Fortune, Nortia, the etymology of whose name (ne-verto) coincides with that of the Greek Ἀτροπος (the unchangeable,) had the nails, the emblem of necessity, as her device; and hence the consul marked the commencement of the year by driving a nail.

The Roman Hymen, the god of marriage, was Talassius; a fact which illustrates one of the incidents in the tradition which Livy (book i. c. ix.) adopts respecting the rape of the Sabine virgins.

The name Talassius was evidently derived from the Tuscan name Thalna, or Talana, by which was designated the Juno Pronuba of the Romans, and the Ἡρη τελειά of the Greeks.

Footnote 20:

Owing to the existence of the Pelasgian element in Latin, as well as in Greek, an affinity can be traced between these languages and the Sanscrit in no fewer than 339 Greek and 319 Latin words.

Footnote 21:

See Donaldson’s Varron., c. iii.

Footnote 22:

Leps. de Tab. Eug., p. 86.

Footnote 23:

B. C. 354.

Footnote 24:

Varronianus, c. iii.

Footnote 25:

See Grotefend, Rud. Ling. Umbr. Hanov. 1835; and Lassen. Beitrage zur Eug. Tafeln. Rhein. Mus. 1833.

Footnote 26:

Liv. vii. 11.

Footnote 27:

A. U. C. 361; B. C. 393.

Footnote 28:

Liv. x. 20.

Footnote 29:

Lect. on Rom. Hist. l. xxxiii.

Footnote 30:

A. U. C. 664; B. C. 90.

Footnote 31:

Pp. 86–89.

Footnote 32:

Micali, Tav. cxx.

Footnote 33:

Orellii Inscr. 1384.

Footnote 34:

Cities of Etruria, i. p. 225.

Footnote 35:

See Etrusc. Alphabet. Lanzi, Saggio di L. E. i. 208.

Footnote 36:

Herod. i. 167.

Footnote 37:

Virg. Æn. viii. 597.

Footnote 38:

Dennis, ii. 44.

Footnote 39:

Ibid. ii. 53.

Footnote 40:

Ibid. ii. 55.

Footnote 41:

Varron., p. 127.

Footnote 42:

Etrusk. i. p. 451.

Footnote 43:

Schoell. Hist. de Lit. Rom. i. p. 42; Orell. Insc. 2270.

Footnote 44:

Circ. A. D. 218.

Footnote 45:

De L. L. vii. 26, 27, or vi. 1–3.

Footnote 46:

Varronianus, vi. 4.

Footnote 47:

See _ex. gr._ Liv. i. 26.

Footnote 48:

S. V. V. Plorare, Occisum, Pellices, Parricidi, Quæstores, &c.

Footnote 49:

Lib. i. 26

Footnote 50:

H. N. xxxii. 2.

Footnote 51:

Ch. vi.

Footnote 52:

Dionys. x. 57.

Footnote 53:

Liv. iii. 54, A. D.

Footnote 54:

Nieb. R. H. iii. 264.

Footnote 55:

A. U. C. 428–50, Arnold; 423–44, Niebuhr.

Footnote 56:

Page 499.

Footnote 57:

Rom. Hist.

Footnote 58:

Varron. vi. 20.

Footnote 59:

Orell. No. 550.

Footnote 60:

Ibid. No. 552. Meyer’s Anth. Nos. 1, 2; where see also No. 5.

Footnote 61:

B. C. 259.

Footnote 62:

Orellius, No. 549.

Footnote 63:

Liv. xlii. 20.

Footnote 64:

Tac. Ann. ii. 49.

Footnote 65:

A. U. C. 568; B. C. 186.

Footnote 66:

Livy, xxxix. 18.

Footnote 67:

Schoell, i. 52.

Footnote 68:

Ver. 276.

Footnote 69:

Lib. vi. 3, 47.

Footnote 70:

See Bythner’s Lyra Prophet.

Footnote 71:

See epitaph on L. C. Scipio.

