Part 1

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NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS

LAND BIRDS

VOL. I.

A

HISTORY

OF

NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS

BY S. F. BAIRD, T. M. BREWER, AND R. RIDGWAY

LAND BIRDS

_ILLUSTRATED BY 64 PLATES AND 593 WOODCUTS_

VOLUME I.

BOSTON LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY 1905

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

Printers S. J. PARKHILL & CO., BOSTON, U. S. A.

PREFACE.

The present work is designed to meet the want, which has long been felt, of a descriptive account of the Birds of North America, with notices of their geographical distribution, habits, methods of nesting, character of eggs, their popular nomenclature, and other points connected with their life history.

For many years past the only systematic treatises bearing upon this subject have been “The American Ornithology” of Alexander Wilson, finished by that author in 1814, and brought down to the date of 1827 by George Ord; the “Ornithological Biography” of Audubon, bearing date of 1838, with a second edition, “Birds of America,” embracing a little more of detail, and completed in 1844; and “A Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada,” by Nuttall, of which a first edition was published in 1832 and a second in 1840. Since then no work relating to American Ornithology, of a biographical nature, has been presented to the public, with the exception of some of limited extent, such as those of Giraud, on the “Birds of Long Island,” in 1844; De Kay’s “Birds of New York,” 1844; Samuels’s “Ornithology and Oölogy of New England,” 1868, and a few others; together with quite a number of minor papers on the birds of particular localities, of greater or less moment, chiefly published in periodicals and the Proceedings of Societies. The reports of many of the government exploring parties also contain valuable data, especially those of Dr. Newberry, Dr. Heermann, Dr. J. G. Cooper, Dr. Suckley, Dr. Kennerly, and others.

More recently (in 1870) Professor Whitney, Chief of the Geological Survey of California, has published a very important volume on the ornithology of the entire west coast of North America, written by Dr. J. G. Cooper, and containing much original detail in reference to the habits of the western species. This is by far the most valuable contribution to the biography of American birds that has appeared since the time of Audubon, and, with its typographical beauty and numerous and excellent illustrations, all on wood and many of them colored, constitutes one of the most noteworthy publications in American Zoölogy.

Up to the time of the appearance of the work of Audubon, nearly all that was known of the great region of the United States west of the Missouri River was the result of the journey of Lewis and Clark up the Missouri and across to the Pacific Coast, and that of John K. Townsend and Mr. Nuttall, both of whom made some collections and brought back notices of the country, which, however, they were unable to explore to any great extent. The entire region of Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, Nevada, and California was unvisited, as also a great portion of territory north of the United States boundary, including British Columbia and Alaska.

A work by Sir John Richardson, forming a volume in his series of “Fauna Boreali-Americana,” in reference to the ornithology of the region covered by the Hudson Bay Company’s operations, was published in 1831, and has been much used by Mr. Audubon, but embraces little or nothing of the great breeding-grounds of the water birds in the neighborhood of the Great Slave and Bear Lakes, the Upper Yukon, and the shores of the Arctic coast.

It will thus be seen that a third of a century has elapsed since any attempt has been made to present a systematic history of the birds of North America.

The object of the present work is to give, in as concise a form as possible, an account of what is known of the birds, not only of the United States, but of the whole region of North America north of the boundary-line of Mexico, including Greenland, on the one side, and Alaska with its islands on the other. The published materials for such a history are so copious that it is a matter of surprise that they have not been sooner utilized, consisting, as they do, of numerous scattered biographies and reports of many government expeditions and private explorations. But the most productive source has been the great amount of manuscript contained in the archives of the Smithsonian Institution in the form of correspondence, elaborate reports, and the fieldnotes of collectors and travellers, the use of which, for the present work, has been liberally allowed by Professor Henry. By far the most important of these consist of notes made by the late Robert Kennicott in British America, and received from him and other gentlemen in the Hudson Bay Territory, who were brought into intimate relationship with the Smithsonian Institution through Mr. Kennicott’s efforts. Among them may be mentioned more especially Mr. R. MacFarlane, Mr. B. R. Ross, Mr. James Lockhart, Mr. Lawrence Clark, Mr. Strachan Jones, and others, whose names will appear in the course of the work. The especial value of the communications received from these gentlemen lies in the fact that they resided for a long time in a region to which a large proportion of the rapacious and water birds of North America resort during the summer for incubation, and which until recently has been sealed to explorers.

Equally serviceable has been the information received from the region of the Yukon River and Alaska generally, including the Aleutian Islands, as supplied by Messrs. Robert Kennicott, William H. Dall, Henry M. Bannister, Henry W. Elliott, and others.

