CHAPTER IV—THE NOUN

§ 1. The Formation of Nouns.

Nouns are either primitive or derived. Primitive nouns have no special terminations to distinguish them from other words. Derived nouns, chiefly abstract, are formed from adjectives, verbs, or other nouns. There are also verbal nouns which have the form of the infinitive of verbs.

1. Nouns are derived from adjectives and occasionally from nouns and verbs, by adding _der_ or _ter_. Thus:—

_dader_, goodness, from _da_, good.

_gwîrder_, truth, from _gwîr_, true.

_gwander_, weakness, from _gwan_ or _gwadn_, weak.

_golowder_, brightness, from _golow_, light.

_tekter_, beauty, from _teg_, beautiful.

_whekter_, sweetness, from _wheg_, sweet.

_îthekter_, horror, from _îthek_, horrible.

_melder_, sweetness (to taste), from _mel_, honey.

_yender_, coldness, from _yên_ or _yein_, cold.

_splander_, brightness, splendour, from _splan_, bright.

_tewlder_, darkness, from _tewal_, dark.

_tewder_, thickness, from _tew_, thick.

_tanowder_, thinness, from _tanow_, thin.

_powsder_, heaviness, from _pows_, heavy.

_scavder_, lightness (of weight), from _scav_, light.

_medhalder_, softness, from _medhal_, soft.

_glanithder_, cleanness, from _glanith_, clean.

_mǒgilder_, warmth, from _mǒgil_, warm.

_tǒmder_, heat, from _tǒm_ (or _tǔbm_), hot.

_downder_, depth, from _down_, deep.

_sehter_ (or _zehar_), drought, from _segh_, dry.

_ewhelder_, height, from _ewhel_, high.

_crevder_, strength, from _crev_, strong.

Some adjectives ending in _s_ revert to an original _t_ in this formation. Thus:—

_calletter_, hardness, from _cales_, hard.

_goscotter_, shelter, from _goskes_, sheltering.

_ponvotter_, trouble, from _ponvos_, trouble.

It will be seen that this _der_ or _ter_ answers to the English termination _ness_, and may be added to almost any adjective to form the corresponding abstract noun.

2. Abstract nouns are derived from other nouns or adjectives by the addition of _eth_ or _neth_.

_gwiryoneth_, truth, from _gwiryon_, truthful.

_cosoleth_, rest, peace, from _cǒsel_, quiet.

_skîantoleth_, wisdom, from _skîantol_, wise.

_folneth_, folly, from _fol_, a fool.

_materneth_, royalty, from _matern_, a king.

_gokeneth_, stupidity, from _goky_, a fool.

_mescogneth_, {76} madness, from _mescok_, a madman.

_gowegneth_, falsehood, from _gowek_, a liar.

_roweth_, bounty, from _ro_, a gift.

This termination answers more or less to the Latin _itas_ or English _ity_.

3. Abstract nouns are derived from verbs by the addition of _ans_. Thus:—

_crejyans_, belief, from _cresy_ (or _crejy_), to believe.

_givyans_, forgiveness, from _gava_, to forgive.

_deskyans_, learning, from _desky_, to learn.

_disqwedhyans_, discovery, from _disqwedhas_, to discover.

_gordhyans_ (_gorryans_), glory, from _gordhya_ (_gorrya_), to worship.

_bownans_, life, from _bewa_, to live.

_marnans_, death, from _marwel_ or _merwel_, to die.

_selwans_, salvation, from _selwel_, to save.

_tristyans_, sadness, from _trist_, sad.

_tibyans_, thought, from _tibya_, to think.

This termination answers to the Latin _antia_ or _entia_, and the English _ance_ or _ence_. It is generally added to the root of the verb.

4. Nouns signifying agents or doers are derived from other nouns, adjectives, and verbs by the addition of _or_, _er_, _ar_, or _yas_ (earlier _iad_ or _iat_).

_tŷor_, a tiler, from _tŷ_, to cover.

_pestrior_, a wizard, from _pestry_, magic.

_pescajor_, a fisherman, from _pescas_, plur. of _pesk_, fish.

_cosǒlyer_, a counsellor, from _cǒsǒl_, counsel.

_revader_ or _revajor_, a rower, from _rev_, an oar.

_trǒccyer_, a fuller.

_lyuyar_, a dyer, from, _lyu_, colour.

_gwîadar_, a weaver, from _gwîa_, to weave.

_bǒnkyer_, a cooper, from _bǒnk_, a blow.

_ǒmdowlar_, a wrestler, from _ǒmdowla_, to wrestle.

_gǒnnador_ or _gonajor_, a sower, from _gǒnas_, to sow or plant.

_mijar_, a reaper, from _mijy_, to reap.

_stênor_, a tinner, from _stên_, tin.

_selwyas_, a saviour, from _selwel_, to save.

_gwithyas_ (also _gwithyor_), a guardian, from _gwithya_, to keep.

_kernyas_, a trumpeter, from _corn_, a horn.

_rennyas_, a carver, from _ranna_, to divide.

_sewyas_, a tailor, from _sewy_, to sew.

_pǔrkenyas_, an enchanter, from the intensive prefix _pur_ (lit. very) and _cana_, to sing.

_helhyas_, a pursuer, from _helhya_, to hunt.

_scrivinyas_, a writer, from _scrîfa_, to write.

_offeryas_, a priest, from _offeren_, mass.

_hǒmbrǒnkyas_, a leader, from _hǒmbrǒnkya_, to lead.

Many words in _yas_ occur only in the Cottonian Vocabulary, and appear there as ending in _iad_ or _iat_, but since all the Cottonian words in _iad_ and _iat_ which do appear in later MSS. are made in the latter to end in _yas_ (or _ias_), and since it may be taken as an invariable rule that all words ending in _t_ or _d_ in Welsh or Breton, if they occur at all in Cornish, end in _s_, any Cottonian word in _iat_ or _iad_ may fairly be taken for purposes of modern Cornish to end in _yas_.

§ 2. The Gender of Nouns.

Nouns are of two genders, masculine and feminine. There is no neuter.

There is no rule whereby to tell the gender of a word, except in the case of animate objects, where the gender simply follows the sex.

There are only three grammatical cases in which gender matters at all.

1. When a noun or an adjective preceding a noun is preceded by the article _an_, the. If the noun or adjective is masculine singular or the noun feminine, or the adjective of either, plural, its initial remains in the first state. If the noun or adjective is feminine singular or the noun is masculine plural, {78} it is changed to the second state.

When a qualifying adjective follows a noun in the masculine or in the plural of either gender, the initial of the adjective remains in the first state. If the noun is feminine singular, the initial of the adjective changes to the second state.

3. The pronoun of the third person singular, used for a feminine noun, even when it signifies an inanimate object, is _hŷ_, she, not _ev_, he. Examples:—

_tâs_, a father; _an tâs_, the father.

_tassow_, fathers; _an dassow_, the fathers.

_mergh_, a daughter; _an vergh_, the daughter.

_merhes_, daughters; _an merhes_, the daughters.

_tâs mas_, a good father; _mergh vas_, a good daughter; _an vergh vas_, the good daughter.

_tassow mas_, good fathers; _merhes mas_, good daughters.

It will be evident, considering that a large number of nouns and adjectives do not begin with mutable letters, that the question of gender only applies to a limited number of nouns and adjectives, and therefore presents but little difficulty. Perhaps the best way to learn the genders of nouns with mutable initials is to get accustomed to their sound with the article prefixed.

The feminine equivalents of certain masculine nouns denoting animate objects are represented, as in other languages, in one of two ways, by the addition of a syllable or by different words.

1. By the addition of _es_. This is the regular form.

_arledh_, lord; _arledhes_, lady.

_pestrior_, a wizard; _pestriores_, a witch.

_coweth_, a companion, masc.; _cowethes_, a companion, fem.

_mow_, a boy; _mowes_, a girl.

_sans_, a saint; _sanses_, a female saint.

_eneval_, an animal, masc.; _enevales_, an animal, fem.

_pehador_ or _pehajor_, a sinner, masc.; _pehadores_, a sinner, fem.

Except in the case of the other class of feminines, of which a list is given below, it may be taken as a general rule that the corresponding feminine of any noun denoting a masculine animate object is formed in this way.

2. By a different word. These are mostly those which denote relationships and familiar animals, and there are in some cases, as in English, further words to denote the young of both sexes, or the neuter.

_dên_, man; _benen_, woman; _flogh_, child.

_gour_, husband; _gwrêg_, wife.

_mab_, son; _mergh_, daughter.

_ewiter_, uncle; _modreb_, aunt.

_tâs_, father; _mam_, mother.

_sîra_, father; _dama_, mother.

_sîra widn_, {80} grandfather; _dama widn_, grandmother.

_altrou_, godfather; _altrewan_, godmother.

_broder_, brother; _hoer_, sister.

_noy_, nephew; _noys_, niece.

_tarow_, bull; _bewgh_, cow; _ǒjion_, ox; _lewgh_, calf; _lǒdn_, bullock; _lejek_, heifer.

_hordh_ or _hûr_, ram; _davas_, sheep; _mowls_, wether; _ôn_, lamb.

_margh_, horse; _caseg_, mare; _ebal_, colt.

_bŏk_, he-goat; _gavar_, goat; _min_, kid.

_baedh_, boar; _banew_, sow; _porhal_, little pig; _gwîs_, old sow; _ragomogh_, hog; _mohen_, pig (plur. _mogh_); _torgh_, hog.

_kŷ_, dog; _gêst_, bitch.

_gourgath_, tom-cat; _cath_, cat.

_carow_, stag; _ewik_, hind; _lewgh-ewik_, fawn.

_kǒtyorgh_, roe buck; _yorgh_, roe doe.

_keliok_, cock; _yar_, hen; _mabyer_, chicken.

_keliokwôdh_, gander; _gôdh_, goose.

_keliokôs_, drake; _hôs_, duck.

§ 3. The Cases of Nouns.

All cases except the genitive and accusative are formed by prepositions, as in English. Of these prepositions some govern one state of the initial and some another, as will be seen in the chapter on prepositions, but when the article _an_, the, comes between the preposition and the noun, the initial is not changed by the preposition, but only, if at all (in the case of a feminine singular or masculine plural), by the article.

The genitive, by which must here be understood (in its old-fashioned sense) all those conditions under which a noun would in English be preceded by _of_, or followed by ’_s_, is formed in four ways, each of which has a different meaning.

1. The genitive of possession is the appositional genitive. This is formed by placing the noun that is in the genitive immediately after the noun which it qualifies, or, if the former has the definite article, or is qualified by a possessive pronoun or prefixed adjective, with only these intervening. No change of initial is made, {81} except the usual change of feminine singular or masculine plural nouns after _an_, or the changes caused by possessive pronouns, etc. The first of the two nouns must have no article. Thus:—

_chŷ dên_, the house of a man, or a man’s house.

_chŷ an dên_, the house of the man, or the man’s house.

_chŷ benen_, the house of a woman.

_chŷ an venen_, the house of the woman.

But not _an chŷ an dên_ or _an chŷ an venen_.

If there is a succession of genitives, only the last noun can have an article. Thus:—

_darras chŷ gour an venen_, the door of the house of the husband of the woman.

2. The inflected genitive. This, which only exists, and that doubtfully, in the case of a few words, is formed by the modification of the root vowel. It is one of the common genitives of the Gaelic dialects, and as such is important, for it is not recognised in Welsh or Breton. Lhuyd gives five instances of it—_margh_, a horse, gen. _mergh_; _mergh_, a daughter, gen. _myrgh_; _pen_, a head, gen. _pyn_ (used only in the quasi-preposition _erbyn_, against); _whêl_, work, gen. _wheyl_; _crês_, midst, gen. _creys_, but even these were very seldom used, and only probably in a few expressions. It would seem that the initial of the genitive word should in this case be in the second state. Thus:—

_rên vergh_, a horse’s mane.

3. The genitive of attribution, quality, origin, or quantity, denoted in English by the preposition _of_, but not expressible also by the possessive in ’_s_, though in many cases an adjective might be substituted for it, is expressed in Cornish by the preposition _a_, which puts the initial in the second state. Thus:—

_a_. Quality. _Arledh a ’ras_, Lord of grace; _an Matern a wordhyans_, the King of glory.

_b_. Origin. _an Tâs an Nêv_, the Father of Heaven (cf. _Pater_ de cælis _Deus_, translated in the English Prayer-book, “O God, the Father of Heaven”); _dên a Gernow_, a man of Cornwall.

_c_. Quantity. Words denoting number, quantity, etc., generally adjectives or numerals, may be followed by this form of genitive. Thus:—

_lên a ’ras_, full of grace.

_lower a ŷs_, plenty of corn.

_milyow a bensow_, thousands of pounds.

4. The genitive of material is rather the use of a noun as an adjective. It differs from the appositional genitive in that the first noun may have the article before it, and the second does not, and that if the first noun be feminine singular, the initial of the second noun is in the second state. Thus:—

_tolyer predn_, a platter of wood.

_tre bredn_, a town of wood.

The accusative or objective is usually the same as the nominative, but it is to be remembered that there are a certain number of verbs which in English are followed directly by an accusative, but in Cornish require the intervention of a preposition.

The vocative is preceded by _a_, which signifies _O_, or by a personal pronoun. The initial after _a_ and sometimes after the pronoun changes to the second state. Thus:—

_mab_, son; _a vab_, O son.

_benen_, woman; _a venen_, O woman; _ti venen_, thou woman.

_why princis_ (_Res_. _Dom_., iii. 124), ye princes.

§ 4. The Plural of Nouns.

There are seven ways of forming the plural of nouns.

1. In _ow_ or _yow_ (pronounced _o_ or _yo_). This is the commonest form, and would naturally be used for most new words. It answers to the Welsh _au_ or _iau_, and the Breton _ou_ or _iou_.

_alwedh_, a key, _alwedhow_.

_dorn_, a hand, _dornow_.

_arv_, a weapon, _arvow_.

_bedh_, a grave, _bedhow_.

_ro_, a gift, _roow_.

_scovorn_, an ear, _scouornow_.

_dêdh_, a day, _dêdhyow_.

_Dew_, God, _dewow_.

_enev_, soul, _enevow_.

_cledh_, ditch, _cledhyow_.

_gwredh_, root, _gwredhyow_.

_menedh_, mountain, _menedhyow_.

_trev_, _tre_, town, _trevow_.

_tîr_, land, _tiryow_,

Some which follow this form have peculiarities of their own.

_a_. Some double the last consonant, which has the effect of shortening the sound of the preceding vowel, and if the last consonant is an _s_, giving it the sound of _s_ instead of _z_. Thus:—

_Tâs_, father, _tassow_.

_fôs_, wall, _fossow_.

_lêr_, floor, _lerryow_.

_gêr_, word, _gerryow_.

_garget_, garter, _gargettow_.

_b_. Some, which end in _er_ or _ar_, drop the last vowel. Thus:—

_levar_, book, _levrow_.

_dagar_, tear, _dagrow_.

_kenter_, nail, _kentrow_.

_c_. Some insert _g_ or _k_ after a final _l_.

_cŏsŏl_, counsel, _cŏsŏlgow_.

_tewal_, dark, _tewlgow_ or _tewalgow_.

_del_, leaves (collectively), _delkyow_ (simple plural).

_d_. Some modify the root vowel. Thus:—

_mâl_, a joint, _melyow_.

2. In _yon_ or _on_. This is also very common.

_Cristiŏn_, a Christian, _Cristiŏnyon_.

_sgwer_, esquire, _sgwerryon_.

_caradow_, friend, _caradowyon_.

_scŏlŏr_, scholar, _scŏlŏryon_.

_deskibl_, disciple, _deskiblyon_.

_Breth_, Briton, _Brethon_.

_Sows_, Englishman, _Sowson_.

_prev_, worm, _prevyon_.

When a word ends in _k_, and has this form of the plural (as most words ending in _k_ have) the last letter becomes _g_.

_bohajak_, poor, _bohajagyon_.

_marrek_, knight, _marregyon_.

_gowek_, liar, _gowegyon_.

Some modify the root vowel.

_clav_, sick, _clevyon_.

_mab_, son, _mebyon_.

_gwas_, serving-man, _gwesyon_.

_Yethow_, Jew, _Yethewon_.

_Kernow_, Cornishman, _Kernewon_.

_kîf_, dear, _kefyon_.

_gwîr_, true, _gweryon_.

Those ending in _er_ and _ar_, after a mute, contract the last syllable of the root.

_lader_, thief, _laddron_.

This termination is the only one used for the plural of adjectives. These are rarely inflected when in agreement with a plural noun, but when used as nouns they make their plural in this way. A large number of adjectives and also some nouns end in _ek_ or _ak_. It is also the regular plural of words ending in _or_ denoting an agent.

3. In _y_. This termination is more common in Cornish than in Welsh or Breton, though it is not uncommon in those languages also. It is often written _i_ in the MSS.

_esel_, limb, _esely_.

_mowes_, girl, _mowesy_.

_Gwidhel_, Irishman, _Gwidhely_.

_castell_, castle, _castelly_.

_legast_, lobster, _legesty_ (with a change of vowel).

_porhel_, pig, _porhelly_.

_bîgel_, shepherd, _bîgely_.

_profes_, prophet, _profesy_ or _profejy_.

_servis_, servant, _servisy_ or _servijy_.

_gwithes_, guardian, _gwithesy_. _arledh_, lord, _arledhy_.

_trahes_, cutter, _trahesy_ (e.g. _trahesy meyn_, stone cutters).

This plural is mostly used for words ending in _l_ and _s_, though not exclusively, and it occurs occasionally with other words. When a word ends in _s_ preceded by a thin vowel, that letter is sometimes written _j_ in the plural.

4. In _es_ or _edh_. This is the equivalent of the Welsh _edd_, _ydd_, or _oedd_, and the Breton _ed_, though it is not necessarily used for the same words. Sometimes the vowel is modified. Thus:—

_mergh_, daughter, _merhes_. {86}

_benen_, woman, _benenes_.

_flogh_, child, _flehes_.

_côl_, coal, _côles_.

_rôm_, room, _rômes_.

_laha_, law, _lahes_.

_best_, beast, _bestes_.

_silly_, eel, _sillyes_.

_abostol_, apostle, _abesteledh_.

_broder_, brother; _brederedh_, brethren.

_el_, angel, _eledh_.

_gwrêg_, wife, _gwrêgedh_.

A variant of this, written by Lhuyd _az_, _yz_, or _oz_, the vowel being obscure, is best represented in this spelling by _as_. It perhaps answers to the Welsh _od_, and _iaid_.

_canker_, crab, _kencras_.

_pesk_, fish, _pescas_.

_bes_, finger, _besyas_.

_bat_, staff, _battas_.

_fow_, den, _fowas_.

_cap_, cap, _cappas_.

5. By the modification of the vowel.

_trôs_, foot, _treys_.

_mên_, stone, _meyn_.

_broder_, brother; _breder_, brothers.

_davas_, sheep, _deves_, but also _devejyow_.

_margh_, horse, _mergh_.

_tol_, hole, _tel_.

_ascorn_, bone, _escarn_.

_sans_, saint, _sêns_, but also _sansow_.

_dans_, tooth, _dêns_.

_yar_, hen, _yer_.

_mab_, son, _mêb_, but also _mebyon_.

_manek_, glove, _menik_.

_gavar_, goat, _gever_.

6. By dropping the syllable _en_ or _an_ from the singular; or rather in this case the singular is formed from a plural, usually more or less collective, by adding the individualising suffix _an_ or _en_. The words to which this applies are mostly such as are more commonly used in the plural, and the _en_ becomes, as Norris calls it, “an individualising particle.” Thus:—

_dêl_, leaves, foliage; _dêlen_, a leaf.

_gwrîhon_, sparks; _gwrîhonen_, a spark.

_gwêdh_, trees; _gwêdhen_, a tree.

_gwêl_, rods, twigs; _gwêlen_, a rod, a twig.

_lûhas_, lightning; _lûhesen_, a flash of lightning.

_scow_, elder trees; _scowen_, an elder tree.

_eithin_, furze; _eithinen_, a furze bush.

_loggas_, mice; _loggosan_ or _loggojan_, a mouse.

_low_, lice; _lewen_, a louse.

_redan_, fern; _redanen_, a single fern.

_mor_, berries; _moren_, a berry.

_hern_, pilchards; _hernen_, a pilchard.

_mŭrryan_, ants; _murryanen_, an ant.

_on_, ash trees; _onnen_, an ash.

_enwedh_, ash trees; _enwedhen_, an ash, from _on_, ash, _gwêdh_, trees.

_glasten_, oaks; _glastenen_, an oak.

_gwern_, alders; _gwernen_, an alder.

_spern_, thorns; _spernen_, a thorn.

_bannol_, broom (the plants collectively); _bannolen_, a broom (to sweep with).

And many others, chiefly names of plants and animals of a more or less gregarious nature. Some of these have other plurals, formed by adding one of the plural terminations to the collective plural. These would be used when the collective idea was not required. Thus:—

_dêl_, leaves (collective); _delkyow_ or _delgyow_, leaves (not collectively).

Some singulars in _en_ form their modern plurals from a lost collective plural, _i_._e_. by dropping the _en_ and adding one of the ordinary plural terminations. Thus:—

_asen_, a rib; _asow_, ribs.

_gwillen_, a sea-gull; _gwilles_, gulls.

7. In _en_, with or without alteration of vowel and contraction. Thus:—

_kŷ_, dog; _kîen_.

_hanow_, name; _henwen_ (formerly _hynwyn_).

There is no general definite rule for the formation of plurals; they must be learnt by experience. Some words are found with two plurals, but this generally means a tendency in modern Cornish to consider _yow_ or _ow_ to be the normal termination, and to discard other endings in favour of it, just as the plural in _s_ in English has superseded all but a very few other forms. Thus:—

_escop_ (or _epscop_), bishop; _escobyon_ or _escobow_.

_Dew_, God; _dewon_ or _dewow_.

_flogh_, child; _flehes_ or _flehesow_ (_flejow_).

_dêlen_, leaf; _dêlyow_ or _delkyow_.

_tîr_, land; _terros_ or _terryow_.

_enes_, island; _eneses_ or _enesow_.

§ 5. The so-called Dual.

Parts of the body which are double (ears, eyes, hands, arms, shoulders, knees, etc.), when mentioned in reference to the two ears, eyes, etc. of the same person, are expressed by a compound with the numeral _deu_, two, prefixed to the singular. The Welsh and Breton grammarians call this a dual. When eyes, ears, etc. are mentioned as belonging to more than one person, the plural is formed in one of the usual ways. Thus:—

_lâv_, hand; dual _deulâv_.

_lagas_, eye; dual _deulagas_; pl. _lagasow_.

_scovorn_, ear; dual _deuscovorn_; pl. _scovornow_.

_glîn_, knee; dual _deulin_.

_elin_, elbow; _deulin_.

_bregh_, arm; _deuvregh_.

_bron_, breast; _deuvron_.

_scoudh_, shoulder; _deuscoudh_.

For _hands_ in general the plural is formed from _dorn_ (which means more exactly _fist_), _dornow_; there is, as in Welsh, no regular plural of _lâv_. A variant of _glîn_ is _penglin_ (lit. knee-end), with a dual _pedndewlin_, cf. Welsh _penelin_, elbow.

* * * * *

Lastly, the plural of _dên_, man, is almost always _tîs_ (earlier _tus_), folk, though Lhuyd gives _dynion_ as well.