Footnote 72:

See Bant. Table.

Footnote 73:

Elem. Doc. Met. iii. 9.

Footnote 74:

P. 212.

Footnote 75:

Ep. Phal. xi.

Footnote 76:

The term _axamenta_ is derived from the old Latin word _axo_, to name.

Footnote 77:

Lib. i. 26.

Footnote 78:

Pro Rab. 4, 13.

Footnote 79:

Brutus, xix.

Footnote 80:

Liv. xxv. 12.

Footnote 81:

Liv. v. 16.

Footnote 82:

Elem. Doc. Metr. iii. 9.

Footnote 83:

Lays of Rome, Preface, p. 19.

Footnote 84:

Alterno terram quatiunt pede.—_Hor. Od._

Footnote 85:

See Meyer, Anthol. Lat. 207, 212.

Footnote 86:

Gray’s Works, ii. 30–54.

Footnote 87:

A. U. C. 513; B. C. 241.

Footnote 88:

B. C. 240; A. U. C. 514.

Footnote 89:

B. C. 81; A. U. C. 673.

Footnote 90:

A. D. 14.

Footnote 91:

A. D. 138.

Footnote 92:

Brut. 19; Tusc. Dis. i. 2; iv. 2.

Footnote 93:

Lib. ix. 36.

Footnote 94:

De Rep. i. 20.

Footnote 95:

Lib. iv. 7, 13, 20.

Footnote 96:

In Virg. Æn. i. 372. See also Cic. Or. ii. 12; and Quinct, Ins. Or. x. 2, 7.

Footnote 97:

Cic. Brut. 16.

Footnote 98:

Hor. Ep. II. i. 139, &c.

Footnote 99:

Sermon. i. 4, 6.

Footnote 100:

Virg. Georg. II. 385; Tibull. II. i. 55; Catull. 61, 27.

Footnote 101:

Sub voc.

Footnote 102:

Bernhardy’s Grundriss, 379; Diomedes, Gr. iii. 487; Val. Max. ii. 4; Festus v. person. fab.

Footnote 103:

Now St. Arpino.

Footnote 104:

Cic. Ep. ad Pap.

Footnote 105:

Juv. Sat. iii. 172.

Footnote 106:

V. Schlegel, lect. viii.

Footnote 107:

B. C. 364; A. U. C. 390.

Footnote 108:

Livy, vii. 2.

Footnote 109:

Lect. R. H. lxx.

Footnote 110:

Lib. xxvii. 34: xxiv. 20.

Footnote 111:

Liv. i. 9, 35.

Footnote 112:

Ibid. i. 35.

Footnote 113:

Elem. Doctr. Metr. iii. 9.

Footnote 114:

71.

Footnote 115:

Ep. II. i. 69.

Footnote 116:

Liv. vii. 2.

Footnote 117:

Brut. 72.

Footnote 118:

B. C. 240.

Footnote 119:

Noct. Att. See also Quinct. I. O. x. 2, 7.

Footnote 120:

See Bothe, Poetæ Scen. Roman. Trag.

Footnote 121:

For the slight differences between a Greek and Roman theatre, the reader is referred to Smith’s Dictionary of Antiquities, _sub voce_.

Footnote 122:

Ep. ad Fam. vii. 1.

Footnote 123:

Roman critics divide comedy into _Comœdia Palliata_, in which the characters, and therefore the costume, were Greek; and _Togata_, in which they were Roman. Comœdia Togata was again subdivided into Trabeata, or genteel comedy, and Tabernaria, or low comedy. The Fabulæ Prætextatæ were historical plays, like those of Shakspeare.

Footnote 124:

Klussman, Frag. Næv.

Footnote 125:

Cic. Cat. 14.

Footnote 126:

Noct. Att. i. 24; xvii. 21.

Footnote 127:

A. U. C. 519.

Footnote 128:

A. U. C. 550; B. C. 204.

Footnote 129:

B. C. 367.

Footnote 130:

B. C. 300.

Footnote 131:

B. C. 312.

Footnote 132:

Cic. Verres, i. 10.