It should be understood that the remarks as to the absence of general works on American Ornithology, since the time of Audubon, apply only to the life history of the species, as, in 1858, one of the authors of the present work published a systematic account of the birds of North America, constituting Vol. IX. of the series of Pacific Railroad Reports; while from the pen of Dr. Elliott Coues, a well-known and eminent ornithologist, appeared in 1872 a comprehensive volume, entitled “A Key to North American Birds,” containing descriptions of the species and higher groups.

The technical, or descriptive, matter of the present work has been prepared by Messrs. Baird and Ridgway, that relating to the _Raptores_ entirely by Mr. Ridgway; and all the accounts of the habits of the species are from the pen of Dr. Brewer. In addition to the matter supplied by these gentlemen, Professor Theodore N. Gill has furnished that portion of the Introduction defining the class of birds as compared with the other vertebrates; while to Dr. Coues is to be given the entire credit for the pages embracing the tables of the Orders and Families, as well as for the Glossary beginning on page 535 of Vol. III.

Nearly all the drawings of the full-length figures of birds contained in the work were made directly on the wood, by Mr. Edwin L. Sheppard, of Philadelphia, from original sketches taken from nature; while the heads were executed for the most part by Mr. Henry W. Elliott and Mr. Ridgway. Both series have been engraved by Mr. Hobart H. Nichols of Washington. The generic outlines were drawn by Anton L. Schönborn, and engraved by the peculiar process of Jewett, Chandler, & Co., of Buffalo. All of these, it is believed, speak for themselves, and require no other commendation.

A considerable portion of the illustrations were prepared, by the persons mentioned above, for the Reports of the Geological Survey of California, and published in the volume on Ornithology. To Professor Whitney, Chief of the Survey, acknowledgments are due for the privilege of including many of them in the present History of North American Birds, and also for the Explanation of Terms, page 526 of Vol. III.

A few cuts, drawn by Wolf and engraved by Whymper, first published in “British Birds in their Haunts,” and credited in their proper places, were kindly furnished by the London Society for the Diffusion of Christian Knowledge; and some others prepared for an unpublished volume by Dr. Blasius, on the Birds of Germany, were obtained from Messrs. Vieweg and Son, of Braunschweig.

The volume on the Water Birds is in an advanced state of preparation, and will be published with the least possible delay.

SPENCER F. BAIRD.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, January 8, 1874.

CONTENTS.

Page

PREFACE v

INTRODUCTION xi

Family TURDIDÆ. The Thrushes 1 Subfamily TURDINÆ 3 Subfamily MIMINÆ 31 Family CINCLIDÆ. The Dippers 55 Family SAXICOLIDÆ. The Saxicolas 59 Family SYLVIIDÆ. The Sylvias 69 Subfamily SYLVIINÆ 69 Subfamily REGULINÆ 72 Subfamily POLIOPTILINÆ 77 Family CHAMÆADÆ. The Ground-Tits 83 Family PARIDÆ. The Titmice 86 Subfamily PARINÆ 86 Subfamily SITTINÆ 113 Family CERTHIADÆ. The Creepers 124 Family TROGLODYTIDÆ. The Wrens 130 Family MOTACILLIDÆ. The Wagtails 164 Subfamily MOTACILLINÆ 165 Subfamily ANTHINÆ 169 Family SYLVICOLIDÆ. The Warblers 177 Subfamily SYLVICOLINÆ 179 Subfamily GEOTHLYPINÆ 279 Subfamily ICTERIANÆ 306 Subfamily SETOPHAGINÆ 311 Family HIRUNDINIDÆ. The Swallows 326 Family VIREONIDÆ. The Vireos 357 Family AMPELIDÆ. The Chatterers 395 Subfamily AMPELINÆ 395 Subfamily PTILOGONATINÆ 404 Family LANIIDÆ. The Shrikes 412 Family CÆREBIDÆ. The Guits 425 Family TANAGRIDÆ. The Tanagers 431 Family FRINGILLIDÆ. The Finches 446 Subfamily COCCOTHRAUSTINÆ 446 Subfamily PYRGITINÆ 524 Subfamily SPIZELLINÆ 528

INDEX TO THE PLATES.

PLATES 1-26.

INTRODUCTION.

The class of Birds (_Aves_), as represented in the present age of the world, is composed of very many species, closely related among themselves and distinguished by numerous characters common to all. For the purposes of the present work it is hardly necessary to attempt the definition of what constitutes a bird, the veriest tyro being able to decide as to the fact in regard to any North American animal. Nevertheless, for the sake of greater completeness, we may say that, compared with other classes,[1] Birds are abranchiate vertebrates, with a brain filling the cranial cavity, the cerebral portion of which is moderately well developed, the corpora striata connected by a small anterior commissure (no corpus callosum developed), prosencephalic hemispheres large, the optic lobes lateral, the cerebellum transversely multifissured; the lungs and heart not separated by a diaphragm from the abdominal viscera; aortic arch single (the right only being developed); blood, with nucleated red corpuscles, undergoing a complete circulation, being received and transmitted by the right half of the quadrilocular heart to the lungs for aeration (and thus warmed), and afterwards returned by the other half through the system (there being no communication between the arterial and venous portions); skull with a single median convex condyle, chiefly on the basi-occipital (with the sutures for the most part early obliterated); the lower jaw with its rami ossifying from several points, connected with the skull by the intervention of a quadrate bone (homologous with the malleus); pelvis with ilia prolonged in front of the acetabulum, ischia and pubes nearly parallel with each other, and the ischia usually separated: anterior and posterior members much differentiated; the former modified for flight, with the humerus nearly parallel with the axis of the body and concealed in the muscles, the radius and ulna distinct, with two persistent carpal bones, and two to four digits; the legs with the bones peculiarly combined, (1) the proximal tarsal bones coalescing with the adjoining tibia, and (2) the distal tarsal coalescing with three (second, third, and fourth) metatarsals (the first metatarsal being free), and forming the so-called tarsometatarsus; dermal appendages developed as feathers: oviparous, the eggs being fertilized within the body, excluded with an oval, calcareous shell, and hatched at a temperature of about 104° F. (generally by the incubation upon them of the mother).[2]

Such are some of the features common to all the existing species of birds.[3] Many others might be enumerated, but only those are given which contrast with the characteristics of the mammals on the one hand and those of the reptiles on the other. The inferior vertebrates are distinguished by so many salient characters and are so widely separated from the higher that they need not be compared with the present class.

Although birds are of course readily recognizable by the observer, and are definable at once, existing under present conditions, as warm-blooded vertebrates, with the anterior members primitively adapted for flight,—they are sometimes abortive,—and covered with feathers, such characteristics do not suffice to enable us to appreciate the relations of the class. The characteristics have been given more fully in order to permit a comparison between the members of the class and those of the mammals and reptiles. The class is without exception the most homogeneous in the animal kingdom; and among the living forms less differences are observable than between the representatives of many natural orders among other classes. But still the differences between them and the other existing forms are sufficient, perhaps, to authorize the distinction of the group as a class, and such rank has always been allowed excepting by one recent naturalist.

But if we further compare the characters of the class, it becomes evident that those shared in common with the reptiles are much more numerous than those shared with the mammals. In this respect the views of naturalists have changed within recent years. Formerly the two characteristics shared with the mammals—the quadrilocular heart and warm blood—were deemed evidences of the close affinity of the two groups, and they were consequently combined as a section of the vertebrates, under the name of Warm-blooded Vertebrates. But recently the tendency has been, and very justly, to consider the birds and reptiles as members of a common group, separated on the one hand from the mammals and on the other from the batrachians; and to this combination of birds and reptiles has been given the name _Sauropsida_.

As already indicated, the range of variation within this class is extremely limited; and if our views respecting the taxonomic value of the subdivisions are influenced by this condition of things, we are obliged to deny to the groups of living birds the right which has generally been conceded of ranking as orders.

The greatest distinctions existing among the living members of the class are exhibited on the one hand by the Ostriches and Kiwis and the related forms, and on the other by all the remaining birds.

These contrasted groups have been regarded by Professor Huxley as of ordinal value; but the differences are so slight, in comparison with those which have received ordinal distinction in other classes, that the expediency of giving them that value is extremely doubtful; and they can be combined into one order, which may appropriately bear the name of _Eurhipidura_.

An objection has been urged to this depreciation of the value of the subdivisions of the class, on the ground that the peculiar adaptation for flight, which is the prominent characteristic of birds, is incapable of being combined with a wider range of form. This is, at most, an explanation of the cause of the slight range of variation, and should not therefore affect the exposition of the _fact_ (thereby admitted) in a classification based on morphological characteristics. But it must also be borne in mind that flight is by no means incompatible with extreme modifications, not only of the organs of flight, but of other parts, as is well exemplified in the case of bats and the extinct pterodactyls.

Nor is the class of birds as now limited confined to the single order of which only we have living representatives. In fossil forms we have, if the differences assumed be confirmed, types of two distinct orders, one being represented by the genus _Archæopteryx_ and another by the genera _Ichthyornis_ and _Apatornis_ of Marsh. The first has been named _Saururæ_ by Hæckel; the second _Ichthyornithides_ by Marsh.

Compelled thus to question the existence of any groups of ordinal value among recent birds, we proceed now to examine the grounds upon which natural subdivisions should be based. The prominent features in the classification of the class until recently have been the divisions into groups distinguished by their adaptation for different modes of life; that is, whether aerial or for progression on land, for wading or for swimming; or, again, into Land and Water Birds. Such groups have a certain value as simply artificial combinations, but we must not be considered as thereby committing ourselves to such a system as a natural one.

The time has scarcely arrived to justify any system of classification hitherto proposed, and we can only have a sure foundation after an exhaustive study of the osteology, as well as the neurology and splanchnology, of the various members. Enough, however, has already been done to convince us that the subdivision of the class into Land and Water Birds does not express the true relations of the members embraced under those heads. Enough has also been adduced to enable us to group many forms into families and somewhat more comprehensive groups, definable by osteological and other characters. Such are the Charadrimorphæ, Cecomorphæ, Alectoromorphæ, Pteroclomorphæ, Peristeromorphæ, Coracomorphæ, Cypselomorphæ, Celeomorphæ, Aëtomorphæ, and several others. But it is very doubtful whether the true clew to the affinities of the groups thus determined has been found in the relations of the vomer and contiguous bones. The families, too, have been probably, in a number of cases, especially for the passerine birds, too much circumscribed. The progress of systematic ornithology, however, has been so rapid within the last few years, that we may be allowed to hope that in a second edition of this work the means may be furnished for a strictly scientific classification and sequence of the families. (T. N. G.)

A primary division of recent birds may be made by separation of the (_a_) _Ratitæ_, or struthious birds and their allies,—in which the sternum has no keel, is developed from lateral paired centres of ossification, and in which there are numerous other structural peculiarities of high taxonomic import,—from the (_b_) _Carinatæ_, including all remaining birds of the present geologic epoch. Other primary divisions, such as that into _Altrices_ and _Præcoces_ of Bonaparte, or the corresponding yet somewhat modified and improved _Psilopaedes_ and _Ptilopaedes_ of Sundevall, are open to the serious objections that they ignore the profound distinctions between struthious and other birds, require too numerous exceptions, cannot be primarily determined by examination of adult specimens, and are based upon physiological considerations not necessarily co-ordinate with actual physical structure.

In the following scheme, without attempting to indicate positive taxonomic rank, and without committing myself finally, I present a number of higher groups into which Carinate birds may be divided, capable of approximately exact definition, and apparently of approximately equivalent taxonomic value. Points of the arrangement are freely drawn from the writings of various authors, as will be perceived by those competent to judge without special references. I am particularly indebted, however, to the late admirable and highly important work of Professor Sundevall,[4] from which very many characters are directly borrowed. The arrangement, in effect, is a modification of that adopted by me in the “Key to North American Birds,” upon considerations similar to those herewith implied. The main points of difference are non-recognition of three leading groups of aerial, terrestrial, and natatorial birds,—groups without morphological basis, resting simply upon teleological modification; a general depreciation of the taxonomic value of the several groups, conformably with the considerations presented in the preceding pages of this work; abolishing of the group _Grallatores_; and recognition of a primary group _Sphenisci_.[5]

A. PASSERES.[6] Hallux invariably present, completely incumbent, separately movable by specialization of the _flexor hallucis longus_, with enlarged base and its claw larger than that of the middle digit. Neither second nor fourth toe versatile; joints of toes always 2, 3, 4, 5, from first to fourth. Wing-coverts comparatively short and few; with the exception of the least coverts upon the _plica alaris_, arranged in only two series, the greater of which does not reach beyond the middle of the secondary remiges.[7] Rectrices twelve (with rare anomalous exceptions). Musical apparatus present in greater or less development and complexity. Palate ægithognathous. Sternum of one particular mould, single-notched. Carotid single (sinistra). Nature highly altricial and psilopædic.

a. Oscines.[8] Sides of the tarsus covered in most or all of their extent with two undivided horny plates meeting behind in a sharp ridge (except in _Alaudidæ_; one of the plates imperfectly divided in a few other forms). Musical apparatus highly developed, consisting of several distinct pairs of syringeal muscles. Primaries nine only, or ten with the first frequently spurious, rarely over two thirds the length of the longest, never equalling the longest.

b. Clamatores.[9] Sides of the tarsus covered with divided plates or scales variously arranged, its hinder edge blunt. Musical apparatus weak and imperfect, of few or incompletely distinguished syringeal muscles (as far as known). Primaries ten with rare exceptions, the first usually equalling or exceeding the rest.