Footnote 133:

See Arnold’s Rome, l. 289.

Footnote 134:

Miles Glorios. II., ii. 56.

Footnote 135:

A. Gell. iii. 3.

Footnote 136:

B. C. 204. See Cic. Brut. 15.

Footnote 137:

Ep. ii. 153; Brutus, 19.

Footnote 138:

Pierron, Hist. de la R. 42.

Footnote 139:

Lib. i. 198.

Footnote 140:

Cic. Brut. 19; Macr. vi. 2.

Footnote 141:

Brutus, 76.

Footnote 142:

Meyer’s Anthol. Lat.

Footnote 143:

Meyer’s Anthol. Lat.

Footnote 144:

II. Epist. i. 49.

Footnote 145:

Horace, 1 Serm. iv. 10.

Footnote 146:

A. U. C. 515.

Footnote 147:

Claudian, xxiii. 7.

Footnote 148:

Silius It.

Footnote 149:

B. C. 204.

Footnote 150:

B. C. 198.

Footnote 151:

B. C. 189.

Footnote 152:

Meyer, Anthol. Vet. Rom. No. 19.

Footnote 153:

Meyer, No. 16.

Footnote 154:

Smith’s Dict. of Biograph. s. v. Ennius.

Footnote 155:

Ep. ii. 50.

Footnote 156:

Meyer, Anthol. 515–585.

Footnote 157:

Cic. Brut. 76.

Footnote 158:

Andromache.

Footnote 159:

A. Gellius.

Footnote 160:

Pierron, Rom. Lit. p. 74.

Footnote 161:

B. C. 280.

Footnote 162:

B. C. 214.

Footnote 163:

De Nat. Deor. i. 42.

Footnote 164:

See Lecture vii. of A. W. V. Schlegel.

Footnote 165:

Ep. ad Pison. 202.

Footnote 166:

From Tzur, ‏צוֹר‎.

Footnote 167:

Colman illustrates the preface to his translation of Terence with an engraving from a bas-relief in the Farnese Palace, in which these flutes are introduced. The original represents a scene in the Andria, and contains Simo, Davus, Chremes, and Dromo, with a knotted cord.

Footnote 168:

I. O. ii. 10.

Footnote 169:

Donatus says, “Diverbia (_the dialogues_) histriones pronuntiabant; cantica (_the soliloquies_) vero temperabantur modis non a poetâ sed a perito artis musicæ factis.”

Footnote 170:

Cic. de Orat. iii. 45.

Footnote 171:

Ibid. 41.

Footnote 172:

Phorm. Prol. 18; Ecl. iii. 96.

Footnote 173:

A. U. C. 527; B. C. 227.

Footnote 174:

A. U. C. 570; B. C. 184. See Cic. Brut. 15.

Footnote 175:

Lect. lxx.

Footnote 176:

A. Gell. iii. 3.

Footnote 177:

See Smith’s Biog. Dict. s. v.

Footnote 178:

Lect. on Rom. Hist. lxx.

Footnote 179:

Quint. x. 1, 99.

Footnote 180:

De Off. i. 29.

Footnote 181:

Lib. i. 24.

Footnote 182:

Quint. x. 1, 90.

Footnote 183:

Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 58.

Footnote 184:

Bacch. ii. 2.

Footnote 185:

The plot of the Phasma of Menander is as follows:—A woman who has married a second husband has a daughter concealed in the next house, with whom she has secret interviews by means of a communication through the party-wall. In order the better to carry on her clandestine plan, she pretends that she has intercourse with a supernatural being, who visits her in answer to her invocations. Her step-son by accident sees the maiden, and is at first awe-struck, thinking that he had beheld a goddess; but, discovering the truth, he is captivated with her beauty. A happy marriage, with the consent of all parties, concludes the play.

Footnote 186:

De Sen. 50.

Footnote 187: