CHAPTER XXI
THE MISSION OF JAPAN
OUTLINE OF TOPICS: Aims and ambitions of Japan.—Grand park.—Commercial centre.—Advantageous position.—Leader in civilization.—Example of civilized nation.—Transmitter of Western civilization.—Japan and Korea.—Japan and China.—Fuchow, Yangtse Valley, and Manchuria.—Japanese leaders of Chinese.—Dr. Hirth on China and Japan.—Japanese invasion of China.—Siam and Japan.—The United States a Pacific Power.—A complete Anglo-Japanese Alliance.—Russia and Japan.—Two streams of civilization.—New Japan egotistic.—Prospects of Japan.—Confidence in Japan.—Bibliography.
It is now appropriate to inquire what is apparently the mission of Japan in the world. Since even much less powerful nations have played most important parts on the stage of the world’s history, it is simply inconceivable that Japan should have attained in so brief a period such an eminent position as a world-power without having some special mission to perform and some contribution to make to the sum total of what is called civilization. And in considering this topic of the mission of Japan, it may be well to ascertain what are the aims and aspirations of the Japanese, because it is usually along these lines that a nation, as well as an individual, achieves success. Let us then permit Japanese themselves to answer largely our queries concerning the _rôle_ which is to be theirs “in the great world-drama that continues unendingly, like a Chinese play, in the Far East.” And the opinions which are now to be presented, even though the individuals themselves are not, in every case, the most prominent personages that might have been selected, nevertheless fairly represent Japanese public opinion.
One[175] says: “Japan is especially favored by nature with beauty and picturesqueness of scenery and a healthful climate, and has been appropriately called the ‘Paradise of the East.’ We shall turn this country into a grand park of the nations, and draw pleasure-seekers from all parts of the world. We shall build magnificent hotels and establish excellent clubs, in most splendid style, to receive the royal visitors of Europe and the millionaires of America.” And while the objection has been raised that this is not “a very lofty _rôle_ for Japan,” it is claimed that “it is seen to be about the _rôle_ that France, the great nation of artists, is content to play in Europe—making herself infinitely beautiful and infinitely charming.” And certainly to minister artistically to the enjoyment of residents and visitors by making the country as pleasant and delightful as possible is an aim that accords well with the naturally æsthetic tastes of the Japanese people. Therefore, concerning success in this endeavor there cannot be the slightest doubt.
That _rôle_ is not, however, purely æsthetic, because it contemplates the mercenary advantages to be reaped from the expected throngs of pleasure-seekers, and is, therefore, also practical. And the same person makes another suggestion, wholly practical and pecuniary, as follows:—
“Japan is geographically situated in an advantageous position, as at the centre of the world’s commercial routes. China will be the future market of the world, and Japan will receive the mercantile vessels fitted to be despatched to all parts of the earth. Japan should provide herself with extensive docks at the various ports of the island on the route of the mercantile vessels, to give them shelter and, if needed, necessary repairs and cleaning, and eventually supply fuel and water.”
We have already referred, in the closing paragraphs of the first chapter, to the physiographical advantages of Japan, but we are impelled to dwell more at length on the subject. A noted Japanese[176] has emphasized the point with the following suggestions:
“To all appearances, the seas about Japan and China will be the future theatre of the Far East. The Philippines have been reduced to a province of the United States. China, separated from us only by a very narrow strip of water, is offering every promise of becoming a great resource open to the world of the twentieth century. The Siberia railway has been opened to traffic; and the construction of a canal across Central America is expected to be finished before long.... As for fuel, our supply of coal from the mines of Hokkaidō and Kyūshiu is so abundant that the surplus not required for our own consumption is exported largely into various parts of the East, where no productive coal mines have been found except a very few ones of poor quality....
“Taking all these [things] into account, it is not too much to say that the future situation of Japan will be that of a central station of various water passages,—a situation most conducive to the good of our country; and that, numerous as the attractive places of historical interest and natural beauty are, it is chiefly from our excellently advantageous position, a connecting link common to the three chains of water passage to and from Europe, America, and Asia, that we shall be able to obtain the largest share of the riches of the nations of the world.”
With reference to the success of Japan in such a purpose as this, there can be very little doubt; for the natural advantages are so great that they require comparatively little improvement.
But, besides this aim of commercial prosperity, there is a higher ambition. One writer[177] says:—
“Japan’s mission at this juncture would be to act as the leader to the Asiatic countries in introducing modern civilization: China and Korea, for instance, can learn about civilization much faster and easier than from the countries in Europe and America, for they have common systems of letters and to a certain extent of ideas.”
Prof K. Ukita[178] makes the following suggestion:
“It is the mission of Japan to set up an example of a civilized and independent national state for her Asiatic neighbors, and then to make a confederation of all the Asiatic nations on the basis of international law; just as it is the mission of the United States of America to form one vast pan-American Union of all the republics of the new hemisphere, and thus to hasten on the progress toward the organization of the whole world.”
Again we quote from the editor of the “Taiyō” (Sun), as follows:—
“It is our duty to transmit the essence of Occidental civilization to our neighbors, as better success may be realized by so doing than by introducing there the new institutions directly from the West. The present state of things in China does not allow her to appreciate fully the ideas of Westerners, more so because their fundamental conception of morals is at variance with that of Occidentals. But Japan has every facility to win the confidence of China, in consideration of its geographical situation and of its literary affinity. The valor, discipline, and order of our army have already gained the confidence and respect of the Chinese, and it now remains for us to guide them to higher possibilities with enlightened thoughts and ideas. Such a work cannot be accomplished in a day; it will require years of perseverance and toil.”
Now, it may be profitable to ascertain to what extent Japan is fulfilling her self-appointed but natural mission to uplift her neighbors and kindred in Eastern Asia. In Korea, for instance, what is the scope of Japanese influence? In that peninsula there are thousands of Japanese, by whom almost all the important enterprises of the country are managed. Of the foreign trade of Korea, by far the largest per cent of both exports and imports is in connection with Japan; while the trade of Russia with Korea is positively insignificant. The principal articles of export to Japan are agricultural products, while the imports from Japan are chiefly manufactured goods. At every open port of Korea there is a Japanese post and telegraph office, through which alone can communication be had with foreign countries. As Korea is almost wholly destitute of shipping, her coasting trade is chiefly carried on by Japanese vessels, which also furnish almost all the means of trade and travel abroad. In railways, too, the Japanese have largest control; and their banks are strong and prosperous. Fisheries and mining likewise furnish employment for Japanese, who also carry on numerous miscellaneous business enterprises.
When we pass on to China, we find most astonishing results, a full treatment of which would require a volume, so that we must be content with a few typical examples. In Fuchow, for instance, in the six years since a Japanese consul first landed there, the number of Japanese residents had increased from 8 to 70, and the number of Formosan natives, now naturalized Japanese, who were staying there, was more than 160. The Ōsaka Shōsen Kwaisha[179] has a branch office in Fuchow; and the Formosan Bank has sent there a special commissioner. In Amoy also, on account of its proximity to Formosa, Japanese influence is growing.
The great increase of Japanese enterprise on the Yangtse River during recent years deserves a paragraph by itself. There are several Japanese lines of steamers, besides special vessels for the coal and iron trade. “Side by side with this development of carrying facilities many Japanese, in the capacity of merchants, Government employes or projectors, may be seen travelling in the Yangtse Valley; and further the number of persons engaged in the translation of Japanese books into Chinese has increased in an extraordinary degree.... Nothing is more remarkable than the popularity enjoyed by Japanese things and Japanese subjects.”
In view of the complications with Russia, it is well to call attention to the fact that Northern China, especially Manchuria, is most important to Japan from the commercial point of view. The trade with Dalny alone is from 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 _yen_ per year, and that with all Manchuria amounts to about 20,000,000 _yen_ annually. It is perfectly natural, therefore, that Japan should object to continued Russian occupation, from which she has already suffered by direct and indirect interference, and that she should demand a fair field with “open doors.”
From such instances, of which more might be cited, it is apparent that Japan is doing her duty in the way of helping China to the benefits of material civilization. But her influence is being exerted for good on higher planes. For, as the editor of the “Japan Mail” observes, “every Japanese subject employed in China in whatever capacity will be a centre for diffusing the light of liberalism”; and “the Chinese are apparently to be led along their new path by the Japanese,” who “have some degree of distant kinship with the Chinese.”
The words of Dr. Hirth will add weight because he is, perhaps, the most eminent Chinese scholar in the country and holds the professorship of Chinese in Columbia University, New York City. He spoke as follows:[180]—
“No capable observer of events in China since the Imperial Court returned to Peking can doubt that the government has decided to adopt the policy of Japan, which is to take the methods of western civilization for their models. In directing the new movement in China, Japan is taking the lead over other foreign nations, and this, it is asserted, is due to her superior command of the language.
“Moreover, every educated Japanese is imbued with the ideas prevalent in Chinese literature, religious and political, and hence he has a different standing in the eyes of the Chinese from that of Americans and Europeans. China has thus placed the work of educating the rising generation in the hands of the Japanese as being less likely to destroy the old knowledge while familiarizing the students with the advantages of the new.
“A National University has been established by the Emperor at Peking, which it is calculated will be the model for educational institutions all over the country. Recently a Japanese professor has been selected to draft a new code of laws for the empire. The reason why a Japanese was selected for this work in preference to an equally learned German, American, or Englishman, is because men who are both willing and capable of making due allowance for traditional prejudices will never arise from a country where the study of Chinese institutions is so much in its infancy as with all of us, except Japan.”
The present peaceable invasion of China by Japanese, “not this time with guns for weapons, but with ideas and educational influences,” is along these seven lines:[181]—
“1. The Agricultural College, established some years ago at Wuchang by the Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and managed for some time by an expert American, has now been given over to Japanese management.
“2. The military school in Hangchau is taught wholly by Japanese.
“3. A large amount of translation work is done by the Japanese.
“4. Many Chinese students have been sent by Chang Chih-tung during recent years to be educated in Japanese schools for Chinese government service.
“5. More than one large and influential Chinese newspaper is owned and edited by Japanese, one of which is an especially strong advocate of closer union between the two great nations of the East.
“6. Nearly 100 Japanese students are in attendance at school in Shanghai, studying Chinese and English with a view to positions of usefulness in China.
“7. A large and increasing number of translation societies are being organized in Shanghai, the principal object of which is to get into circulation books on Western learning. The significant fact is that the large majority of them are translated from the Japanese rather than European languages, because, as they say, the Japanese have already selected the best, and they wish to profit by their experience. Books on Political Economy, General Science, Agriculture, Pedagogics, Ancient and Current History are now commonly on sale in Chinese bookstores, most of which are advertised as having been adapted from the Japanese.”
There is yet another country which is feeling the influence of Japan; and that is Siam. No doubt much of this increased interest in “things Japanese” may be attributed to the recent visit of the Siamese Crown Prince to Japan. He is having a Japanese building constructed for himself; and the king is to have a Japanese garden and house added to the grounds of his palace. The trade between Japan and Siam is not yet very extensive;[182] but it is capable of considerable expansion. Siamese boys and girls have begun to resort to Japan for educational advantages; so that, in more senses than one, Japan is coming to be the teacher and leader of Siam.
But there is another phase of the Far Eastern situation that demands close attention. The United States has definite and direct interests of several kinds in Japan, Korea, China, and Siam; and she must maintain these at all hazards. Through the possession of Hawaii, Guam, and particularly the Philippines, she has become a Pacific Power, more than ever concerned, and directly, in Oriental politics. The advent of the United States into that field was hailed with joy by the Japanese, who have the utmost confidence in our international policy.
In view of the fact, therefore, that the United States, by virtue of providential necessity, must be reckoned as a factor in Oriental politics, and cannot herself ignore such responsibilities, there is only one course open, only one policy to be pursued. It is most clearly our duty as a nation (passively, if possible, but actively, if necessary) to support the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in its efforts in behalf of the nations of Eastern Asia. The union of the greatest nations of Europe, America, and Asia in a complete Anglo-Japanese Alliance would make a “triple alliance” practically invincible.
There are two rival interests contending for mastery on the other shore of the Pacific Ocean,—Russia and Japan. Toward the former we must feel gratitude for her attitude toward us when our Union was in utmost peril; but that sentiment is overbalanced by other considerations. Toward the latter we have an imperative duty, as toward a _protégé_, because it was America who started Japan on her present career and must acknowledge the responsibility to assist her in every laudable purpose. And certainly her aims in the Far East coincide with ours and with the dictates of civilization. The supremacy of Japan in Eastern Asia means far more for America and American institutions than does the domination of Russia. Japan to-day enjoys rights unknown in Russia: social freedom, political privileges, representative institutions, local self-government, intellectual liberty, freedom of assembly and of the press, and religious liberty. Japan is already far in advance of Russia and, in many respects abreast of Germany, in civilization. And, as “Japan holds the key of the Far Eastern position,” she is our natural ally. _Dai Nippon banzai_—“Long live Great Japan.”
But let us now revert again to the Japanese writer quoted near the close of the first chapter. With a reminder of the ever westward course of empire, he pens a paragraph so bold and suggestive that it is worth transcribing:[183]—
“Two streams of civilization flowed in opposite directions when mankind descended from their primitive homes on the table-land of Iran or America. That towards the west passed through Babylon, Phœnicia, Greece, Rome, Germany, England, and culminated in America, while that through the east travelled through India, Thibet, and China, culminating in the Manchoo Court of Peking. The moral world is also a magnet with its two opposite poles on the opposite banks of the Pacific, the democratic, aggressive, inductive America, and the imperial, conservative, and deductive China. There have been constant attempts for the union of these magnetic currents.... Grander tasks await the young Japan, who has the best of Europe and the best of Asia at her command. At her touch the circuit is completed, and the healthy fluid shall overflow the earth!”
In fact, it seems not improbable that the nation which, having from ancient times imbibed and assimilated the elements of Oriental civilization, has been swallowing and digesting Occidental civilization, may produce a new and strong tissue. It is, therefore, argued with no little force that “to reconcile the East with the West: to be the advocate of the East, and the harbinger of the West: this we believe to be the mission which Japan is called upon to fulfil.”
To most persons, undoubtedly, this conception of the future of Japan appears to be teeming with national vanity. And, indeed, it cannot be denied that New Japan is extremely egotistic. She views with evident self-gratulation the astonishing progress she has made, and believes herself capable of even more wonderful transformations. And surely, when we contemplate the history of the past fifty years, and consider the remarkable facility with which Japan has metamorphosed herself, we need not wonder that she is confident or even boastful. To those conversant with this people, their capabilities, and possibilities, the above forecast of Japan’s future seems to photograph, with some exaggerations, the natural and not altogether improper self-confidence and reliance of an able, growing, and independent nation, which has shown an inexplicable power of assimilating the various and diverse elements of civilization. Even a foreigner has so much confidence in the grand future of Japan that he expressed himself in the “Atlantic Monthly” (June, 1892) in the following strong language:—
“In bringing to pass the fusion of eastern and western types, which ... shall create in both hemispheres a far more rounded civilization than either has ever known, Japan has the inestimable privilege of becoming our most alert pioneer. Through her temperament, her individuality, her deeper insight into the secrets of the East, her ready divining of the powers of the West, ... it may be decreed in the secret council chambers of destiny that on her shores shall be first created that new latter-day type of civilized man which shall prevail throughout the world for the next thousand years.”
But while we may not, perhaps, be fully warranted in such sanguine expectations, we cannot help being impressed with the fact that the prospects of Japan are unusually bright. She slept for 250 years while the Occident was moving rapidly onward in the path of civilization, and she must now hasten to catch up. But she can avoid the pitfalls into which the others, now and then, here and there, have fallen, and by which they have been delayed. She can profit by the mistakes, by the costly experiences, of those who preceded her along the rough road. She must move quickly to make up for lost time, but not too rapidly; she must “make haste slowly.” She can never go back, except to ruin and death. She has stepped into the path of progress forever. She must discard all things, whether manners, customs, letters, political forms, superstitions, moulds of thought, or anything else which tends to retard her onward movements. But it is sincerely to be hoped that even the demands of modern progress will allow her to retain much of that grace and charm, of that quaint simplicity, of that light-hearted and merry nature, all of which characterize the Japanese.
We believe in Japan. We are confident that she has powers, both patent and latent, which will enable her to achieve still greater successes than she has yet accomplished. We have had our “blue spells,” when, for this or that reason, we felt discouraged over the apparent failure of some movement for reform; but in most instances we have eventually seen success crown the effort. With reference to political affairs F. V. Dickins has well expressed it: “There is a silent strength underlying the sound and fury of Japanese politics which will enable the country to weather much worse storms than any that threaten it.”[184] Therefore we reiterate that we have confidence in the future of Japan and the Japanese. We repeat that their achievements up to date are a guarantee of continued success in the future. We dare prophesy that they will yet display wonderful transformations in their development. We feel perfectly warranted in applying Vergil’s line,—
_Hos successus alit; possunt, quia posse videntur_,
which Conington translates into two verses,—
“These bring success their zeal to fan, THEY CAN BECAUSE THEY THINK THEY CAN.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“The Awakening of Japan” (Okakura); “The White Peril in the Far East” (Gulick); “Dai Nippon” (Dyer), chap. xix.; “The Spirit of the Orient” (Knox); and “The Future of Japan” (Watson).
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
The war between Japan and Russia was inevitable, because, as already pointed out in this volume,[185] the two countries represented different and naturally hostile interests. Ever since Russia, shut out from an open port on the European or Western Asiatic seaboard, began to spread eastward through Asia to seek an outlet into the Pacific Ocean, it had been inevitable that the two powers would some day come into collision. And it can be confidently affirmed that the Russians did nothing, while Japan had done much, to avert the conflict. Russia not infrequently committed overt acts to provoke Japan, and had generally treated the latter in an overbearing and insolent manner.
In 1875, Japan was forced to give up Sakhalin for the bleak and barren Kurile Islands. It was just twenty years later (1895) that Russia committed her most unjust act of interference and provocation. Japan, after her successful conflict with China, by the treaty of Shimonoseki, had obtained the cession of the Liaotung Peninsula, of which Port Arthur was then the most important port. “Hardly was the ink dry on it [treaty] before the three great European powers—Russia, France, and Germany—stepped in, and, in order to justify their interference, declared that any holding of Manchurian territory by Japan would constitute a menace to the peace of Asia.”[186] Japan, exhausted by her first foreign war under the new _régime_, was in no position to offer any opposition to three of the greatest World Powers, when they tendered her kindly(?) advice. The only two powers who might have assisted her against this combination were neither sufficiently interested nor far-sighted enough to interfere; and they (Great Britain and the United States) kept silent. Therefore, Japan had nothing to do but to submit and accept a monetary consideration for giving up her claim to the Liaotung Peninsula.
This in itself was not a _casus belli_, but it was enough to arouse to almost fever-heat the excitement of an intensely patriotic and naturally militant nation. The Government was able to hold in check the indignant people; but nothing could prevent the development of a not unnatural desire for revenge. From that time it was definitely and positively known that a war with Russia was inevitable in the not-distant future; and calmly and carefully the Japanese went to work to prepare themselves for that conflict. It is not necessary to go into the details of that preparation, the thoroughness of which has been surprising the civilized world.
But even then war might have been averted, for the spirit of revenge would have faded away in the multitude of other interests and sentiments that have been pressing upon Japan’s attention within the past decade. Indeed, during the Boxer troubles of 1900 and 1901 in China, when the troops of Japan were marching, in company with those of Russia, Germany, France, Great Britain, the United States, _et al._, to the relief of the beleaguered foreigners in Peking, it almost seemed like a harbinger of continued peace in the Far East. But this harmony was only apparent, not real,—only temporary, not permanent.
In fact, it was that very campaign which enabled Russia to complete her practical possession of Manchuria. She had, in the meantime, obtained from China a lease of that very territory which she had forced Japan to give up. She had also obtained permission from China to extend the Siberian Railway through Manchuria to Port Arthur and Dalny, and thus obtain an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. Measures of material expansion might not have alarmed Japan, if it had not been that Russia sought to obtain permanent possession of Manchuria through a military occupation ostensibly for the purpose of protecting her commercial interests. She marched her troops in large numbers into Manchuria in order to protect the railway from the depredations of Chinese bandits; she fortified Port Arthur and built up Dalny, the great “fiat city,” and in every way showed no intention of letting Manchuria slip out of her control. All such acts did not tend to allay the spirit of revenge in the hearts of the Japanese, but of course made them more and more indignant.
Nor was this all. Russia began to show most evident signs of encroaching upon Korea. “Japan watched all these things with profound anxiety. If there were any reality in the dangers which Russia, Germany, and France had declared to be incidental to Japanese occupation of part of Manchuria, the same dangers must be doubly incidental to Russian occupation of the whole of Manchuria; the independence of Korea would become illusory ...; an obstacle would be created to the permanent peace of the East.”[187]
If Russia succeeded in maintaining her position in Manchuria, her next step would take her into Korea, for whose safety and independence there would be no guarantee; and still another step would bring her over against Japan. Thus would be endangered, not only the influence of Japan on the continent, but even her very existence. She would sink at least into the position of a third-rate power, and would be completely isolated from all opportunities for expansion.
But, even in spite of insults and provocations, Japan set herself to resist the Russian encroachments by peaceable means and measures, in which she at last had the support of Great Britain and the United States. It was to be presumed that Russia would keep her promise to give up her military occupation of Manchuria and restore to China the administration of the “Three Provinces” on the dates specified in a convention with China signed April 8, 1902. According to this, Russia agreed to withdraw her troops gradually from Manchuria and entirely resign her control thereof within one year.
But when the time came for the final evacuation, Russia showed no sign of intending to carry out her agreement. After futile protests from Japan, Great Britain, and the United States, Japan suggested to Russia to open up negotiations concerning their respective interests in the Far East; and to this Russia assented. It is scarcely profitable to follow the devious windings of these negotiations, which were delayed by Russia on one pretext or another. It is sufficient to state that Japan invited Russia to nothing more than “to subscribe to the policy enunciated by the United States and Great Britain,—the policy of the ‘open door’ and of the integrity of the Chinese and [the] Korean Empires.”
During the course of the prolonged negotiations, Russia was moving troops to the scene of action and making other military preparations. These did not necessarily mean that she anticipated war, but that she at least expected to overawe little Japan and thus obtain her desires.
“The only alternatives for Japan were war or total and permanent effacement in Asia. She chose war, and in fighting, she is fighting the battle of Anglo-Saxondom as well as of herself,—the battle of free and equal opportunities for all without undue encroachment upon the sovereign rights or territorial integrity of China or Korea, against a military dictatorship, against a programme of ruthless territorial aggrandizement, and against a policy of selfish restrictions.”[188]
But it was not till after six months of negotiations that the Japanese Government, on February 5, 1904, “having exhausted without effect every means of conciliation,” and “finding that their just representations and moderate and unselfish proposals in the interest of a firm and lasting peace in the extreme East are not receiving the consideration which is their due,” officially announced to the Russian Government that they would not only “terminate the present futile negotiations,” but also “sever their diplomatic relations with the Imperial Russian Government,” and “reserve to themselves the right to take _such independent action as they may deem best_.”[189] This was tantamount to a declaration of war.
On February 6, Admiral Togo left Sasebo under official instructions, and about midnight of February 8 struck the first blow of the war. Six of his torpedo-boats attacked the Russian squadron in the harbor of Port Arthur, inflicted serious damage upon the enemy, and retired without much loss. On the following day a detachment of the fleet under Admiral Uriu defeated two Russian cruisers in the harbor of Chemulpo, Korea. Thus within a few hours the Japanese gained control of the sea, and landed troops, who soon entered Seoul.
The formal declaration of war was made by Russia on February 9, and by Japan on February 10, for publication in the newspapers of the following day, which was the anniversary of the founding of the Japanese Empire in 660 B. C. and of the promulgation of the Constitution in 1889.
On February 23, a treaty of alliance between Japan and Korea was formally signed at Seoul.[190] On the next night began a series of attempts on the part of the Japanese squadron to block the mouth of the harbor of Port Arthur. After several essays, in one of which Commander Hirose met his heroic end, the Japanese so far succeeded that the Russian war vessels were shut up in the harbor for a long period. This enabled Japan to land troops with perfect immunity at several points on the coast of Manchuria.
In the meantime, the First Army, under General Kuroki, was marching across Korea without encountering much opposition, and, by brilliant strategy, succeeded in crossing the Yalu River in the face of a well-fortified Russian army. The Second Army, under General Oku, landed at Kinchow, and after bloody contests, especially at Nanshan, was able to get possession of Dalny, and sever connections between the Russians in Port Arthur and their main force under General Kuropatkin. The Third Army, under General Nodzu, having landed at Takushan, soon got into touch with the First Army; and together they continued their march northward in the face of constant opposition.
When Port Arthur was isolated from the rest of the Russian forces, still another army was sent out, under General Nogi, to carry on the investment of that place, so that the former armies might be free to give undivided attention to General Kuropatkin’s force. The attempt of the latter to relieve Port Arthur was checked by the Japanese in bloody battles at Telissu and Kaiping, after which they advanced northward toward Liaoyang.
In the meantime, in March, the Imperial Diet had met and voted unanimously the Government’s proposals to raise from various sources a special war fund of _yen_ 576,000,000. Indeed, in every possible way, the Japanese people, as a unit, supported the Government in the carrying on of war, even to undergoing many hardships. All domestic loans thus far issued have been over-subscribed three or four times.
Moreover, on the last day of March, the fiftieth anniversary of Commodore Perry’s treaty with Japan, a memorable meeting to celebrate the event was held in the Y. M. C. A. Hall, Tōkyō. It was attended by a large number of both Japanese and foreigners, and, after listening to eloquent speeches, unanimously adopted a resolution to raise a Perry Memorial Relief Fund for the destitute families of Japanese soldiers and sailors. The subscription of over 60,000 _yen_ on the spot has since been increased to about 100,000 _yen_.
The events off Port Arthur were colored still more tragically on April 13, when the Russian flagship “Petropavlovsk” of Admiral Makaroff was sunk, and almost all on board, including the admiral and the famous painter Verestchagin, perished. In May, the Japanese suffered their first heavy losses in the sinking of the “Hatsuse” and the “Yoshino.”
In April the Russian Vladivostok squadron had taken the offensive and sunk a Japanese transport with a few troops on board. After that it made occasional sorties toward the Korean Straits in the hope of creating a diversion from Port Arthur, and in one instance sunk the “Hitachi Maru” with a large number of Japanese troops on board. Moreover, in July this squadron succeeded in getting through the Tsugaru Straits to the eastern coast of Japan, where it committed depredations, even just off the entrance of Tōkyō Bay. But later it was met in the Korean Straits by Admiral Kamimura’s squadron and defeated with the loss of the “Rurik.”
By the early part of August the army investing Port Arthur had made such progress, in spite of severe opposition, that it became extremely dangerous for the Russian fleet to remain there longer. Therefore, on August 10, they made a sortie with the intention of escaping to Vladivostok. But Admiral Togo was not to be caught napping, and engaged in battle with the squadron. A few vessels, badly damaged, regained Port Arthur; others, some of which were severely injured, escaped to neutral ports, where they had to be dismantled; the “Novik” eluded its pursuers for a short time, but was finally overtaken and sunk in Korsakoff Harbor, Sakhalin.
On August 23 began the great battle of Liaoyang, which continued for over a week, and deserves to go down on the pages of history as one of the severest, bloodiest, and probably most decisive battles ever fought. It was only by the most tremendous exertions that General Kuropatkin was enabled to save his army from having its retreat cut off by the flanking movement of Kuroki, while Oku and Nodzu were pounding away from other directions.
The attempt of Kuropatkin to retrieve his fortunes by advancing with heavy reënforcements to retake Liaoyang met with another disastrous defeat in the battle of the Shaho River, October 10-15. After that, the two armies practically went into Winter quarters and engaged in nothing more than skirmishes until January, 1905, when Mitschenko’s cavalry made an unsuccessful raid upon Newchang and Yinkow, and Kuropatkin’s army, apparently urged on by the political exigencies caused by discontent at home, attempted a flanking movement on Liaoyang, but was repulsed in the battle of Heikeutai.
In view of the lull in hostilities along at the front, popular interest was once more directed toward Port Arthur. The Japanese navy continued faithfully its task of watching the harbor; and, although it could not maintain an absolutely complete blockade, it was nevertheless able to prevent exit and entrance, except in the case of Chinese junks and small steamers, which occasionally succeeded in running the blockade under cover of night or stormy weather. The navy also coöperated with the army by means of frequent bombardments of the harbor, in which the remnants of the Russian fleet had sought refuge, and even of the city of Port Arthur.
The Japanese army persistently pushed the attack from the land side; and the Russians stubbornly resisted every step of the advance. The former employed both direct and flanking attacks, and utilized every device known in engineering to overcome the “impregnable” fortress, so well fortified both by nature and by art. Slowly but steadily the besiegers pressed on and obtained possession of various forts. On October 30 they made a general assault, in which they succeeded in capturing several important positions. Just one month later, the “203-metre Hill” fell into the hands of the Japanese and gave them the command of the inner harbor. In a few days they had succeeded in completely disabling the remnants of the Russian squadron, so that the greater portion of their own fleet was released from its long and arduous blockade, and enabled to undergo a thorough overhauling in the docks. A portion of it, under Vice-Admiral Uriu, was despatched to watch the course of the Baltic fleet, and every preparation was made to accord to these visitors as warm a reception as possible.
Admirals Togo and Kamimura, with their suites, returned, for a short period, to Tōkyō, where they were greeted on December 30 with an enthusiastic welcome. And, when the eventful year 1904 passed away, it was generally thought that Port Arthur might be able to hold out a month longer.
It may, therefore, be easily imagined with what complete surprise came the news that on January 1 General Stoessel had opened negotiations with General Nogi concerning surrender. “Hope deferred maketh the heart sick”: but the relief from the long suspense showed itself in a kind of prolonged _banzai_ and a series of celebrations which lasted through the month. The stubborn defence and the bravery of the defenders had awakened in every Japanese heart a feeling of admiration; so that the chivalrous treatment of the garrison found a ready response on all sides.
During most of the month of February, the two armies confronting each other along the banks of the Shaho River remained in apparent inactivity, except for occasional skirmishes, but in real preparation for another battle. Just when this began it is a little difficult to state precisely, because some of the earlier operations were only feints to disguise the real purpose. On February 24, the Japanese gained a point by the capture of Ching-ho-cheng after two days of hard fighting. And from this time the struggle went on practically without cessation for two or three weeks. Within a few days the Japanese had turned both flanks of the Russian army, which was compelled to beat a precipitate retreat in great confusion and barely escaped complete annihilation. The Japanese pushed on in hot pursuit, and occupied Fushun, Mukden, Tiehling, Kaiyuan, and Changtu. This was the result of the great battle of Mukden, which was much more decisive than even Liaoyang, and ended the military activity in Manchuria for several months.
In the meantime the Baltic fleet had been leisurely making its way eastward, and, apparently regardless of international law, had been enjoying the hospitality of neutral waters, especially those of Madagascar and Annam. But, although Japan, supported by Great Britain and the United States, vigorously protested against the flagrant violations of international law in the abuse of French hospitality, yet she did not allow herself to swerve from her original plan concerning the Baltic fleet, or to be lured away from her own strategic position to a battlefield of Russia’s choosing. The Japanese fleet, under the indomitable Togo, was watching and waiting in the waters between Japan and Korea; and, as all things come to those who wait, to the Japanese came finally the Russian fleet, steering boldly through the Tsushima channel for Vladivostok. May 27 and 28 (the latter the birthday of the Empress of Japan) are the red-letter dates of the great naval battle, which resulted in the practical annihilation of the Baltic fleet, with tremendous loss to the Russians and only slight damage to the Japanese. The Battle of the Sea of Japan, as it is officially designated, was the decisive conflict of the war; and it deserves also to rank among the decisive battles of the world’s history. If Togo had been defeated, the communications of the immense Japanese army in Manchuria would have been severed, and Japan itself would have been at the mercy of the depredations of the Russian fleet. But the destruction of the latter was so complete, that it is not strange that Russia was willing at last to listen to the tactful intervention of President Roosevelt. Peace commissioners were appointed by both combatants to meet in some suitable place in the United States about August 1. The Japanese representatives were Baron Komura, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Mr. Takahira, Minister to the United States; and the Russian representatives were Count Sergius Witte, President of the Imperial Committee of Ministers, and Baron Rosen, Minister to the United States.
Accordingly, avoiding the heat of Washington, the peace envoys convened at Portsmouth, N. H., on August 9, after paying their respects to President Roosevelt. The Japanese presented the following twelve articles for the consideration of their opponents:
1. That Russia recognize Japan’s preponderating influence in Korea.
2. That Russia and Japan evacuate Manchuria.
3. That Japan restore Chinese sovereignty and civil government in Manchuria.
4. That both powers respect Chinese sovereignty in Manchuria and the principle of equal commercial opportunity there for all nations.
5. That the island of Sakhalin be ceded to Japan.
6. That Russia surrender to Japan all rights accruing under Chinese leases of the Liaotung peninsula, including Port Arthur, Dalny, and the Blonde and Elliott islands.
7. That Russia surrender to China by arrangement with Japan the branch of the Chinese Eastern railway from Harbin to Port Arthur and Newchwang, with retrocession of all privileges under the concession of 1898.
8. That the Russian concessions obtained in 1896 by which the short route connecting the Trans-Siberian and Ussuri railways in northern Manchuria be given to the Chinese Eastern railway, Chinese imperial police to be substituted for the Russian guards.
9. That Russia pay Japan the substantial costs of the war.
10. That Russia surrender to Japan all warships interned in far Asiatic waters.
11. That Russia limit strictly the naval establishment maintained in neutral waters of the far East.
12. That Russia grant fishing rights to Japan along the Russian littoral in Siberia.
After the agreement by Russia to certain of these articles, and skilful manœuvring by the Russian envoys until the demand by Japan for an indemnity was practically the one remaining cause for dispute between them, the world was startled on August 29 by the surrender of the Japanese of all demand for indemnification and the consequent declaration of peace. As amended the treaty grants to Japan all that Japan contended for before the declaration of war except the maintenance of the territorial integrity of China, with the addition of the valuable fishing rights along the Siberian coast and the right to establish a consular service throughout eastern Russia.
The two powers mutually obligate themselves not to fortify the Russo-Korean frontier nor to erect fortifications on the island of Sakhalin, the more valuable portion of which, situated below the fiftieth meridian, is ceded to Japan. Japan obtains the Chinese Eastern railway and the right to build a branch line to Kirin, while the South Manchuria railway is to be used for commercial purposes only, both powers maintaining guards along its right of way. Korea, Manchuria, and Siberia are opened to trade on the most favored nation basis, and Manchuria is given the “open door” for all the world to enter.
Japan finds herself in possession of the sea and land routes to Peking through the ownership of Port Arthur, and her influence in China has waxed as that of Russia has waned, the subjects of the czar standing now in the territorial position they occupied in 1890, with every diplomatic advantage then held at the Chinese capital practically annihilated.
By the surrender of all claim for compensation, except that for the care of Russian prisoners of war, and by the return of the warships interned in far Eastern waters, Japan has shown herself as magnanimous as brave, as thoughtful for the peace of the world as for the details which have brought her such success. Scrupulously respecting all the rules of war, Japan has also set the world a new standard of hygienic efficiency in the care of the wounded and especially in the prevention of disease among her soldiers in the field.
* * * * *
Space fails to tell of innumerable deeds of Spartan heroism at the front; of the calmness and dignity of the Japanese people in the time of war, which they do not allow to interfere with their usual daily duties; of working overtime to increase the productive wealth of the country in this crisis; of the extra labor performed, even at night, that a neighbor’s field or business may not suffer loss during his absence from home to fight his country’s battles; of the work of women, young and old, to provide necessary clothing and “comfort bags” for those at the front; of the suffering and self-sacrifice of many at home that loved ones may serve the country on the battlefield; of the kindly care of Russian prisoners, who are “treated more like guests”; of the work of the Red Cross Society, and its abundant labors both at home and at the front. The Japanese are truly heroic in every sense of the word.
Two features have already stood out prominently in this war,—the “splendid tenacity” of the Japanese soldiery, and the coördination of the movements of their armies and navy. The strategic phase of the war reflects the utmost credit upon Yamagata, Ōyama, Kodama, and the others who planned the campaigns.
It ought not to be necessary to consider seriously the so-called “Yellow Peril,” but it may be well to refer briefly to this bogy. For such an idea there is not an iota of a reason. It is true that the Japanese are ambitious to become the leaders and teachers of Korea, China, and Siam;[191] but it is for the purpose of leading and teaching them in civilization. Japan has turned her back, whether for good or for ill, upon Oriental civilization, and has turned her face, whether for good or ill, toward Occidental civilization. By this is not meant, either that she will throw away all things Oriental, or that she will accept all things Occidental. But it is simply meant, as before pointed out,[192] that she will be the true reconciler between East and West, and will develop that which is good and useful in both civilizations. It is her purpose, therefore, not to array the East against the West, but to bring them closer together in various bonds of unity. It would be absolutely impossible for her to take any backward step in the path which she has begun to tread, and in which she is striving earnestly and succeeding rapidly in catching up with Western nations. Japan represents in the Far East the ideals of Western civilization more than does Russia. The immense empire of China with its teeming population under Russian domination or only under Russian influence would constitute a real “Yellow Peril,” or “Muscovite Menace,” terrible to contemplate. But Japanese leadership or hegemony in Korean and Chinese affairs constitutes a guarantee of peace and prosperity, of the “open door,” of the spread of true civilization, in the Far East.
The real policy of Japan in this war has been clearly set forth in various ways, of which one case follows:
On May 16 there was held in Tōkyō a most significant mass meeting of representatives of all kinds and shades of philosophies, cults, and religions. The thousand persons present included foreign missionaries, American and British, and Japanese Shintōists, Buddhists, Roman Catholics, Greek Catholics, and Protestants of various denominations, besides probably many free-thinkers. There was a small number of women, both Japanese and foreign, in attendance.
There were several speakers, all of whom dwelt upon the necessity of union in the present crisis in the history of Japan. From the “Japan Mail” we extract the following paragraphs in summary of some of the addresses:—
“Mr. Ōuchi, the representative of Buddhism, declared that the Japanese do not constitute the Yellow Peril. The Mongols constitute it, and, above all, the Russians, who are Mongols. Napoleon had well said that a Russian has a white skin over a yellow heart. Japan has a yellow skin over a white heart. The whole practice of Russia, her boundless aggressions, her despotism and intolerance, mark her as the true Yellow Peril of the era.”
“Mr. Shibata, representing Shintō, said that the pity of Buddhism, the charity (love) of Christianity, and the pure heart of Shintō are all one and the same thing under different names.”
“Dr. Imbrie (representative of Christianity) adduced as proofs that religion and race have nothing to do with the present war: first, the fact that one of the belligerents, Japan, has a constitution guaranteeing freedom of conscience; secondly, the meeting now assembled, where all creeds and all races united in a common cause. He believed that the heart of the nation was with them in this matter, and that such an assembly might be convened in any part of Japan. He believed also that the victory in the war would be with Japan for the sake of the principles she represented.”
The meeting unanimously adopted the following resolution:—
“The war now existing between Japan and Russia has for its object, on the part of Japan, the security of the empire and the permanent peace of the East. It is carried on in the interests of justice, humanity, and the civilization of the world. With differences between races or religions it has nothing whatever to do. We, therefore, meeting together without distinction of race or religion, agree that we will endeavor to publish to the world, each in a manner accordant with the methods observed in the religious body to which he belongs, the real purpose of the present war, as now described. We also express a most earnest desire for the speedy accomplishment of an honorable peace.”
The significance of this meeting can scarcely be overestimated. It is a perfectly conclusive answer to the attempts made in various quarters “to foment an anti-Japanese crusade on the ground of racial and religious prejudices.” Japan stands before the world as a champion of “the equality and fraternity of all races.” The so-called “Yellow Peril” is a myth, a fantasy, a delusion; the reality is to be found in the “Golden Opportunity” to win the Orient for Christ through Japan’s leadership.
H. E. Count Katsura, in his official capacity as Prime Minister and speaking in the name of His Majesty the Emperor, has given assurances that the “Yellow Peril” is a myth, and that the religious liberty guaranteed in the Japanese constitution is to be enforced. He has stated most emphatically that “Japan stands for religious freedom.” The leading statesmen of Japan, whether in or out of office, assert most positively that Japan’s interests in the Far East are practically identical with those of Great Britain and the United States, and that she desires to work in harmony with those nations.[193]
The cause of Christian civilization in Japan has been indirectly benefited by this war. The people, with minds broadened by the responsibilities of their country, and with hearts touched by the practical sympathy of Christian nations, are listening with deeper interest to the presentation of Christian truths. The noble work of the Young Men’s Christian Association at Antung proved so successful that the military authorities soon requested its extension to other portions of Manchuria. The Japanese have felt that though their nation is nominally non-Christian, yet it is fighting the battle of Christian civilization against a nation nominally Christian. The war has been one of the most momentous in history, and decides whether the Far East is to be dominated by conservative, despotic Russia or directed by progressive, liberal Japan.
CHRONOLOGY OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
Feb. 5, 1904. Severance of diplomatic relations.
8-9. Japanese naval victories at Fort Arthur and Chemulpo.
9. Russian declaration of war.
10. Japanese declaration of war.
23. Treaty of Japan with Korea.
24. First attempt to block Port Arthur.
March 13. Marquis Ito starts on special mission to Korea.
27. Imperial Diet passed War Budget. Second attempt to block Port Arthur.
31. Fiftieth anniversary of Perry’s treaty with Japan.
April 13. “Petropavlovsk” sunk by Japanese mine.
25. Transport “Kinshiu Maru” sunk by Russians.
May 1. Battle of the Yalu River.
3. Third attempt to block Port Arthur.
15. “Hatsuse” and “Yoshino” sunk.
16. Pan-Religion Mass Meeting, Tōkyō.
25, 26. Battle of Nanshan.
27. Occupation of Dalny.
June 15. “Hitachi Maru” (transport) sunk. Battle of Telissu.
23. Naval battle off Port Arthur.
27. Japanese capture Ta, Motien, and Fenshui Passes.
July 6-9. Battle of Kaiping.
21-30. Vladivostok Squadron in Pacific Ocean.
24. Battle of Tashikiao.
31. Japanese capture Simucheng.
Aug. 10. Russian fleet made unsuccessful sortie from Fort Arthur.
14. Vladivostok fleet defeated.
20. “Novik” sunk in Korsakoff Harbor.
Aug. 23-Sept. 4. Battle of Liaoyang.
Oct. 10-15. Battle of the Shaho River.
30. General assault on Port Arthur.
Nov. 30. Japanese capture 203-metre Hill, P. A.
Dec. 3-11. Destruction Port Arthur Squadron.
30. Togo and Kamimura reach Tōkyō.
Jan. 1, 1905. Surrender of Port Arthur.
25-29. Battle of Heikeutai.
Feb. 24-March 10. Battle of Mukden.
Feb. 24. Japanese occupied Ching-ho-cheng.
March 9. Japanese occupied Fushun.
10. Japanese occupied Mukden.
16. Japanese occupied Tiehling.
19. Japanese occupied Kaiyuan.
20. Japanese occupied Fakuman.
21. Japanese occupied Changtu.
May 27, 28. Battle of the Japan Sea.
June 2. President Roosevelt broached subject of peace.
16. Japanese occupied Kangping.
18. Japanese occupied Liaoyangwopeng.
July 8. Sakhalin in hands of Japanese.
18. Vladivostok isolated.
Aug. 9. Peace envoys convene at Portsmouth, N. H.
29. Terms of treaty of peace settled.
SUMMARY
A brief summary of the war shows that at the close of the 570 days which it lasted Russia had 629,614 men in the field in Manchuria, to which Japan was able to oppose 912,730, with 1116 Russian cannon to 1030 Japanese. The Japanese captured 67,701 Russians, losing only 646 prisoners themselves. The total casualty list on land shows 294,779 Russians killed and wounded to 113,086 Japanese. The total loss to Russia in ships is estimated at $155,560,000, including twelve battleships, five armored cruisers, one coast defense vessel, six cruisers, fourteen converted cruisers, and nineteen destroyers sunk, and two battleships, two coast defense vessels, one converted cruiser, and two destroyers captured, nineteen other naval vessels being driven into internment. Japan’s naval loss includes two battleships, four cruisers, as many converted cruisers, and two torpedo boat destroyers sunk, which were valued at $24,720,000, none being captured or interned. On the sea Russia lost 8100 in killed and wounded to Japan’s 3670. The total cost of war is figured at $2,000,000,000, of which Russia spent $1,200,000,000, borrowing $870,000,000, and Japan spent $800,000,000, borrowing $650,000,000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
George Kennan’s articles in “The Outlook” are superior. Of the books which have been issued, the best are “With Kuroki in Manchuria,” by Frederick Palmer, and “From Tōkyō through Manchuria with the Japanese,” by Major Louis L. Seaman. A very thorough, scholarly, and quite impartial presentation of the causes and issues of the war is found in “The Russo-Japanese Conflict” (Asakawa), from which one can understand completely the situation in the Far East. “The White Peril in the Far East” (Gulick) is also valuable in this connection; and “The Awakening of Japan” (Okakura) throws light on Japan’s aims and ideals. “As the Hague Ordains” (Miss Scidmore) throws a great deal of light upon the ideas of many of the chief actors in the bloody drama. “Human Bullets” (Sakurai) relates most simply but vividly the experiences of a Japanese officer, especially at the terrible siege of Port Arthur. “The Tragedy of Russia” (McCormick) is most valuable.
GREATER JAPAN
The Treaty of Portsmouth, which closed the Russo-Japanese War, made Japan one of the great powers of the world; therefore, this chapter is entitled “Greater Japan.” This is not so much because Japan became larger, although she added half of Sakhalin, obtained Russia’s lease of part of Manchuria, and has annexed Korea, but it is because she has become truly greater in many senses of the word. This will appear more evident as one reads carefully the following record of the principal events of the past seven years (1905-1912).
It is, perhaps, not strange that the Japanese nation was, on the whole, disappointed with the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth. They had borne heavy financial burdens, and had confidently anticipated at least a partial compensation in the shape of an indemnity and the re-acquisition of Sakhalin, of which they considered themselves cheated by Russia, in 1875. To get only half of Sakhalin was not so much of a loss, because it was the better half; but to get not a single sen of indemnity was the bitterest kind of a pill, without even a coat of sugar. And, although most of the Japanese people, as is usual, quickly swallowed their disappointment, it is not strange that agitators utilized the occasion to stir up the rowdy element to break out in riots in Tōkyō early in September, 1905. And, after the destruction of considerable property, the city was placed under martial law until the excitement subsided.
The wisdom of the Japanese envoys in bringing the war to a close, even on unpopular terms, was fully justified when it soon became evident that the northern section of the main island, in the region about Sendai, was threatened with a famine, due to the partial or entire failure of crops. But the energy which had been spent on the prosecution of the war was at once transferred to the task of relieving the suffering. To the appeals for assistance a hearty response was made, not only by Japanese and foreigners in Japan, but also by other peoples, East and West.
Another compensation for the unpopular peace was found in September, 1905, when it became known that, in August, even before the Treaty of Portsmouth had been signed, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance had been renewed for a term of ten years.
Therefore, by the beginning of November, the feeling of disappointment had so far subsided that the Emperor’s birthday (November 3) was celebrated in Tōkyō with unusual _éclat_ by a grand triumphal military review, followed later by a grand triumphal naval review at Yokosuka.
The Katsura Ministry, however, being held responsible for the unpopular terms of peace, resigned in December,[194] and was succeeded in January, 1906, by a Cabinet under Marquis Saionji, the leader of the Seiyukwai, without special change of policy.
In the meantime, in accordance with a Convention between Japan and Korea, the former established in the latter a Residency-General in Seoul, with Residencies in several parts of the country. And to the most important post of Resident-General the Emperor of Japan appointed [then] Marquis Ito. And by this Convention the control of Korea’s foreign affairs passed to the Residency-General.
The Twenty-second Session of the Imperial Diet (December 28, 1905-March 27, 1906) is worthy of special notice because it passed, with slight amendments, the government bill for the nationalization of the railways of the Empire. The original bill contemplated the purchase by the government of all the railroads: but the Diet amended the bill, while accepting the principle, by exempting a few small railways of no great strategic importance, and applying the principle to seventeen large and important lines. In the same year, the railways in Korea passed under the management of the Japanese Government.
Another event worthy of notice is the organization in 1906 of the Japan Peace Society, composed of men and women of several nationalities and of many shades of political and religious belief. And in 1909 this society was honored and strengthened by Count Okuma’s acceptance of the position of President.
The year 1907 was marked by the negotiation of several “Agreements” of prime importance in the maintenance of peace in the Far East. In the first place, the Russo-Japanese Convention (July) “consolidating peace and good neighborly relations,” proved that the Portsmouth Treaty was not merely a sort of truce but a desire to “preserve the peace permanently.” The Franco-Japanese Agreement (June) evinced the strong “desire to strengthen the relations of amity existing between” the two peoples. A new Japan-Korea Agreement (July) gave Japan the control of the internal administrative affairs of Korea and especially established a “clear differentiation” of the Executive and Judicial departments of State. This separation of the judiciary from executive and official interference was further emphasized by the appointment of an earnest Japanese Christian, Judge Watanabe, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in Korea. Meantime, the Emperor, whose corrupt rule had brought his country to its deplorable condition, abdicated, and his son succeeded to the throne, while the new Crown Prince went over to Japan to be educated and was granted a suitable domicile in Tōkyō. Moreover, the Crown Prince of Japan made a visit to Korea—the first instance of a Japanese Crown Prince leaving his native land—and succeeded in conquering prejudices and winning hearts.
The year 1907 was also memorable for some important events in the Christian movement in Japan. In April, the World’s Student Christian Federation, composed of 625 delegates from 25 nations, in all parts of the world, convened in Tōkyō, and, in an inspiring session of several days, exemplified the practical application of their motto, _ut omnes unum sint_.
The late General Booth, of the Salvation Army, made a visit to Japan (April 16-May 24), received a most cordial welcome, was honored by an audience with the Emperor, and held a remarkable series of meetings in the principal cities.
The National Sunday-school Association, which was organized in May, was another application of the principle of Christian unity. And the First Conference of the (union) Methodist Church of Japan, meeting in Tōkyō (May 22-June 7), on June 1, elected as its first bishop Rev. Y. Honda, D.D., the first native to be elected to such an important ecclesiastical position in the Far East.
The short stop-over made in Japan by Hon. William H. Taft, then United States Secretary of War, on his way to Manila, was one which truly warranted his additional title of “Secretary of Peace.” In a speech on October 1, at a banquet given in his honor in Tōkyō, he made a profound impression when he said: “War between Japan and the United States would be a crime against modern civilization.” And 116 representative missionaries, residing in all sections of Japan, and representing 20 American Christian organizations, besides Independents, signed a series of resolutions expressing their hope “that local and spasmodic misunderstandings may not be allowed to affect in the slightest degree the natural and historic friendship of the two neighbors on opposite sides of the Pacific,” and that all “efforts to maintain peace and good-will may be supported by all patriotic citizens and may be crowned with success.”
And, although the immigration question at one time was a fruitful source of agitation, yet the authorities in Japan, Canada, and the United States dealt with the question in a considerate and statesmanlike manner and came to a satisfactory settlement.
The friendly relations between Japan and the United States were further consolidated, on May 5, 1908, by an Arbitration Treaty, the first which Japan had ever negotiated. This was only one more strong evidence that the two countries do not wish to find a _casus belli_.
In October of the same year came the first visit of a company of American business men to Japan and the visit of the American fleet, both of which received a most cordial welcome. The business men were given every opportunity to ascertain industrial conditions in Japan, and acknowledged that the visit was an eye-opener. In welcoming the fleet, the “Kokumin Shimbun” said, among other good things, “The sixteen battleships, representative of the noble traditions of American justice, come to our shores as heralds of peace.” And, most significantly, it added that “the time was ripe for an Americo-Japanese _camaraderie_, which is already so strong as to be tantamount to an unwritten alliance.” This utterance was significant because it was followed so closely by the Americo-Japanese Entente, dated November 30, 1908. This is a document[195] of immense importance, which must stand as a perpetual reminder that a war between Japan and the United States would be a crime.
In July, 1908, the Saionji Ministry resigned, ostensibly on account of the Premier’s illness, and Marquis Katsura was again called upon to form a Cabinet.
Inasmuch as the great prosperity which immediately followed the Russo-Japanese War had led to some extravagance and reckless speculation, the Emperor felt impelled to issue in October, 1908, an edict of warning to the people.
One more important event of this year should be chronicled—the completion of the railway which runs the length of the island of Formosa. This is facilitating greatly the development of the resources of that “Beautiful Isle.”
In June, 1909, Prince Itō resigned his position as Resident-General in Korea, and was succeeded by Viscount Sone, who had been Vice-Resident-General. In July, the administration of justice and prisons was transferred to the Resident-General. In October, Prince Itō was assassinated at Harbin by a Korean fanatic; and, in December, an unsuccessful attempt was made at Seoul upon the life of the Korean Prime Minister by another fanatic. Prince Itō, as the greatest statesman of Modern Japan, was especially honored with a most elaborate state funeral.
The year 1909 was also marked by a Semi-Centennial Conference, held in Tōkyō, October 5-10, to commemorate the beginning of Christian missions in New Japan. It was “the first national conference in which the Japanese and missionaries coöperated on an equal footing”; it marked “the emergence of the Japanese Church from infancy to youth; from the stigma of being an alien parasite to the acknowledged status of an indigenous institution”; and marked the waning of missionary domination and the rapid assumption of control by Japanese Christians. Thus it was a real epoch-making event in the history of the Christian movement in Japan.
A large party of representative Japanese business men started in the fall of 1909 for a trip to the United States, and returned in the spring of 1910. The courteous treatment and generous hospitality extended to them in their hurried tour across the country were highly appreciated. The trip afforded an excellent opportunity to ascertain that the true sentiments of the best Americans are friendly to Japan.
Viscount Sone, Resident-General in Korea, having been compelled, on account of dangerous illness, to return to Japan, resigned his post, and died September 13, 1910. He was succeeded by General Viscount Terauchi, Minister of War, who carried through the plan of annexation, which was formally announced on August 29, 1910. This “passing of Korea” is a truly unfortunate but inevitable occurrence. It was a practical impossibility for Korea, in her peculiar geographical position, to maintain political independence. The “Poland of the Far East” was destined, not to partition, but to absorption by Russia, or China, or Japan; and she has fallen to the lot of the one best able to improve her condition.
The year 1910 was also marked by the discovery of an anarchist plot against the sacred person of the Emperor. Several were arrested as conspirators, of whom a few were acquitted, a few were condemned to imprisonment for terms of years, but twelve were condemned to death and executed (in 1911).
It was in July, 1911, that the term of the revised treaties (which had gone into effect in 1899) expired, and entirely new treaties were negotiated with all the powers. As these treaties included no limitations upon the commercial autonomy of Japan, they marked the “end of her extra-territorial embarrassments.” And, in particular, the new treaty with the United States omitted the objectionable provision of the old treaty (see Appendix), in accordance with which it was permissible for the United States to limit the immigration of Japanese. This delicate question was left to a “gentleman’s agreement,” whereby the Japanese Government would exercise the utmost care concerning granting passports to Japanese to travel to the United States.
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was again revised in 1911 and renewed for a term of ten years. The most significant point in this revision was a provision inserted, in view of the probability at that time of an Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty, that nothing should entail upon either “contracting party an obligation to go to war with the Power with whom such treaty of arbitration is in force.” This was accomplished before the death of Marquis Komura, who thus lived long enough to see this increased influence of that alliance in the original negotiation of which he played a most important part.
That year was also distinguished by the generous Imperial donation of 1,500,000 _yen_ to start a fund for the relief of the sick poor. This contribution was supplemented by gifts from all over the Empire, until the fund has reached a total of about 25,000,000 _yen_. And to administer properly this large amount, a society called “Saiseikwai” has been organized, with an Imperial Prince as Honorary President.
The year 1911 is likewise a red-letter year in the political history of Japan, because, when the Katsura Cabinet resigned, the duty of organizing a new Ministry was bestowed upon Marquis Saionji (the leader of the Seiyukai), who made up what is practically a party administration.
One of the most significant events of the year 1912 was what is known as the “Tri-Religion Conference” (in March). It was called by Mr. Tokonami, Vice-Minister of Home Affairs, and consisted of about fifty Shinto, Buddhist, and Christian representatives. It was no attempt to amalgamate the three faiths; it was merely a means of bringing those representatives together for better acquaintance with each other, for more earnest work in behalf of social and moral amelioration, and for greater emphasis upon the spiritual needs of the nation. The most significant point, however, was the fact that the conference was practically an official recognition of Christianity on the same footing with Shinto and Buddhism.
As the trial of a large number of Korean Christians on a charge of conspiring to assassinate Governor-General Terauchi is still _sub judice_, it is proper at present merely to mention the fact. It is, however, only right to add, that much of the criticism of the case arises from the fact that Japanese judicial processes follow European rather than American models and are not in accord with Anglo-Saxon ideas of justice.
The most prominent events of 1912 were, of course, the death of the Emperor Mutsuhito, the accession of the Crown Prince Yoshihito, and the close of the marvellous Meiji Era with the beginning of a new era, called Taisho (Great Righteousness). The limits of space forbid more than the mention of the wonderful scenes, especially in front of the Palace, when the prayers of all classes of people, of all religious beliefs and of no belief, were mingled together during the days just preceding July 30. Mutsuhito and Meiji: these two names are practically synchronous and synonymous; the reign of Mutsuhito was the Enlightened Rule of Meiji.[196] It was, therefore, most appropriate that the deceased Emperor was given the posthumous title of Meiji Tenno. And the Imperial funeral was a most elaborate affair, an interesting combination of the Old and the New, in which the former predominated; for it was a Shinto ceremony with some modern Occidental attachments. And the tragic suicide of General Count Nogi and the Countess at eight o’clock in the evening of September 13, just as the Imperial cortège was leaving the Palace, was in accordance with the old idea of following one’s master in death. But, while it was not in accord with Christian ideas of life and duty, my tongue of criticism is silenced.
A governmental crisis led to the resignation of Premier Saionji and his cabinet in December, and Prince Katsura for the third time was called to the place. Popular opposition to an increase of the army and military expenses, demand for reduction of taxes, belief that Premier Katsura was in sympathy with the military party, that he might influence the Emperor, and that democratic tendencies were likely to be checked, led to an uprising in opposition to him and his ministry. February 5, 1913, a resolution was adopted in Parliament expressing lack of confidence. Rioting in Tōkyō and elsewhere was followed by the resignation of Prince Katsura and his cabinet February 11, and on the 12th, by the direction of the Emperor, Count Yamamoto formed a new ministry.
Mention should be made of some matters which do not fit well into these chronological annals. The fact that Japanese educational authorities are obtaining Christian young men as English teachers through the Young Men’s Christian Association is interesting. It should also be noted that the number of Chinese students resorting to Japan for education increased rapidly, until it was estimated at 15,000 to 20,000. But, as the great mass of these were mere adventurers, there came a natural but heavy reduction, so that only about 5,000 remained by 1910. And, in that year, almost all of these returned to China to participate in the Revolution. There are also several hundred Korean students, whose numbers will probably increase, besides many Indians and a few Siamese and Philippinos. And these Oriental students return home imbued with progressive ideas.
This is a summary of the principal events which have made a “Greater Japan.” Dai Nippon (Great Japan) has been enlarged in seven years by the acquisition of considerable territory. She is no longer merely insular, but continental. She is greater in her resources and in her potentialities. She has increased her wealth and her productive capacity; she has enlarged her industrial enterprise; she has expanded her trade and commerce. She has a bigger army and navy to protect herself from aggression. Her educational facilities are greater, and her moral and spiritual development has been enhanced through Christianity. Japan enjoys greater power and influence in the world’s councils, and she is also weighted with much greater responsibilities. New Japan, in 1913 sixty years old, is a truly “Greater Japan.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
“Corea, the Hermit Nation” (7th edition) (Griffis); “Korea and her Neighbors” (Mrs. Bird-Bishop); “Korean Sketches” and “Korea in Transition” (Gale); “The Passing of Korea” (Hulbert); “The Tragedy of Korea” (McKenzie); “With Marquis Itō in Korea” (Ladd); “China and the Far East” (Clark University Lectures); “American Japanese Relations” (Kawakami); “The Japanese Nation” (Nitobe).
APPENDIX [Illustration: GENERAL VISCOUNT TERAUCHI.]
APPENDIX
PROVINCES AND PREFECTURES
The following list gives in detail the divisions of Japan into Provinces (_Kuni_), according to “Circuits”:—
_Go-Kinai_ (Five Home Provinces). Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi (or Senshiu), Settsu (or Sesshiu).
_Tōkaidō_ (Eastern Sea Road). Iga, Ise, Shima, Owari, Mikawa, Tōtōmi, Suruga, Kai, Izu, Sagami, Musashi, Awa (or Bōshiu), Kazusa, Shimōsa, Hitachi.
_Tōsandō_ (Eastern Mountain Road). Ōmi, Mino, Hida, Shinano (or Shinshiu), Kōzuke (or Jōshiu), Shimozuke, Iwaki, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, Rikuchū, Mutsu, Uzen, Ugo.
_Hokurikudō_ (North Land Road). Wakasa, Echizen, Kaga, Noto, Etchū, Echigo, Sado Island.
_Sanindō_ (Mountain Shade Road). Tamba, Tango, Tajima, Inaba, Hōki, Izumo, Iwami, Oki Islands.
_Sanyōdō_ (Mountain Sunlight Road). Harima (or Banshiu), Mimasaka, Bizen, Bitchū, Bingo, Aki, Suwō, Nagata (or Chōshiu).
_Nankaidō_ (Southern Sea Road). Kii (or Kishiu), Awaji Island, Awa, Sanuki, Iyo, Tosa (or Toshiu), of which the last four are in the island of Shikoku.
_Saikaidō_ (Western Sea Road). Chikuzen, Chikugo, Buzen, Bungo, Hizen, Higo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, Satsuma (or Sasshiu), Iki Island, Tsushima Island, of which all except the last two are on the island of Kyūshiu.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE OF JAPAN[197]
(25 YEARS) CENTRAL METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY (1876-1900)
35° 41´ N. Lat., 139° 46´ E. Long. Height, 70 feet. Inches and Fahrenheit degrees.
=====================================+=========+=========+========+========= | JAN. | FEB. | MAR. | APRIL. -------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------+--------- Mean temperature | 36.9 | 38.4 | 44.2 | 54.3 Mean max. temperature | 46.8 | 47.5 | 53.4 | 62.9 Mean min. temperature | 28.6 | 30.4 | 35.3 | 45.6 Absolute max. temp. | 97.9 (July 14, 1891) | Absolute min. temp. | 15.4 (Jan. 13, 1876) | Mean rainfall | 2.14 | 3.03 | 4.32 | 5.04 No. rainy days | 7.2 | 9.1 | 12.4 | 14.8 Days with snow | 4.0 | 4.5 | 2.8 | 0.1 Mean barometer (reduced freez. point)| 29.96 | 29.97 | 29.95 | 29.94 Mean direction of wind | N.22°W. | N.16°W. | N.8°W. | N.51°E. =====================================+=========+=========+========+=========
=====================================+=========+=========+=========+========= | MAY. | JUNE. | JULY. | AUG. -------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Mean temperature | 61.9 | 68.8 | 75.8 | 78.2 Mean max. temperature | 70.2 | 76.1 | 83.0 | 86.0 Mean min. temperature | 53.5 | 62.2 | 69.6 | 71.8 Absolute max. temp. | | | | Absolute min. temp. | | | | Mean rainfall | 5.91 | 6.52 | 5.01 | 4.37 No. rainy days | 13.3 | 14.4 | 14.1 | 11.8 Days with snow | ... | ... | ... | ... Mean barometer (reduced freez. point)| 29.84 | 29.77 | 29.77 | 29.79 Mean direction of wind | S.44°E. | S.39°E. | S.20°E. | S.21°E. =====================================+=========+=========+=========+=========
=====================================+=========+========+=========+========= | SEPT. | OCT. | NOV. | DEC. -------------------------------------+---------+--------+---------+--------- Mean temperature | 71.6 | 60.3 | 50.1 | 41.3 Mean max. temperature | 78.9 | 68.9 | 60.1 | 52.0 Mean min. temperature | 65.5 | 53.1 | 41.7 | 32.4 Absolute max. temp. | | | | Absolute min. temp. | | | | Mean rainfall | 8.12 | 7.07 | 4.35 | 2.02 No. rainy days | 16.2 | 13.1 | 9.0 | 6.3 Days with snow | ... | ... | 0.2 | 1.2 Mean barometer (reduced freez. point)| 29.87 | 29.98 | 29.99 | 29.95 Mean direction of wind | N.47°E. | N.4°W. | N.14°W. | N.25°W. =====================================+=========+========+=========+=========
======================================+======== | YEAR. --------------------------------------+-------- Mean temperature | 56.8 Mean max. temperature | 65.5 Mean min. temperature | 49.1 Absolute max. temp. | Absolute min. temp. | Mean rainfall | 57.90 No. rainy days | 141.6 Days with snow | 12.8 Mean barometer (reduced freez. point) | 29.90 Mean direction of wind | N.1°W. ======================================+========
_Hokkaidō_ (Northern Sea Road). Oshima, Shiribeshi, Iburi, Ishikari, Hitaka, Tokachi, Teshiwo, Kushiro, Nemuro, Kitami (all on the island of Yezo), and Chishima, or the Kurile Islands.
_Ryūkyū_ (Loo Choo) Islands. This group constituted one, the 85th, _Kuni_.
The following is the list of Japanese Prefectures (_Ken_ and _Fu_):—
The _Fu_ number three: Tōkyō, Kyōto, and Ōsaka.
The _Ken_ number forty-three: Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gumma, Nagano, Yamanashi, Shizuoka, Aichi, Miye, Gifu, Shiga, Fukui, Ishikawa, Toyama, Niigata, Fukushima, Miyagi, Yamagata, Akita, Iwate, Aomori, Nara, Wakayama, Hyōgo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Shimane, Tottori, Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kōchi, Nagasaki, Saga, Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Ōita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, and Okinawa (Ryūkyū Islands).
Hokkaidō and Formosa are at present administered as “territories” by the Imperial Government, although the former has recently been granted a small measure of local self-government.
TABLES OF JAPANESE MONEY, WEIGHT, AND MEASURE[198]
_Length (Sashi). Japanese Weights and Measures._
As the use of the Japanese weights and measures is becoming more and more frequent in reports and books from the Far East, the following tables will be found useful to all persons who wish to ascertain the equivalents of the Japanese terms in similar terms in use in the United States and in England:—
LONG MEASURE (_SASHI_)
1 _Mō_ (0.0001 _Shaku_) 0.000099 foot. 1 _Rin_ (10 _Mō_) 0.00099 foot. 1 _Bu_ (10 _Rin_) 1.4317 lines. 1 _Sun_ (10 _Bu_) 1.1931 inches. 1 _Shaku_ (10 _Sun_) 11.9305 inches. 1 _Ken_ (6 _Shaku_) 1.9884 yards. 1 _Jō_ (10 _Shaku_) 3.3140 yards. 1 _Chō_ (60 _Ken_) 5.4229 chains (1.15 m.). 1 _Ri_ (36 _Chō_) 2.4403 miles (2-1/2 m.). 1 _Kai-Ri_ (Marine _Ri_) 1.1507 miles.
DRY GOODS MEASURE (_KUJIRA-JAKU_)
1 _Sun_ (0.1 _Shaku_) 1.4913 inches. 1 _Shaku_ (10 _Sun_) 14.9130 inches. 1 _Tan_ (about) 11 yards. 1 _Hiki_ (about) 22 yards.
WEIGHT (_HAKARI_)
1 _Mō_ 0.000008 pound (avoirdupois). 1 _Rin_ (10 _Mō_) 0.000083 pound „ 1 _Fun_ (10 _Rin_) 5.7972 grains „ 1 _Momme_ (10 _Fun_) 2.12 drams „ 1 _Kin_ (160 _Momme_) 1.3251 pounds „ 1 _Kwan_ (1,000 _Momme_) 8.2817 pounds „
CAPACITY (_MASU_)
1 _Shaku_ (10 _Sai_) 0.00397 gallon. 1 _Gō_ (10 _Shaku_) 1.2706 gills; 0.0199 peck. 1 _Shō_ (10 _Gō_) 1.5881 quarts; 0.1985 peck. 1 _To_ (10 _Shō_) 3.9703 gallons; 1.9851 pecks. 1 _Koku_ (10 _To_) 39.7033 gallons; 4.9629 bushels.
SUPERFICIAL MEASURE (TANBETSU)
1 Square _Shaku_ about 1 square foot. 1 _Tsubo_ (36 Square _Shaku_) 3.9538 square yards. 1 _Se_ (30 _Tsubo_) about 119 square yards. 1 _Tan_ (10 _Se_) 0.2451 acre. 1 _Chō_ (10 _Tan_) 2.4507 acres. 1 Square _Ki_ 5.9552 square miles.
MONEY
1 _yen_ $0.4935 1 _sen_ one-half cent.
_Money, Weight, and Measure of Various Countries in Terms of those of Japanese_
MONEY
English pound (20 shillings) 9.763 _yen_. Shilling (12 pennies) 0.4881 „ Penny (4 farthings) 0.0407 „ Hong Kong dollar 0.949 „ American dollar (100 cents) 2.006 „ Cent 0.02 „ German mark 0.478 „ French franc 0.387 „ Chinese tael 1.298 „ Manila dollar 0.985 „ Mexican dollar 0.965 „
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LENGTH
Mile (1,760 yards) 14 _chō_ and 49 _ken_. Yard (3 feet) 3 _shaku_. Foot (12 inches) 1 _shaku_. Inch 8 _bu_ and 4 _rin_.
GERMAN, FRENCH, AUSTRIAN, AND ITALIAN LENGTH
Metre 3 _shaku_ and 3 _sun_. Centimetre (1-100 metre) 3 _bu_ and 3 _rin_. Millimetre (1-1000 metre) 3 _rin_ and 3 _mō_.
ENGLISH CAPACITY
Gallon (liquid) 2 _shō_, 5 _gō_, and 2 _shaku_. Bushel (wheat) 2 _to_ and 1 _gō_.
AMERICAN CAPACITY
Gallon (liquid) 2_shō_ and 1 _gō_. Bushel (wheat) 1 _to_, 9 _shō_, and 5 _gō_.
_Weight_
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN (HEAVYWEIGHTS)
Ton (20 hundredweight, or 2,240 pounds) about 270 _kwan_ and 946 _momme_. Short ton (2,000 pounds) 241 _kwan_ and 916 _momme_. Hundredweight (112 pounds) 13 _kwan_ and 547 _momme_. Pound (16 ounces) 121 _momme_. Ounce about 8 _momme_.
LIGHT WEIGHT
Pound 99 _momme_ and 5 _bu_. Ounce 8 _momme_ and 3 _bu_. Grain 1 _rin_ and 7 _mō_.
_Area_
AMERICAN AND ENGLISH
Acre 4 _tan_ and 24 _ho_.
ARABLE LAND IN JAPAN[199]
The “Nichi Nichi Shimbun” argues that the real question for the Japanese to consider is development of agriculture, not a paltry lightening of the fiscal burden now imposed on agriculturists. When the area of cultivated land in the various countries of the world is compared with the total areas of those countries, startling figures result.
_Ratio of Area of Cultivated Land to Total Area of Country_
Belgium 53.9 Prussia 50.3 France 50.2 Germany 43.4 Denmark 42.5 Italy 39.9 Hungary 37.7 Austria 36.7 Spain 35.7 Holland 27.3 England 27.9 Portugal 24.9 European Russia 16.4 Japan 13.8
Japanese habitually plead that their extraordinarily low place on this list is the result, not of want of industry, but of natural obstacles, much of the surface of their islands consisting of mountains and hills which cannot be made arable. The “Nichi Nichi” alleges that such an excuse is merely partial, and that a little energy and resolution would soon change the situation. At any rate, the opposition offered by politicians to the present land tax is not in the genuine interests of agriculture, but in the interests of political popularity.
* * * * *
Mr. Megata, an official of the Finance Department and an expert statistician, has figured out that in 1901 more than 15,000,000 acres were in cultivation.
* * * * *
The actual yield of rice for ten years (1900-1909) is indicated in the following table:—
KOKU. 1900 41,466,422 1901 46,914,434 1902 36,932,266 1903 46,473,298 1904 51,430,321 1905 38,172,560 1906 46,302,530 1907 49,052,065 1908 51,932,893 1909 52,437,662 Average 46,114,451
FRUIT-GROWING IN JAPAN[200]
Fruits originally cultivated, and probably native in Japan, include the orange, pear, peach, sour plum, almond, grape, persimmon, loquat, pomegranate, ginko or salisburia, and fig. The mikan, or Japanese sweet orange, is smaller, sweeter, and less juicy than the oranges raised in America, and the thin membrane separating the sections of the fruit is tougher; it has a very pleasant flavor, and is much used for food by both natives and foreigners. It is cultivated all through the warmer regions of Japan, and is the most plentiful of the fruits raised there, being found in the markets from early autumn until late the following spring. The persimmon comes next to the orange in the number produced, and is a favorite with the natives, but its season is comparatively short. It closely resembles the persimmon of America’s Southern States. The sour plum is extensively cultivated and yields a good crop, but the other fruits named above, though more or less widely grown, are produced in much smaller quantities—the fig being most abundant and most valued of the less important fruits. The government has introduced peaches, pears, and grapes from Europe and America, and has found the soil and climate well adapted to their production, so that these are now cultivated in addition to the native varieties of the same fruits. Of the fruits wholly unknown in Japan until introduced from abroad, the apple has proved most successful, and it has become a chief product of some districts in the Hokkaidō, or northern island. The apples are of fine appearance and excellent flavor, and the trees yield a profit very encouraging to the cultivator, so that the area of their production is being increased. The natives eat fruit chiefly fresh, and its use as a table diet is not general, although increasing. The processes of drying and canning fruits are beginning to come into use, but only as a means of preserving the fruit for home consumption, not for export.
FACTORIES IN JAPAN[201]
======+============+==============+====================== | NO. OF | AGGREGATE | NO. OF FACTORIES | FACTORIES. | HORSE POWER. | WITHOUT MOTOR POWER. ------+------------+--------------+---------------------- 1895 | 2,758 | 61,252 | 4,396 1896 | 3,037 | 64,429 | 4,603 1897 | 2,910 | 63,434 | 4,377 1898 | 2,964 | 79,016 | 4,131 1899 | 2,305 | 76,885 | 4,394 1900 | 2,388 | 95,392 | 4,896 1909 | 6,723 | 554,571 | 8,703 ======+============+==============+======================
_Factories with Motor Power_
==========================+============+========+============= | NO. OF | HORSE | NO. OF | FACTORIES. | POWER. | OPERATIVES. --------------------------+------------+--------+------------- Silk reeling | { 1,046 | 9,362 | 112,887[202] | { 1,722 | 6,631 | 102,071 | | | Cotton and silk spinning | { 117 | 12,523 | 56,417 | { 112 | 20,463 | 80,107 | | | Ships, machines, etc. | { 155 | 2,577 | 16,654 | { 198 | 4,190 | 18,131 | | | Weaving | { 25 | 3,005 | 7,924 | { 56 | 2,596 | 9,588 | | | Cement | { 251 | 1,099 | 2,712 | { 37 | 1,825 | 3,554 | | | Printing | { 30 | 246 | 3,233 | { 15 | 531 | 5,224 | | | Paper-mills | { 11 | 3,097 | 1,761 | { 18 | 3,398 | 2,909 ==========================+============+========+=============
_Factories without Motor Power_
==========================+===================+==================== | NO. OF FACTORIES. | NO. OF OPERATIVES. --------------------------+-------------------+-------------------- Silk reeling | { 636 | 17,614 | { 496 | 14,077 | | Cotton and silk spinning | { 2 | 38 | { 21 | 542 | | Ships, machines, etc. | { 188 | 4,512 | { 99 | 3,195 | | Weaving | {1,025 | 28,900 | {1,245 | 34,965 | | Cement | { 136 | 5,099 | { 119 | 2,870 | | Printing | { 103 | 2,784 | { 95 | 2,617 ==========================+===================+====================
CLEARING-HOUSES OF JAPAN
The following table shows the development of the clearing-house business in the two largest centres:—
==================+=================+================= | TOTAL OF CHECKS AND BILLS CLEARED. FIRST HALF-YEAR +-----------------+----------------- OF | TŌKYŌ | ŌSAKA. | _Yen._ | _Yen._ ------------------+-----------------+----------------- 1895 | 131,600,000 | 34,500,000 1896 | 184,800,000 | 65,700,000 1897 | 250,300,000 | 72,200,000 1898 | 383,400,000 | 97,300,000 1899 | 433,800,000 | 161,600,000 1900 | 675,400,000 | 255,500,000 1901 | 565,000,000 | 263,700,000 1902 | 614,700,000 | 298,700,000 1903 | 756,100,000 | 395,900,000 1908 (whole year) | 2,962,973,000 | 1,418,941,000 1910 (whole year) | 3,841,380,000 | 2,028,605,000 ==================+=================+=================
SHIP-BUILDING IN JAPAN[203]
Recent orders which have been placed in the hands of the Nagasaki Dockyard and Engine Works and the Kawasaki Dockyard Company, Limited, by the Nippon Yūsen Kaisha and the Ōsaka Shōsen Kaisha, serve to remind the resident of the rapid development of the ship-building industry in this country, while at the same time affording evidence of the growth of the country’s mercantile marine. The order placed with the first-named yard is for four large steamers of 6,000, 5,400, 2,500, and 1,900 tons, respectively, the largest vessels being intended for the Japan Mail Steamship Company’s European and Australian lines. Nor is the Ōsaka Shōsen Kaisha in a different position. This enterprising company also has found it necessary to order new vessels, and has found it economical to order them in Japan instead of from abroad. The fact is worthy of note, for it is the first time in the history of the country that orders for eight ocean-going steamers have been in hand at one time. This may, we trust, be held to indicate that the shipping and ship-building industries are in a healthy and prosperous state.
The contrast between the condition of the local ship-building trade now and that of a few years back is a striking one. Perhaps the first real impetus given to private ship-building here was due to the enterprise of the late Mr. E. C. Kirby, at whose yard at Onohama—the plant of which was subsequently removed to Kure—one large cruiser and several smaller gunboats and steamers were successfully launched. Since then, the yards at Kawasaki, Ōsaka, Ishikawajima, Uraga, and Nagasaki have taken up the work vigorously, and demonstrated beyond possibility of cavil their ability to turn out ocean-going craft, and large river steamers of the highest standard. With the productions of Ōsaka and Kōbe ship-building establishments trading regularly on the Yangtze, and 6,000-ton liners from the Nagasaki Shipbuilding Engine Works, making record voyages between Seattle and the Orient, and others running regularly between home ports and London, there is no longer room for surprise in viewing Japan-built steamers. There is no doubt that with the opening up of additional lines in the China and Japan seas, sufficient work for local ship-builders will be forthcoming for some years to come, and it is therefore unlikely that they will enter into serious competition in the near future with ship-building yards in Shanghai, Hongkong, and Singapore. The home demand seems likely to engage their activities for some years yet, though the presence of a 700-ton steamer for the Shanghai customs on the stocks at Kawasaki may be held to belie the prediction.... Although Japanese ship-builders may have quite enough to do in the near future to meet the home demand, a young rival has entered the lists against the great ship-building concerns of the West; and this in itself is no small credit to the nation, which is already able to plume itself upon having accomplished more in a generation than any other people in Asia or in the South Seas, and as much, relatively, as the American and English peoples whose homes are on the Pacific slope.
THE ŌSAKA EXHIBITION[204]
Considering that as recently as 1873 Japan had no such institution as a factory, and knew nothing whatever of iron foundries or machine shops, the Japanese-made machinery display at the exhibition at Ōsaka was astonishing. There we found silk-weaving and mat-making machines, electrical motors and generators, gas and oil engines, locomotives, electrical fittings, tools, beltings, match-making machine, lemonade-making machine, distilling machine, fire-brigade appliances, rice-cleaning machines, huge steam navvy, oil tanks, soap-making machines, printing machines, massive hoisting engine, tea-refining machinery, heavy mining machinery, and many other smaller machines, all of Japanese manufacture, admirably made and efficient.
In general manufactures the empire made a good showing. Straw braid; _shibori_, a beautiful stuff, making pretty dress material; woollen serges and woven silks, particularly a delicate fabric of mixed silk and cotton (the output of this fabric exceeding $1,500,000 per annum); cheap and good cotton blankets, Japanese towels, artistic designs in tiles and roofing materials, drainpipes, fireproof bricks. In drinkables, also of home manufacture, there was beer by the carload; _sake_, the famous native drink, enough to quench the thirst of an army.
One of the best exhibits was in clocks; some of them very handsome and very cheap, made by one or other of the twelve Japanese clock companies. The porcelain exhibition was good, consisting of beautiful vases, artistic porcelain trays, basins, teacups, etc. The exhibit of Japanese-made shoes was quite creditable. Other native manufactures exhibited were bamboo furniture, whatnots, over-mantels, fire screens, shell buttons, paper lanterns, fine silken rugs, shawls, paper, camphor, oils, soap, all kinds of sauces and relishes, silks of every hue and description, silk lace, gold and silver thread, linen, duck, tent cloths, ivory work, bronzes, lacquer and silver work, surgical instruments, pianos, organs, and other musical instruments, bicycles, gymnastic and athletic goods, microscopes, cameras, barometers, and almost every kind of educational apparatus.
The natural products of the country were exhibited to good advantage. Rice, tobacco (manufactured and un-manufactured), silkworms, various varieties of silk cocoons, tea, huge oranges, sugar, furs, woods, pearls, coral, fish (dried and salted). Mushrooms were a special exhibit of one prefecture, tea of another, and so on. The whole section of the agricultural experiment station was complete and admirable in every way.
In the foreign section we found weaving-machines (only introduced October, 1902, and already largely sold), German shoe-making and cigarette-making machines, and searchlights from Nuremberg, match and matchbox-making machines, rifles, wire samples, chemicals, perfumes, British-made electrical appliances, timber, paints, varnishes, gas and oil engines, steam-engines (British), a turbo-alternator (electric) from Newcastle-on-Tyne, rubber and steel goods from England, Maxim’s famous guns, fountain pens, typewriters, Indian cotton, American bone goods, American motor cars and bicycles, meat extracts, American provisions, American lighting and heating apparatus for railway carriages and street cars, refrigerator cars, Boston pile-sinking outfits, New York pumps, marine gasolene engine, and sewing-machines.
Canada also made a good exhibit of the cereals and food products of the Dominion, with the Canadian system of cold storage, and of pulp woods, furniture, and iron work.
COST OF LIVING IN JAPAN
_How Laborers Live_
The following tables are from “The Labor World” for July 1, 1898. The editor sent a form to be filled out by the laborers themselves, to get accurate statistics of their lives and work. A few samples throw light upon the inner life of Japanese laborers:—
No. 1.—House, two rooms; a family,—man (30), wife (23), mother (53), two sisters (14 and 11); occupation, blacksmith.
Working days in a month 26 Working hours in a day 12 Daily wages $0.52 Monthly income 13.83 Monthly expenses 13.65 House rent, one month 0.96 Rice 5.76 Fuel and light 1.08 Vegetables. 0.87 Fish 0.96 _Sake_ (rice beer) 0.24 _Soy_ (Japanese sauce) 0.73 Tobacco 0.20 Hair cutting and dressing 0.83 Bath 0.88 Pin money 0.25 Sundries 0.89
No. 55.—House, two rooms, with kitchen; a family,—man (27), wife (25), boy (6), girl (2); business, iron worker.
Daily wages $0.25 Overtime income for one month 1.50 Monthly income 8.28 Monthly income 8.28 Monthly expense 9.44 House rent 0.75 Rice 3.25 Fuel and light 0.41 Vegetables 0.60 Fish 0.60 _Soy_ and _miso_ 0.23 Tobacco 0.25 Hair cutting and dressing 0.18 Bath 0.20 Pin money 0.60 Sundries, including interest on debt 2.37
_Increase in Living Expense_
The following interesting comparison between the cost of living in 1889 and 1899 is from “The Miyako”:
(Calculated monthly expenditure of a family of six members—a married couple, a parent, two children, and one servant—living with strict economy.)
1889. 1899. _yen._ _yen._
House rent (a house containing the furnished rooms of 6, 4-1/2, and 2 _mats_, respectively 2.50 5.00
Cleaned rice (at the rate of 2 _shō_ per day) 4.50 7.00 1 _to_ 3 _shō_ (8 _shō_ 5 _gō_ per _yen_.) per _yen_.)
_Soy_ 0.45 0.75 Salt and _miso_ (including 1-1/2 _gō_ of salt and some _miso_) 0.40 0.70 Oils (3 _shō_ of kerosene and 5 _gō_ of vegetable oil) 0.45 0.69 Sugar 0.60 0.90 Milk (1 _gō_ per day) 0.90 1.10 Newspaper (only 1) 0.25 0.35 School expenses (for 2 children) 0.80 0.90 Stationery expenditure (for the children) 0.60 0.90 Hair dressing 0.34 0.69 Price of bath (every other day for the family) 0.90 1.50 Vegetables 0.90 1.50 Fish food (9 messes for the family) 1.08 1.80 Beef (6 messes for the family, about 2/3 of 1 pound) 0.60 1.20 Tsukudani and other auxiliary foods (6 messes) 0.24 0.42 Tea 0.40 0.50 Fuel 1.00 1.80 ----- ----- Total 17.21 28.20 Security money for rent 7.00 15.00
These include necessaries, but if other petty expenses are taken into calculation, a family of 6 members as mentioned above will require a monthly income of at least 35 _yen_ on which to maintain themselves decently.
_Wages of Japanese Workmen_
Following is a table of the average wages:—
1902. 1911. _Yen._ _Yen._ Carpenter per day .775 1.063 Plasterer „ .863 1.150 Painter „ .860 1.238 Tile Roofer „ .613 1.225 Roofer „ .913 1.213 Bricklayer „ .900 1.250 Furniture Maker „ .800 .988 Stone Mason „ .925 1.250 Gardener „ .600 .838 Paper Hanger „ .825 1.025 Matting Setter „ .900 1.175 Sawyer „ .863 1.088 Compositor „ .575 .750 Printer „ .400 .650 Wooden Clog Maker „ .638 .625 Cooper „ .700 .528 Fireman „ .550 .813 Coolie „ .450 .575 Jeweller „ .650 .650 Tailor, Jap. clothes „ .688 .738 [205]Cabinet Maker „ .550 .888 [205]Lacquerer „ .513 .600 [205]Shoemaker „ .750 1.038 [205]Harness Maker „ .675 1.038 [205]Cart Maker „ .550 .588 [205]Founder „ .813 .700 [205]Blacksmith „ .813 1.075 [205]Rice Pounder „ .375 .483 [205]Dyer per month 8.875 8.375 [205]Washerman „ 10.000 7.750 [205]Jap. Sock Maker „ 6.000 9.500 [205]Eur. Confectioner „ 9.750 13.000 [205]Male Servant „ 2.625 4.000 [205]Female Servant „ 2.000 3.250 [205]Tailor, Eur. clothes „ 17.625 30.000
RAILWAYS IN JAPAN
The report on railway development shows that since the government constructed its first line of eighteen miles from Yokohama to Tōkyō in 1872, a great trunk line of 1,200 miles has been built, and the total mileage in the country increased to 6,042, which in 1910 handled 153,088,066 passengers and 25,815,000 tons of freight. Of this entire mileage, 506 miles are owned by private corporations, and 5,536 by the government, which was the pioneer in the movement to give the country modern land transportation. No private construction was done until 1883, when the government had 181 miles of railway under operation; and it was not until 1889 that private enterprise for a time led the governmental effort. The state railways to August, 1905, cost the sum of 85,573,511 _yen_, while the private systems represented a cost for construction to the same date of 191,230,291 _yen_. In 1910 the grand total had reached almost 577,000,000 _yen_.
According to the reports made on the railways at the end of the year 1910 the gross earnings of both state and private railways for that year were 89,000,000 _yen_, the gross expenditures 46,796,000 _yen_, and the net profit over 43,700,000 _yen_.
The government has arranged plans for railway construction and development which involve an outlay of 174,523,365 _yen_, the construction to extend through eight years, and the improvements through twelve.
The line from Nagoya to Haichioji, near Tōkyō, opened to traffic in 1911, is about 224 miles long. The construction represents the best engineering skill, and an outlay of $17,500,000. It has ninety-five tunnels and 350 bridges.
The people of the country opposed the construction of the first line from Yokohama to Tokyo as a dangerous thing, and it was several years before public opposition to the innovation was entirely removed. Bond issues for railway construction were opposed, but the government insisted on its policy and finally won the people to its general support, so that by the end of the year 1908 on all lines there were 2,156 locomotives, 5,951 passenger coaches, and 34,045 freight cars in use.
POSTAL SAVINGS IN JAPAN[206]
It must be admitted at the outset that the system of postal savings in Japan cannot boast of any particularly brilliant record. The study of it reveals, however, a state of things which is not without some encouraging features. We give below the amounts of the deposits and some other items for every third year since the inauguration of the institution:—
======+==================+====================+============ | DEPOSITS AT THE | | AMOUNT PER YEAR. | END OF THE YEAR. | NO. OF DEPOSITORS. | DEPOSITOR. | _Yen._ | | _Yen._ ------+------------------+--------------------+------------ 1875 | 15,000 | 1,800 | 8 1878 | 286,000 | 14,100 | 20 1881 | 821,000 | 38,900 | 21 1884 | 5,260,000 | 141,200 | 37 1887 | 18,213,000 | 568,800 | 31 1890 | 19,197,000 | 833,700 | 25 1893 | 26,155,000 | 1,060,200 | 24 1896 | 28,251,000 | 1,273,300 | 21 1899 | 23,455,000 | 1,397,600 | 16 1902 | 28,536,000 | 2,707,500 | 10 1905 | 54,754,096 | 5,858,560 | 9 1908 | 92,389,473 | 7,886,279 | 12 1911 | 200,000,000 | 12,000,000 | 17 ======+==================+====================+============
The sudden drop between the years 1896 and 1902 is owing to the fact that the extraordinarily high interest offered by the ordinary banks during that period of monetary stringency diverted deposits from the Post Offices. The gradual fall in the general rates of interest since then has already begun to turn the tide back in favor of the Post Offices, as shown by the figures for late years. What is particularly satisfactory is the increase in the number of depositors, the increase in this respect being far more remarkable than the increase in the amount of the deposits, as shown by the decreasing amount per depositor. This means, if it means anything, that the advantages offered by the Postal Savings Bank are more and more extensively appreciated by the poorer classes.
The amount of deposits at the Postal Savings Bank seems to be steadily increasing, as is shown by the table. The figures for 1909, not given there, show 9,717,236 depositors, and 122,098,101 _yen_ deposits.
Not altogether unsatisfactory as is this result of the official efforts to encourage the saving habit among the people, it must be noted that we are in this respect far behind some of the European countries. Consulting the statistics for the year 1898, we find the postal savings reached in that year to £120,000,000 in England, £33,000,000 in France, £21,000,000 in Belgium, £4,800,000 in Austria, £1,000,000 in Hungary, £2,700,000 in Holland, and £3,400,000 in Sweden. In spite of the great improvement effected in the system of late years, especially in the way of simplifying the official procedure connected with the acceptance and repayment of the deposits, much still remains to be done in order to bring the facilities provided by it within easy reach of the people by increasing the number of the Post Offices authorized to receive deposits throughout the country.
While speaking of savings, it may not be uninteresting to mention a few figures on the state of the deposits at the ordinary banks. We do not happen to have at hand the statistics covering all the banking concerns in the country. The “Ginkō Tsushin-Roku,” however, supplies us with reliable statistics up to February, 1902, so far as the principal banking centres are concerned. We find, then, that the total amount of deposits at the banks belonging to the clearing-houses of Tōkyō, Ōsaka, Kyōto, Nagoya, Yokohama, and Kōbe, stood at the end of February at 308,289,000 yen, made up as follows, not including the deposits at the Bank of Japan:
_Yen._ Tōkyō 119,268,000 Ōsaka 75,824,000 Yokohama 49,280,000 Kōbe 23,423,000 Kyōto 22,616,000 Nagoya 17,878,000
In June, 1910, the Bank of Japan had a paid-up capital of 37,600,000 _yen_; in 1909 the deposits were 220,101,784 _yen_. At that time the Industrial Bank of Japan had deposits of 8,930,050 _yen_. The deposits in all the Japanese banks in 1909 amounted to 1,617,873,711 _yen_.
THE OIL INDUSTRY IN JAPAN[207]
Japan’s oil industry has a brilliant future before it. The use of kerosene in the country has grown at a wonderfully rapid pace. In the first year of _Meiji_ the amount of oil imported was 639 _koku_. In 1901 it had reached 1,300,000 _koku_. The value of the oil imported in 1868 was only 7,236 _yen_; that imported in 1901 was 14 million _yen_.[208] The following table shows the rate at which the import of kerosene into Japan increased:—
=======+===========+============ | | VALUE. YEARS. | _Koku._ | _Yen._ -------+-----------+------------ 1868 | 639 | 7,236 1872 | 8,936 | 160,608 1877 | 53,645 | 605,598 1882 | 413,644 | 2,320,905 1887 | 421,177 | 1,871,428 1892 | 653,785 | 3,328,398 1897 | 1,221,164 | 7,667,350 1900 | 1,356,846 | 14,162,652 1901 | 1,379,927 | 14,943,400 =======+===========+============
Notwithstanding the large supply that has come from abroad, of late years the demand for the Echigo oil has gone on increasing, as shown in the subjoined table, which covers seven years.
=======+=================+=========== | _Koku_ OF CRUDE | VALUE. YEARS. | PETROLEUM. | _Yen._ -------+-----------------+----------- 1895 | 158,334 | 526,976 1896 | 207,470 | 619,333 1897 | 257,614 | 668,677 1898 | 355,006 | 670,308 1899 | 544,583 | 1,450,904 1900 | 836,628 | 2,142,003 1901 | 1,115,807 | 2,345,916 =======+=================+===========
It is calculated that about 5/10 of the total quantity of this crude petroleum was used for lighting purposes. It would seem, then, that Echigo supplied 3/10 of the total amount of oil used for lighting in Japan during the seven years, and that the remaining 7/10 came from abroad. Taking the year 1901, the value of the crude petroleum being 2,345,916 _yen_, it is estimated that when refined this amount of petroleum would fetch not less than 4 million _yen_. But the fact remains that the proportion of oil imported is still very large, so that there is room for a further great development of the business.
In 1908 Japan’s output of petroleum was 1,872,592 U. S. barrels. Echigo is by no means worked out: new fields are constantly being discovered in that province. Then petroleum has been found in Hokkaidō and in the Yamagata and Shizuoka prefectures. So that among Japan’s modern industries her oil trade may be pronounced to be full of promise. How the quality of the Japanese oil compares with the American and Russian brands, we are not told by the _Jiji_, but from other sources we gather that when properly refined Japanese petroleum is equal to the best American and Russian oils.
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT.
The following table shows the national development in population, finance, trade, railway, vessels, telegraphs, savings, and currency, during the 30 years from 1872 to 1902.
========+===============+==============+=============+========== | | STATE | | RAILWAY. YEAR. | POPULATION. | EXPENDITURE. | TRADE. | MILES. | (IN THOUSAND) | _Yen._ | _Yen._ | --------+---------------+--------------+-------------+---------- 1872 | 33,210 | 57,730,025 | 43,204,462 | 18 1873 | 33,300 | 62,678,601 | 49,742,830 | 18 1874 | 33,625 | 82,269,528 | 42,779,120 | 38 1875 | 33,997 | 69,203,242 | 48,586,738 | 38 1876 | 34,338 | 59,308,956 | 51,676,296 | 65 1877 | (unknown) | 48,428,324 | 50,769,424 | 66 1878 | „ | 60,911,336 | 58,862,974 | 68 1879 | 35,768 | 60,317,578 | 61,128,772 | 73 1880 | 35,929 | 63,140,896 | 65,021,987 | 98 1881 | 36,358 | 71,460,321 | 62,250,133 | 122 1882 | 36,700 | 73,480,667 | 67,168,344 | 170 1883 | 37,017 | 83,106,859 | 64,712,861 | 244 1884 | 37,451 | 76,663,108 | 63,544,112 | 262 1885 | 37,868 | 61,115,313 | 66,503,659 | 353 1886 | 38,507 | 83,223,960 | 84,044,745 | 430 1887 | 39,069 | 79,453,036 | 96,711,932 | 593 1888 | 39,607 | 81,504,024 | 131,160,744 | 912 1889 | 40,072 | 79,713,671 | 136,164,472 | 1,136 1890 | 40,453 | 82,125,403 | 138,332,086 | 1,339 1891 | 40,718 | 83,558,891 | 142,454,540 | 1,716 1892 | 41,089 | 76,734,740 | 162,428,833 | 1,870 1893 | 41,388 | 84,581,872 | 177,970,036 | 1,938 1894 | 41,813 | 78,128,643 | 230,028,141 | 2,118 1895 | 42,270 | 85,317,179 | 265,372,756 | 2,290 1896 | 42,706 | 168,856,509 | 289,517,234 | 2,507 1897 | 43,228 | 223,678,844 | 382,435,848 | 2,948 1898 | 43,763 | 219,757,568 | 443,255,909 | 3,120 1899 | 44,260 | 254,165,537 | 435,331,802 | 3,638 1900 | .... | 292,726,996 | 491,691,839 | 3,855 1901 | .... | 266,856,824 | 508,166,187 | 4,026 1902 | .... | 275,751,194 | | --------+---------------+--------------+-------------+----------
========+==============+=============+============+============= | VESSELS. | TELEGRAPHIC | | MONEY IN YEAR. | TON. | LINES. | SAVINGS. | CIRCULATION. | | _Ri._ | _Yen._ | _Yen._ --------+--------------+-------------+------------+------------- 1872 | 22,364 | 87 | .... | 132,611,498 1873 | 26,988 | 806 | .... | 159,423,361 1874 | 26,120 | 1,758 | .... | 157,660,830 1875 | 42,304 | 1,833 | 15,224 | 154,931,596 1876 | 40,248 | 2,156 | 41,845 | 163,692,344 1877 | 49,105 | 2,876 | 100,138 | 175,432,023 1878 | 43,899 | 3,512 | 286,289 | 221,994,874 1879 | 42,763 | 3,842 | 494,114 | 215,912,239 1880 | 41,215 | 4,489 | 662,091 | 203,994,171 1881 | 41,044 | 5,078 | 821,938 | 195,742,688 1882 | 42,107 | 5,477 | 1,058,225 | 186,376,681 1883 | 45,350 | 5,871 | 2,298,502 | 182,625,317 1884 | 49,845 | 6,122 | 5,260,484 | 177,978,053 1885 | 59,613 | 6,283 | 9,050,255 | 181,433,916 1886 | 63,314 | 6,353 | 15,462,054 | 198,557,838 1887 | 72,322 | 6,818 | 18,417,022 | 200,157,163 1888 | 81,066 | 7,588 | 20,142,169 | 207,825,609 1889 | 88,816 | 8,191 | 19,976,419 | 220,748,343 1890 | 93,812 | 9,250 | 19,197,942 | 205,408,438 1891 | 95,588 | 9,113 | 26,424,174 | 210,872,584 1892 | 102,301 | 9,920 | 30,031,483 | 219,848,385 1893 | 110,205 | 10,230 | 32,199.954 | 244,847,437 1894 | 169,414 | 11,502 | 32,772,652 | 256,088,534 1895 | 213,221 | 12,212 | 41,143,695 | 291,665,016 1896 | 227,841 | 15,431 | 46,693,884 | 307,461,803 1897 | 426,624 | 18,360 | 51,550,536 | 330,470,142 1898 | 464,246 | 20,561 | 52,532,992 | 285,589,698 1899 | 498,376 | 24,342 | 68,829,712 | 332,702,090 1900 | 534,239 | 27,390 | 72,897,286 | 318,280,814 1901 | .... | .... | .... | 306,315,006 1902 | | | | --------+--------------+-------------+------------+-------------
NOTE.—In expenditure, the figures from 1872 up to 1898 are taken from the settled account, and those of 1899, 1900, and 1901 from the actual account. 1902 is from the Budget. In railways, the figures show the mileages of the lines belonging to the government as well as those belonging to private firms opened to traffic at the end of the respective years. The tonnage of vessels shown in the table is that of steamers. Before 1896, the figures represented the aggregate amount of both registered and unregistered tonnage, while from that year up to 1902, the figures only represented registered tonnage. In savings, the figures show the total amount saved in the post offices as well in the savings banks at the end of the respective years. The figures from 1890 to 1900 indicate, however, the amounts of the postal savings only.
From the “Tōyō Keizai Shimpō” (Oriental Economist).
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOREIGN TRADE OF JAPAN
From the official statistics we give a table of Japan’s foreign trade each year from 1868 to 1901, and for 1909.
=======+====================+=====================+=================== | | | | EXPORTS. | IMPORTS. | TOTAL. | _Yen._ | _Yen._ | _Yen._ | | | -------+-------------+------+--------------+------+--------------+---- 1868 | 15,553,472 | 870 | 10,693,071 | 790 | 26,246,544 | 660 1869 | 12,908,977 | 990 | 20,783,633 | 090 | 33,692,611 | 080 1870 | 14,543,012 | 510 | 33,741,637 | 360 | 48,284,649 | 870 1871 | 17,968,608 | 660 | 21,916,727 | 650 | 39,885,336 | 310 1872 | 17,026,647 | 220 | 26,174,814 | 930 | 43,201,462 | 150 1873 | 21,635,440 | 850 | 28,107,390 | 030 | 49,742,830 | 880 1874 | 19,317,306 | 090 | 23,461,814 | 400 | 42,779,120 | 490 1875 | 18,611,110 | 610 | 29,975,627 | 620 | 48,586,738 | 230 1876 | 27,711,527 | 500 | 29,964,678 | 960 | 51,676,206 | 460 1877 | 23,348,521 | 600 | 27,420,902 | 950 | 50,769,424 | 650 1878 | 25,988,140 | 280 | 32,874,834 | 170 | 58,862,974 | 450 1879 | 28,175,770 | 190 | 32,953,002 | 390 | 61,128,772 | 580 1880 | 28,395,386 | 660 | 36,626,601 | 000 | 65,021,987 | 660 1881 | 31,058,887 | 930 | 31,191,246 | 020 | 62,250,133 | 950 1882 | 37,721,750 | 570 | 29,446,593 | 980 | 67,168,344 | 550 1883 | 36,268,019 | 590 | 28,444,841 | 780 | 64,712,861 | 370 1884 | 33,871,465 | 500 | 29,672,647 | 450 | 63,544,112 | 950 1885 | 37,146,691 | 430 | 29,356,967 | 920 | 66,503,659 | 350 1886 | 48,876,312 | 790 | 32,168,432 | 260 | 81,044,745 | 050 1887 | 52,407,681 | 150 | 44,304,251 | 690 | 96,711,932 | 840 1888 | 65,705,510 | 210 | 65,455,234 | 010 | 131,160,744 | 220 1889 | 70,060,705 | 820 | 66,103,766 | 600 | 136,164,472 | 420 1890 | 56,603,506 | 030 | 81,728,580 | 500 | 138,332,086 | 530 1891 | 79,527,272 | 340 | 62,927,268 | 380 | 142,454,540 | 720 1892 | 91,102,753 | 630 | 71,326,079 | 500 | 162,428,833 | 130 1893 | 89,712,864 | 590 | 88,257,171 | 710 | 177,970,036 | 300 1894 | 113,246,086 | 150 | 117,481,955 | 460 | 230,728,041 | 610 1895 | 136,112,177 | 920 | 129,260,578 | 280 | 265,372,756 | 200 1896 | 177,842,700 | 620 | 171,674,474 | 250 | 289,517,234 | 870 1897 | 163,135,077 | 320 | 219,300,771 | 640 | 382,435,848 | 960 1898 | 165,753,752 | 880 | 277,502,156 | 510 | 443,255,909 | 390 1899 | 214,929,894 | 310 | 220,401,925 | 990 | 435,331,820 | 300 1900 | 204,429,998 | 980 | 287,261,845 | 680 | 491,691,839 | 560 1901 | 252,349,542 | 100 | 255,816,644 | 700 | 508,166,187 | 800 =1909= |=413,112,511=| .. | =394,198,843=| .. | =807,311,354=|
=======+======================================= | IMPORTS COMPARED WITH EXPORTS. +--------------------+------------------ | INCREASE. | Decrease. | _Yen._ | _Yen._ -------+-------------+------+-------------+---- 1868 | ....... | .. | 4,860,401 | 080 1869 | 7,874,655 | | | 1870 | 19,198,624 | 850 | | 1871 | 3,948,118 | 990 | | 1872 | 9,148,167 | 710 | | 1873 | 6,471,949 | 180 | | 1874 | 4,144,508 | 310 | | 1875 | 11,364,517 | 010 | | 1876 | ....... | .. | 3,746,848 | 540 1877 | 4,072,381 | 850 | | 1878 | 6,886,693 | 890 | | 1879 | 4,777,232 | 200 | | 1880 | 8,231,214 | 340 | | 1881 | 132,358 | 090 | | 1882 | ...... | .. | 8,275,156 | 590 1883 | ...... | .. | 7,823,177 | 810 1884 | ...... | .. | 4,198,818 | 050 1885 | ...... | .. | 7,789,723 | 510 1886 | ...... | .. | 16,707,880 | 530 1887 | ...... | .. | 8,103,429 | 460 1888 | ...... | .. | 250,276 | 200 1889 | ...... | .. | 3,966,939 | 220 1890 | 25,125,074 | 470 | | 1891 | ...... | .. | 16,600,003 | 960 1892 | ...... | .. | 19,776,674 | 130 1893 | ...... | .. | 1,455,692 | 880 1894 | 4,235,869 | 310 | | 1895 | ...... | .. | 6,851,599 | 640 1896 | 53,831,713 | 680 | | 1897 | 56,165,694 | 320 | | 1898 | 111,748,403 | 630 | | 1899 | 5,472,031 | 680 | | 1900 | 82,831,851 | 600 | | 1901 | 3,467,101 | 600 | | =1909= | | | |
THE WEALTH OF JAPAN
The following estimate gives an idea of the wealth of Japan and its distribution:—
Land 7,000 millions _yen_. Mines 500 „ „ Live-stock 80 „ „ Buildings 1,900 „ „ Furniture 400 „ „ Railroads 350 „ „ Warships and merchant-ships 250 „ „ Specie 200 „ „ Miscellaneous 300 „ „ Goods and other products 800 „ „ ------ Total 11,080 „ „
* * * * *
The output of gold in 1908 was 168,883 ounces.
* * * * *
On the position Japanese occupy as regards the acquisition of wealth Mr. Kure Bunso, the well-known statistician, writes in the “Shakaigaku Zasshi” as follows: There are only two men in Japan who pay an income tax on over 250,000 _yen_. There are only 13 men in the whole country who pay on 39,000 _yen_, being in the proportion of 4 persons to every 100,000 inhabitants; only 67 who pay on 24,000 _yen_, being in the proportion of 2 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants; 96 persons who pay on 17,000 _yen_, being in the proportion of 2.8 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants; those who pay on 11,000 _yen_ number 140, being in the proportion of 4 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants. Out of every 1,000 inhabitants there are only 7 persons who make 2,700 _yen_ a year. Thus it is seen that when compared with the French and the English the Japanese are extremely poor. The Germans seem to be rich to the Japanese, though when compared with the French and English they are poor. General Grant, when in Japan nearly twenty years ago, remarked that Japan was fortunate in having such an equality among all classes of the people. He said that the gulf between the rich and the poor did not exist here. Equality may be all very well in its way, but, says Mr. Kure, a state of equality in which most of the people hardly have enough to live on is anything but desirable.[209]
* * * * *
The new building of the Mitsui Company in Tōkyō is constructed upon steel frames, and is the only one of its kind in the East. The Mitsui Bank is the oldest banking establishment in Japan, more than 200 years old. The building area is 2,600 square yards on a site covering 2-1/2 acres.
JAPANESE YEAR PERIODS
It should be borne in mind that the Japanese year periods do not regularly correspond with the reigns of the Emperors, because “a new one was chosen whenever it was deemed necessary to commemorate an auspicious or ward off a malign event.” But hereafter the era will correspond with the reign of an Emperor. The names of some of these eras are quite famous, like the Elizabethan or the Victorian Era in English history. As the first era was a time of great reforms, it is known as the Taikwa Reformation; the Engi Era, in the tenth century, is celebrated for important legislation; the Genroku Era, in the seventeenth century, was “a period of great activity in various arts”; and the Tempō Era, of recent days, was “the last brilliant period of feudalism before its fall.” This name was also given to the large 8 _rin_ piece coined in that era. The Wadō Era, in the fourteenth century, was so named on account of the discovery of copper; and the second era, Hakuchi, commemorates a “white pheasant,” presented to the Emperor.
LIST OF JAPANESE YEAR PERIODS.[210]
===========================+===========+=========== NAME. | JAPANESE | CHRISTIAN | ERA.[211] | ERA. ---------------------------+-----------+----------- Taikwa | 1305 | 645 Hakuchi | 1310 | 650 (Blank) | 1315-1331 | 655-671 Sujaku | 1332 | 672 Hakuhō | 1332 | 672 Shuchō | 1346 | 686 (Blank) | 1347-1360 | 687-700 Daihō [Taihō] | 1361 | 701 Keiun | 1364 | 704 Wadō | 1368 | 708 Reiki | 1375 | 715 Yōrō | 1377 | 717 Jinki [Shinki] | 1384 | 724 Tembiō | 1389 | 729 Tembiō shōhō | 1409 | 749 Tembiō hoji | 1417 | 757 Tembiō jingo | 1425 | 765 Jingo keiun | 1427 | 767 Hōki | 1430 | 770 Tenō | 1441 | 781 Enriaku | 1442 | 782 Daidō | 1466 | 806 Kōnin | 1470 | 810 Tenchō | 1484 | 824 Jōwa [Shōwa] | 1494 | 834 Kajō [Kashō] | 1508 | 848 Ninju | 1511 | 851 Saikō | 1514 | 854 Tenan | 1517 | 857 Jōgwan [Jōkwan] | 1519 | 859 Gwangiō [Genkei] | 1537 | 877 Ninna [Ninwa] | 1545 | 885 Kwampei | 1549 | 889 Shōtai | 1558 | 898 Engi | 1561 | 901 Enchō | 1583 | 923 Jōhei [Shōhei] | 1591 | 931 Tengiō [Tenkei] | 1598 | 938 Tenriaku | 1607 | 947 Tentoku | 1617 | 957 Ōwa | 1621 | 961 Kōhō | 1624 | 964 Anna | 1628 | 968 Tenroku | 1630 | 970 Ten-en | 1633 | 973 Jōgen | 1636 | 976 Tengen | 1638 | 978 Eikwan | 1643 | 983 Kwanna | 1645 | 985 Eien | 1647 | 987 Eiso [Eisho] | 1649 | 989 Shōriaku | 1650 | 990 Chōtoku | 1655 | 995 Chōhō | 1659 | 999 Kwankō | 1664 | 1004 Chōwa | 1672 | 1012 Kwannin | 1677 | 1017 Ji-an | 1681 | 1021 Manju | 1684 | 1024 Chōgen | 1688 | 1028 Chōriaku | 1697 | 1037 Chōkiū | 1700 | 1040 Kwantoku | 1704 | 1044 Eijō [Eishō] | 1706 | 1046 Tengi [Tenki] | 1713 | 1053 Kōhei | 1718 | 1058 Jiriaku | 1725 | 1065 Enkiū | 1729 | 1069 Jōhō [Shōhō] | 1734 | 1074 Jōriaku [Shōreki] | 1737 | 1077 Eiho | 1741 | 1081 Otoku | 1744 | 1084 Kwanji | 1747 | 1087 Kahō | 1754 | 1094 Eichō | 1756 | 1096 Jōtoku [Shōtoku] | 1757 | 1097 Kōwa | 1759 | 1099 Chōji | 1764 | 1104 Kajō [Kashō] | 1766 | 1106 Tennin | 1768 | 1108 Tenei | 1770 | 1110 Eikiū | 1773 | 1113 Genei | 1778 | 1118 Hōan | 1780 | 1120 Tenji | 1784 | 1124 Daiji | 1786 | 1126 Tenjō [Tenshō] | 1791 | 1131 Chōjō [Chōshō] | 1792 | 1132 Hōen | 1795 | 1135 Eiji | 1801 | 1141 Kōji | 1802 | 1142 Tenyō | 1804 | 1144 Kiū-an | 1805 | 1145 Nimbiō | 1811 | 1151 Kiūju | 1814 | 1154 Hōgen | 1816 | 1156 Heiji | 1819 | 1159 Eiriaku | 1820 | 1160 Ōhō | 1821 | 1161 Chōkwan | 1823 | 1163 Eiman | 1825 | 1165 Ninan | 1826 | 1166 Ka-ō | 1829 | 1169 Jō-an [Shōan] | 1831 | 1171 Angen | 1835 | 1175 Jishō | 1837 | 1177 Yōwa | 1841 | 1181 Ju-ei | 1842 | 1182 Genriaku | 1844 | 1184 Bunji | 1845 | 1185 Kenkiū | 1850 | 1190 Shōji | 1859 | 1199 Kennin | 1861 | 1201 Genkiū | 1864 | 1204 Kenei | 1866 | 1206 Jōgen [Shōgen] | 1867 | 1207 Kenriaku | 1871 | 1211 Kempō | 1873 | 1213 Jōkiū [Shōkiū] | 1879 | 1219 Jō-ō | 1882 | 1222 Gennin | 1884 | 1224 Karoku | 1885 | 1225 Antei | 1887 | 1227 Kwangi | 1889 | 1229 Jō-ei | 1892 | 1232 Tempuku | 1893 | 1233 Bunriaku | 1894 | 1234 Katei | 1895 | 1235 Riakunin | 1898 | 1238 En-o | 1899 | 1239 Ninji | 1900 | 1240 Kwangen | 1903 | 1243 Hōji | 1907 | 1247 Kenchō | 1909 | 1249 Kōgen | 1916 | 1256 Shōka | 1917 | 1257 Shōgen | 1919 | 1259 Bunō | 1920 | 1260 Kōchō | 1921 | 1261 Bunei | 1924 | 1264 Kenji | 1935 | 1275 Kōan | 1938 | 1278 Shō-ō | 1948 | 1288 Einin | 1953 | 1293 Shōan | 1959 | 1299 Kengen | 1962 | 1302 Kagen | 1963 | 1303 Tokuji | 1966 | 1306 Enkiō [En-kei] | 1968 | 1308 Ōchō | 1971 | 1311 Shōwa | 1972 | 1312 Bumpō | 1977 | 1317 Gen-ō | 1979 | 1319 Genkō | 1981 | 1321 Shōchū | 1984 | 1324 Kariaku | 1986 | 1326 Gentoku | 1989 | 1329 Shōkiō [Shōkei] | 1992 | 1332 Kemmu | 1994 | 1334 Rekiō | 1998 | 1338[212] Kōei | 2002 | 1342[212] Jōwa | 2005 | 1345[212] Kwanō | 2010 | 1350[212] Bunna | 2012 | 1352[212] Embun | 2016 | 1356[212] Kōan | 2021 | 1361[212] Jōji | 2022 | 1362[212] Ōan | 2028 | 1368[212] Eiwa | 2035 | 1375[212] Kōreki | 2039 | 1379[212] Eitoku | 2041 | 1381[212] Shitoku | 2044 | 1384[212] Kakei | 2047 | 1387[212] Koō | 2049 | 1389[212] Engen | 1996 | 1336[213] Kōkoku | 2000 | 1340[213] Shōhei | 2006 | 1346[213] Kentoku | 2030 | 1370[213] Bunchū | 2032 | 1372[213] Tenju | 2035 | 1375[213] Kōwa | 2041 | 1381[213] Genchū | 2044 | 1384[213] Meitoku | 2050 | 1390 Ō-ei | 2054 | 1394 Shōchō | 2088 | 1428 Eikiō | 2089 | 1429 Kakitsu | 2101 | 1441 Bunan | 2104 | 1444 Hōtoku | 2109 | 1449 Kōtoku | 2112 | 1452 Kōshō | 2115 | 1455 Chōroku | 2117 | 1457 Kwanshō | 2120 | 1460 Bunshō | 2126 | 1466 Ōnin | 2127 | 1467 Bummei | 2129 | 1469 Chōkō | 2147 | 1487 Entoku | 2149 | 1489 Mei-ō | 2152 | 1492 Bunki | 2161 | 1501 Eishō | 2164 | 1504 Dai-ei [Taiei] | 2181 | 1521 Kōroku | 2188 | 1528 Tembun | 2192 | 1532 Kōji | 2215 | 1555 Eiroku | 2218 | 1558 Genki | 2230 | 1570 Tenshō | 2233 | 1573 Bunroku | 2252 | 1592 Keichō | 2256 | 1596 Genna | 2275 | 1615 Kwanei | 2284 | 1624 Shōhō | 2304 | 1644 Kei-an | 2308 | 1648 Jō-ō [Shō-ō] | 2312 | 1652 Meireki | 2315 | 1655 Manji | 2318 | 1658 Kwambun | 2321 | 1661 Empō | 2333 | 1673 Tenna | 2341 | 1681 Jōkiō | 2344 | 1684 Genroku | 2348 | 1688 Hō-ei | 2364 | 1704 Shōtōku | 2371 | 1711 Kiōhō | 2376 | 1716 Gembun | 2396 | 1736 Kwampō | 2401 | 1741 Enkiō | 2404 | 1744 Kwannen | 2408 | 1748 Hōreki | 2411 | 1751 Meiwa | 2424 | 1764 Anei | 2432 | 1772 Temmei | 2441 | 1781 Kwansei | 2449 | 1789 Kiōwa | 2461 | 1801 Bunkwa | 2464 | 1804 Bunsei | 2478 | 1818 Tempō | 2490 | 1830 Kōkwa | 2504 | 1844 Ka-ei | 2508 | 1848 Ansei | 2514 | 1854 Manen | 2520 | 1860 Bunkiū | 2521 | 1861 Genji | 2524 | 1864 Kei-ō | 2525 | 1865 Meiji | 2528 | 1868 Taishō | 2572 | 1912 ---------------------------+-----------+----------
The names of these periods are made by the various combinations of 68 Chinese words of good omen. ===================================================
There are, moreover, other expressions which more closely resemble such common Occidental phrases as the Victorian Era, the Elizabethan Era, the Age of Pericles, except that in the impersonal Orient such expressions are named more often from places. In Japanese history, for instance, it is very common to read of the Nara Epoch, the Heian Epoch, the Muromachi Period, the Kamakura Period, the Yedo Era, the Tōkyō Period (Modern Japan). Personal names are applied, however, in such cases as the Hōjō Era, the Ashikaga Period, the Tokugawa Era, the Fujiwara Period.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES.[214]
1. Jimmu (660-585 B. C.) 2. Suizei (581-549) 3. Annei (548-511) 4. Itoku (510-477) 5. Kōshō (475-393) 6. Kōan (392-291) 7. Kōrei (290-215) 8. Kōgen (214-158) 9. Kaikwa (157-98) 10. Sujin (97-30) 11. Suinin (29 B. C.-70 A. D.) 12. Keikō (71-130 A. D.) 13. Seimu (131-190) 14. Chūai-(192-200) [15. _Jingō_[214] (201-269)] 16. Ōjin (270-310) 17. Nintoku (313-399) 18. Richū (400-405) 19. Hanzei (406-411) 20. Ingyō (412-453) 21. Ankō (454-456) 22. Yūryaku (457-479) 23. Seinei (480-484) 24. Kensō (485-487) 25. Ninken (488-498) 26. Muretsu (499-506) 27. Keitai (507-531) 28. Ankan (534-535) 29. Senkwa (536-539) 30. Kimmei (540-571) 31. Bidatsu (572-585) 32. Yōmei (586-587) 33. Sujun (588-592) 34. _Suiko_ (593-628) 35. Jomei (629-641) 36. _Kōgyoku_ (642-645) 37. Kōtoku (645-654) 38. _Saimei_ (655-661) 39. Tenchi (668-671) 40. Kōbun (672) 41. Temmu (673-686) 42. _Jitō_ (690-696) 43. Mommu (697-707) 44. _Gemmyō_ (708-715) 45. _Genshō_ (715-723) 46. Shōmu (724-748) 47. _Kōken_ (749-758) 48. Junnin (758-764) 49. _Shōtoku_ (765-770) 50. Kōnin (770-781) 51. Kwammu (782-806) 52. Heizei (806-809) 53. Saga (809-823) 54. Junna (823-833) 55. Nimmyō (833-850) 56. Montoku (850-858) 57. Seiwa (859-876) 58. Yōzei (877-884) 59. Kōkō (884-887) 60. Uda (888-897) 61. Daigo (897-930) 62. Sujaku (931-946) 63. Murakami (946-967) 64. Reizei (968-969) 65. Enyū (970-984) 66. Kwazan (985-986) 67. Ichijō (987-1011) 68. Sanjō (1012-1016) 69. Go-Ichijō[215] (1016-1036) 70. Go-Sujaku (1037-1045) 71. Go-Reizei (1045-1068) 72. Go-Sanjō (1068-1072) 73. Shirakawa (1073-10861 74. Horikawa (1087-1107) 75. Toba (1108-1123) 76. Sutoku (1123-1141) 77. Konoye (1142-1155) 78. Go-Shirakawa (1155-1158) 79. Nijō (1159-1165) 80. Rokujō (1165-1168) 81. Takakura (1168-1180) 82. Antoku (1180-1185) 83. Go-Toba (1186-1198) 84. Tsuchimikado (1198-1210) 85. Juntoku (1211-1221) 86. Chūkyō (1221) 87. Go-Horikawa (1221-1232) 88. Shijō (1233-1242) 89. Go-Saga (1242-1246) 90. Go-Fukakusa (1246-1259) 91. Kameyama (1260-1274) 92. Go-Uda (1274-1287) 93. Fushimi (1288-1298) 94. Go-Fushimi (1298-1301) 95. Go-Nijo (1301-1308) 96. Hanazono (1308-1318) 97. Go-Daigo (1318-1338) 98. Go-Murakami (1339-1368) [99. Chōkei (1368-1372)] 100. Go-Kameyama (1373-1392) 101. Go-Komatsu (1392-1412) 102. Shōkō (1412-1428) 103. Go-Hanazono (1428-1464) 104. Go-Tsuchimikado (1464-1500) 105. Go-Kashiwabara (1500-1526) 106. Go-Nara (1526-1557) 107. Ogimachi (1567-1586) 108. Go-Yōzei (1587-1611) 109. Go-Mizuno-o (1612-1629) 110. _Myōshō_ (1630-1643) 111. Go-Kōmyō (1643-1654) 112. Go-Saiin (1655-1663) 113. Reigen (1663-1687) 114. Higashiyama (1687-1709) 115. Nakano-mikado (1709-1735) 116. Sakuramachi (1735-1747) 117. Momozono (1747-1762) 118. _Go-Sakuramachi_ (1762-1770) 119. Go-Momozono (1771-1779) 120. Kōkaku (1779-1817) 121. Ninkō (1817-1846) 122. Kōmei (1846-1867) 123. Mutsuhito (1867-1912) 124. Yoshihito (1912- )
N.B.—Nos. 36 and 38 were the same empress; likewise Nos. 47 and 49.
We append also a list of the sovereigns of the “Northern Court” during the separation, as follows:
1. Kōgon (1331-1333) 2. Kōmyō (1336-1348) 3. Sukō (1349-1352) 4. Go-Kōgon (1352-1371) 5. Go-Enyu (1371-1382) 6. Go-Komatsu (1383-1392)
In 1392 Go-Komatsu became emperor over the reunited empire.
MINISTERIAL CHANGES IN JAPAN
The following table shows the Cabinet changes that have taken place since constitutional government was instituted:
==============+====================+============ PREMIER. | TERM OF OFFICE. | YRS. MOS. --------------+--------------------+------------ Yamagata | Dec. ’89-Apr. ’91 | 1 4 Matsukata | May ’91-July ’92 | 1 2 Itō | Aug. ’92-Aug. ’96 | 4 0 Matsukata | Sept. ’96-Dec. ’97 | 1 3 Ito | Jan. ’98-June ’98 | 0 5 Okuma-Itagaki | June ’98-Oct. ’98 | 0 4 Yamagata | Nov. ’98-Sept. ’00 | 1 10 Itō | Oct. ’00-May ’01 | 0 7 Katsura | June ’01-Dec. ’05 | 4 6 Saionji | Jan. ’06-July ’08 | 2 6 Katsura | July ’08-Aug. ’11 | 3 2 Saionji | Sept. ’11-Dec. ’12 | 1 3 Katsura | Dec. ’12-Feb. ’13 | 0 2 Yamamoto | Feb. ’13- | ==============+====================+============
In connection with this table, we wish to call attention to the fact that the average duration of eleven Ministries is less than two years; and that the average was considerably raised by the unusual length of the two Ministries which covered the periods of the wars with China and Russia, when political rivalries were buried. It is quite probable that, if foreign wars had not occurred to unify the nation, those Ministries would not have had a duration so greatly in excess of the average, especially as, at the outbreak of the wars, party feeling was running very high. In that case the general average would have been reduced by an increase in the number of cabinets. It should also be noticed that three of these Ministries (both Matsukata and the second Itō) came to an end on account of collision with the Diet, and that four Ministries (the Kuroda, the first and third Itō, and the first party Cabinet of Ōkuma and Itagaki) were broken up by internal dissensions; and the last Katsura (February, 1913) was forced out by popular revolt.
JAPAN’S HOUSE OF PEERS
Among its 373 members only 57 sit by hereditary right; namely, 14 Princes of the Blood, 13 Princes, and 30 Marquises. Among the remaining members, 150 are elected by the Counts, Viscounts, and Barons, 121 are Imperial nominees,—that is to say, men who have earned distinction by eminent services or attainments,—and 45 represent the highest tax-payers in the prefectures.
THE POLITICAL PARTIES OF JAPAN[216]
The idea of popular representation in the government of Japan may be said to have had its birth with the Restoration, although some thoughtful men had been turning their minds in that direction at an earlier date. His Imperial Majesty the present Emperor, in his oath on the occasion of his succession to the throne, made known his enlightened desire that men should meet in council from all parts of the country and all affairs of state be determined in accordance with public opinion. This pronouncement may be regarded as the starting-point of the movement for parliamentary representation. The germ of the present House of Peers and House of Representatives is found in the _Gi-sei_, a department of the government which was organized as early as June, 1868. The _Kō-gi-jō_, which was opened in the following year, was representative, not of the people, but of the governing authorities in the various localities. The members of the _Sa-In_, which replaced the _Kō-gi-jō_ (or _Shūgi-in_) in September, 1871, were nominated by the Emperor and the council of state.
The history of political parties in Japan may conveniently be divided into four periods: (1) From the Restoration up to 1882, while as yet they were in embryo; (2) from the year 1882, when they for the first time took actual shape, until 1888; (3) from the organization of the _Daidō-Danketsu_ in 1887 until 1898; (4) the period since the amalgamation of the two strongest parties to form the constitutional party in 1898.
During the early seventies discussion went on regarding the advisability of the formation of a popular assembly. In 1874 was formed the first political society, the _Aikoku-tō_, or patriotic society, from which later sprang the Liberal Party (_Jiyu-tō_). In the previous year a division had taken place in the ranks of the higher officials of the government. The one party was composed of those who desired rapid progress in domestic matters and a vigorous foreign policy; the other desired steady progress at home and conciliation abroad. The latter party retained control of the government, and the former went into opposition. Among the most important of the radical party was Itagaki of Kōchi Prefecture. He organized the first local society, and devoted himself constantly to the attainment of his end of bringing about parliamentary institutions in the country. We thus have Kōchi, and later on Hizen, working for the extension of the power of the people, while the government was in the main conducted by Satsuma and Chōshū men.
The agitation for popular representation, although checked for a time by the Satsuma Rebellion, gained strength in 1879 and 1880, and the government became convinced that the question could not longer be postponed. On the 12th of October, 1881, the Emperor promulgated the famous ordinance in which the promise was given that a parliament should actually be established in 1890. As a preparatory measure, Itō, in company with a number of junior officials, was despatched to Europe early in 1882 to study the political systems of the West. The promise of a parliament served to give a more definite purpose to the various political associations, and the year 1882 saw the formal organization of the three parties which, under various names, have continued almost uninterruptedly to occupy the field until the present time. The _Jiyu-tō_ was the first organized, although not the first to be properly registered as a political association.
It is noticeable that the utterances of the various political parties when they first came into existence present in the main no features of a distinctive nature. All put forth excellent doctrines, but usually of extreme vagueness. The same characteristic has been noticeable throughout their history except when some temporary question of urgency has arisen. This is no doubt the reason why the grouping has constantly changed, one merging into another, and secessions occurring without apparent cause. 1883 and the following years saw a falling off in the interest in political parties,—doubtless a natural result of the over excitement which had just preceded, and of the apparent certainty of a parliament after 1890. The interest in politics and in parties revived, however, as the date assigned for the granting of the constitution approached.
Since the opening of the first Diet, the efforts of the parties have in general been directed towards the securing of control of the administration,—the establishment of parliamentary government. Except during the period of the war with China, when all party differences were for the time set aside, the parties have all been in more or less constant opposition to the government. Until within the last year or two, however, no party has possessed for any considerable length of time an absolute majority of the membership of the Lower House, sufficient to enable it to control the votes of that body. Political parties have now become a distinct power in the land which no statesman can afford entirely to neglect. From small and unruly beginnings, they have gradually progressed in influence and in organization. As by degrees they have been getting rid of their unruly and dangerous elements, and learning to a greater extent the lesson of responsibility, they have more and more gained the popular confidence. Possessing practically the power of the purse,—for in the Diet the House of Representatives has the first say as to the details of the budget presented by the government,—they have always to be reckoned with....
That there have been no distinct and well-defined party issues may be traced to the fact that feudalism gave place so suddenly to a modern state of society. The leaders of thought and those who have taken up the work of national rejuvenation have all been men of progressive tendencies. That the parties have frequently opposed the government in cases where opposition for its own sake has been the only recognizable principle cannot be denied. It must be remembered that they have all along been struggling for a share in the administration. The political parties have well illustrated the intensely democratic character of the Japanese people side by side with marked reverence for the Emperor. The desire for equality and the revolt against the controlling influence of a narrow coterie has all along been exhibited....
I[217] may perhaps take this opportunity to mention two characteristics of Japanese political parties which have impressed themselves upon me in the course of my own, as yet comparatively slight, study of the politics of this country. As in so many other aspects of Japanese life, so also in politics, I think we can see a curious blending of Old Japan with the very latest and most advanced which the West has to offer. It was a remark of the most influential, if not the greatest, English political philosopher of the nineteenth century, John Stuart Mill, that, even if we could be assured that an autocrat, an all-powerful individual ruler, would govern more wisely than a popular government, we ought, nevertheless, to prefer the popular government for the educative effect which the effort to govern produces upon the people.
Now it will be found that there has been very much conscious or unconscious following of this idea in the progress of popular government in Japan. In marked contrast to the history of popular government in the West, where parliaments have been forced on the government from below for the protection of popular rights, popular representation has been granted from above in this country, and the people have grown up to it, or are in process of growing. The truth of this is not affected by the fact that contest between rival clans has been an ever controlling factor in the domestic politics of the country since Restoration days. The agitation of the parties has been not so much directed against the measures of the government as against the fact that the government is not controlled by the representatives of the people.
The element of Old Japan in the political parties is seen in the nature of political allegiance. What holds the parties together is men rather than measures. In Old Japan personal allegiance to one’s feudal lord was one of the strongest feelings of the individual, and sufficed to give a distinct character to the life of the time. The most important elements of feudalism, the political and economic organization of the society which was founded upon it, have passed away, but the sentimental part remains in the personal allegiance of men to their party leaders of to-day. What would the _Seiyukai_ have been without Prince Itō, or the Progressive party without Count Ōkuma? No doubt other leaders would be forthcoming if these were not present, the names of the parties might be retained, but the membership would almost certainly undergo enormous changes.
ARMY STATISTICS OF JAPAN[218]
Surgeon-Major Koike, in a lecture delivered before the Medical Union in the salon of the Musical College in Uyeno, gave some interesting figures relating to the casualties in the North-China campaign as compared with the China-Japan war of 1894-1895. These will be most easily understood by putting them into tabular form.
Total number of patients in the North-China campaign 22,080 Total number of deaths out of the above aggregate 1,137
(This, of course, is exclusive of those killed in the field; it shows only the sick and wounded.)
=============================================+=============+============ | NORTH-CHINA | CHINA-JAPAN | CAMPAIGN. | WAR. ---------------------------------------------+-------------+------------ Percentage of deaths | 5.1 | 8.1 Number of sick to each wounded man | 5.5 | 4.1 Number of deaths from sickness to each death | | from wounds | 2.3 | 9.7 Percentage of deaths among wounded men | 3.2 | 3.9 Percentage of deaths among diseased men | 4.2 | 8.4 =============================================+=============+============
_Return of the Hiroshima Reserve Hospital_
NORTH-CHINA CAMPAIGN. Percentage of deaths among wounded men 2.1 Percentage of deaths among sick men 3.3
_Comparative Figures (General)_
Total percentage of deaths among wounded men:
Satsuma Rebellion 17.0 China-Japan War 9.7 North-China Campaign 4.6
_Comparative Figures Showing the Percentage of Sick during the Occupation of Peking in the Winter_
Russian troops 8.75 (typhoid, dysentery, syphilis). French troops 5.42 (typhoid, syphilis). German troops 5.33 (typhoid, syphilis, dysentery). British troops 5.22 (sunstroke, diarrhœa, dysentery, and typhoid). American troops 4.18 (dysentery, sunstroke, and syphilis). Japanese troops 2.51 (kakke and typhoid).
STATISTICS OF RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.[219]
(Feb., 1904—May, 1905.)
Killed on field 43,892 Wounded with colors 145,527 Died of those wounds 9,054 Sick, including wounds, accidents, etc., not received on firing-line 162,556 Died of sickness and disease 7,433 Contagious diseases 10,565 Died of contagious diseases 4,557 Killed and died from wounds 52,946 Died from all diseases 11,992
JAPANESE NAVAL INCREMENT[220]
Writing about naval increment, the “Nichi Nichi Shimbun” notes the increase of the Japanese Navy during recent years as follows:—
TOTAL TONNAGE. 1897 100,000 1898 134,000 1899 154,000 1900 204,000 1901 232,000
In the immediate future, the total tonnage will be raised to the _post-bellum_ figure of 250,000 tons.[221] Everybody agrees that Japan must not rest there. She has to keep up with the rapid additions made by other countries to their naval forces. That is not a matter of serious difficulty so far as ships are concerned: they can always be bought with money. But the men to man them is another problem. After the Restoration any number of recruits were obtainable for the army, as was natural in a country where a military feudalism had existed for centuries. The navy, however, could not be so easily supplied, maritime enterprise having been effectually checked under the Tokugawa rule. Difficulties about seamen may now be said to have been overcome. But that is not true of officers. Our contemporary here gives the following table:—
NUMBER OF OFFICERS AND TOTAL FORCE, YEAR. MEN ACTUALLY SERVING. INCLUDING RESERVES. 1895 14,463 17,140 1900 28,308 32,981
This shows an increment of only 100 per cent, whereas the increase of tonnage in the same time was 400 per cent.[222] The great difficulty is to get a supply of officers for the lower ranks—midshipmen and lieutenants. The only college for educating these officers is at Edajima, where not more than 600 cadets can be accommodated. There, then, a change must be effected. It will probably take the form of organizing another naval college at Yokosuka, and making arrangements that the preliminary education of candidates shall be effected in the middle schools.
JAPAN’S MERCANTILE MARINE[223]
The “Tōkyō Keizai” publishes some interesting statistics bearing on the development of our mercantile marine. It was 1870 or thereabouts that the Japanese began to turn their attention to the carrying trade in the modern sense of the term, but its growth was slow until the Chinese War of 1894-1895. The following table gives the figures for the eleven years from 1892 to 1902 inclusive:
YEAR. TONS. 1892 214,000 1893 325,000 1894 320,000 1895 386,000 1896 417,000 1897 486,000 1898 648,000 1899 796,000 1900 863,000 1901 917,000 1902 934,000[224]
From the comparative statistics published by our contemporary, it is noticed that, while in 1892 our mercantile fleet was the thirteenth in the world in point of tonnage, it had risen by 1901 to the eighth position. It is interesting to observe that it is rapidly coming up to the same relative status as that occupied by our naval fleet whose position is the seventh among the navies of the world.[225]
TREATY OF COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION BETWEEN JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Signed at Washington, 22nd day of the 11th month, 27th year of Meiji. Ratifications exchanged at that City, 21st day of the 3rd month, 28th year of Meiji.
His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and the President of the United States of America being equally desirous of maintaining the relations of good understanding which happily exist between them, by extending and increasing the intercourse between their respective States, and being convinced that this object cannot better be accomplished than by revising the Treaties hitherto existing between the two countries, have resolved to complete such a revision, based upon principles of equity and mutual benefit, and, for that purpose, have named as their Plenipotentiaries, that is to say: His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Jushii Shinichiro Kurino, of the Order of the Sacred Treasure of the Fourth Class, and the President of the United States of America, Walter Q. Gresham, Secretary of State of the United States; who, after having communicated to each other their full powers, found to be in good and due form, have agreed upon and concluded the following Articles:—
ART. I.—The subjects or citizens of each of the two High Contracting Parties shall have full liberty to enter, travel, or reside in any part of the territories of the other Contracting Party, and shall enjoy full and perfect protection for their persons and property.
They shall have free access to the Courts of Justice in pursuit and defence of their rights; they shall be at liberty equally with native subjects or citizens to choose and employ lawyers, advocates, and representatives to pursue and defend their rights before such Courts, and in all other matters connected with the administration of justice they shall enjoy all the rights and privileges enjoyed by native subjects or citizens.
In whatever relates to rights of residence and travel; to the possession of goods and effects of any kind; to the succession to personal estate, by will or otherwise, and the disposal of property of any sort and in any manner whatsoever which they may lawfully acquire, the subjects or citizens of each Contracting Party shall enjoy in the territories of the other the same privileges, liberties, and rights, and shall be subject to no higher imposts or charges in those respects than native subjects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation. The subjects or citizens of each of the Contracting Parties shall enjoy in the territories of the other entire liberty of conscience, and, subject to the laws, ordinances, and regulations, shall enjoy the right of private or public exercise of their worship, and also the right of burying their respective countrymen according to their religious customs, in such suitable and convenient places as may be established and maintained for that purpose.
They shall not be compelled, under any pretext whatsoever, to pay any charges or taxes other or higher than those that are, or may be, paid by native subjects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation.
The subjects or citizens of either of the Contracting Parties residing in the territories of the other shall be exempted from all compulsory military service whatsoever, whether in the army, navy, national guard, or militia; from all contribution imposed in lieu of personal service; and from all forced loans or military exactions or contributions.
ART. II.—There shall be reciprocal freedom of commerce and navigation between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties.
The subjects or citizens of each of the Contracting Parties may trade in any part of the territories of the other by wholesale or retail in all kinds of produce, manufactures, and merchandize of lawful commerce, either in person or by agents, singly or in partnerships with foreigners or native subjects or citizens; and they may there own or hire and occupy houses, manufactories, warehouses, shops, and premises which may be necessary for them, and lease land for residential and commercial purposes, conforming themselves to the laws, police and customs regulations of the country like native subjects or citizens.
They shall have liberty freely to come with their ships and cargoes to all places, ports, and rivers in the territories of the other, which are or may be opened to foreign commerce, and shall enjoy, respectively, the same treatment in matters of commerce and navigation as native subjects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation without having to pay taxes, imposts, or duties, of whatever nature or under whatever denomination levied in the name or for the profit of the Government, public functionaries, private individuals, corporations, or establishments of any kind, other or greater than those paid by native subjects or citizens or subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation.
It is, however, understood that the stipulations contained in this and the preceding Article do not in any way affect the laws, ordinances, and regulations with regard to trade, the immigration of labourers, police and public security which are in force or which may hereafter be enacted in either of the two countries.
ART. III.—The dwellings, manufactories, warehouses, and shops of the subjects or citizens of each of the High Contracting Parties in the territories of the other, and all premises appertaining thereto destined for purposes of residence or commerce, shall be respected.
It shall not be allowable to proceed to make a search of, or a domiciliary visit to, such dwellings and premises, or to examine or inspect books, papers, or accounts, except under the conditions and with the forms prescribed by the laws, ordinances, and regulations for subjects or citizens of the country.
ART. IV.—No other or higher duties shall be imposed on the importation into the territories of the United States of any article, the produce or manufacture of the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, from whatever place arriving; and no other or higher duties shall be imposed on the importation into the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan of any article, the produce or manufacture of the United States, from whatever place arriving than on the like article produced or manufactured in any other foreign country; nor shall any prohibition be maintained or imposed on the importation of any article, the produce or manufacture of the territories of either of the High Contracting Parties, into the territories of the other, from whatever place arriving, which shall not equally extend to the importation of the like article, being the produce or manufacture of any other country. This last provision is not applicable to the sanitary and other prohibitions occasioned by the necessity of protecting the safety of persons, or of cattle, or plants useful to agriculture.
ART. V.—No other or higher duties or charges shall be imposed in the territories of either of the High Contracting Parties on the exportation of any article to the territories of the other than such as are, or may be, payable on the exportation of the like article to any other foreign country; nor shall any prohibition be imposed on the exportation of any article from the territories of either of the two High Contracting Parties to the territories of the other which shall not equally extend to the exportation of the like article to any other country.
ART. VI.—The subjects or citizens of each of the High Contracting Parties shall enjoy in the territories of the other exemption from all transit duties, and a perfect equality of treatment with native subjects or citizens in all that relates to warehousing, bounties, and drawbacks.
ART. VII.—All articles which are or may be legally imported into the ports of the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan in Japanese vessels may likewise be imported into those ports in vessels of the United States, without being liable to any other or higher duties or charges of whatever denomination than if such articles were imported in Japanese vessels; and, reciprocally, all articles which are, or may be, legally imported into the ports of the territories of the United States in vessels of the United States may likewise be imported into those ports in Japanese vessels, without being liable to any other or higher duties or charges of whatever denomination than if such articles were imported in vessels of the United States. Such reciprocal equality of treatment shall take effect without distinction, whether such articles come directly from the place of origin or from any other place.
In the same manner, there shall be perfect equality of treatment in regard to exportation, so that the same export duties shall be paid, and the same bounties and drawbacks allowed, in the territories of either of the High Contracting Parties on the exportation of any article which is or may be legally exported therefrom, whether such exportation shall take place in Japanese vessels or in vessels of the United States, and whatever may be the place of destination, whether a port of either of the High Contracting Parties or of any third Power.
ART. VIII.—No duties of tonnage, harbour, pilotage, lighthouse, quarantine, or other similar or corresponding duties of whatever nature, or under whatever denomination levied in the name or for the profit of Government, public functionaries, private individuals, corporations, or establishments of any kind, shall be imposed in the ports of the territories of either country upon the vessels of the other country which shall not equally and under the same conditions be imposed in the like cases on national vessels in general or vessels of the most favoured nation. Such equality of treatment shall apply reciprocally to the respective vessels, from whatever port or place they may arrive, and whatever may be their place of destination.
ART. IX.—In all that regards the stationing, loading, and unloading of vessels in the ports, basins, docks, roadsteads, harbours, or rivers of the territories of the two countries, no privilege shall be granted to national vessels which shall not be equally granted to vessels of the other country; the intention of the High Contracting Parties being that in this respect also the respective vessels shall be treated on the footing of perfect equality.
ART. X.—The coasting trade of both the High Contracting Parties is excepted from the provisions of the present Treaty, and shall be regulated according to the laws, ordinances, and regulations of Japan and of the United States, respectively. It is, however, understood that Japanese subjects in the territories of the United States and citizens of the United States in the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan shall enjoy in this respect the rights which are, or may be, granted under such laws, ordinances, and regulations to the subjects or citizens of any other country.
A Japanese vessel laden in a foreign country with cargo destined for two or more ports in the territories of the United States and a vessel of the United States laden in a foreign country with cargo destined for two or more ports in the territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, may discharge a portion of her cargo at one port, and continue her voyage to the other port or ports of destination where foreign trade is permitted, for the purpose of landing the remainder of her original cargo there, subject always to the laws and custom-house regulations of the two countries.
The Japanese Government, however, agrees to allow vessels of the United States to continue, as heretofore, for the period of the duration of this Treaty, to carry cargo between the existing open ports of the Empire, excepting to or from the ports of Ōsaka, Niigata, and Ebisuminato.
ART. XI.—Any ship-of-war or merchant vessel of either of the High Contracting Parties which may be compelled by stress of weather, or by reason of any other distress, to take shelter in a port of the other, shall be at liberty to refit therein, to procure all necessary supplies, and to put to sea again, without paying any dues other than such as would be payable by national vessels. In case, however, the master of a merchant vessel should be under the necessity of disposing of a part of his cargo in order to defray the expenses, she shall be bound to conform to the regulations and tariffs of the place to which he may have come.
If any ship-of-war or merchant vessel of one of the High Contracting Parties should run aground or be wrecked upon the coasts of the other, the local authorities shall inform the Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul, or Consular Agent of the district of occurrence, or, if there be no such Consular officers, they shall inform the Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul, or Consular Agent of the nearest district.
All proceedings relative to the salvage of Japanese vessels wrecked or cast on shore in the territorial waters of the United States shall take place in accordance with the laws of the United States; and, reciprocally, all measures of salvage relative to vessels of the United States wrecked or cast on shore in the territorial waters of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan shall take place in accordance with the laws, ordinances, and regulations of Japan.
Such stranded or wrecked ship or vessel, and all parts thereof, and all furnitures and appurtenances belonging thereunto, and all goods and merchandize saved therefrom, including those which may have been cast into the sea, or the proceeds thereof, if sold, as well as all papers found on board such stranded or wrecked ship or vessel, shall be given up to the owners or their agents, when claimed by them. If such owners or agents are not on the spot, the same shall be delivered to the respective Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, or Consular Agents upon being claimed by them within the period fixed by the laws, ordinances, and regulations of the country, and such Consular officers, owners, or agents shall pay only the expenses incurred in the preservation of the property, together with the salvage or other expenses which would have been payable in the case of a wreck of a national vessel.
The goods and merchandize saved from the wreck shall be exempt from all the duties of the Customs unless cleared for consumption, in which case they shall pay the ordinary duties.
When a ship or vessel belonging to the subjects or citizens of one of the High Contracting Parties is stranded or wrecked in the territories of the other, the respective Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, and Consular Agents shall be authorized, in case the owner or master, or other agent of the owner, is not present, to lend their official assistance in order to afford the necessary assistance to the subjects or citizens of the respective States. The same rule shall apply in case the owner, master, or other agent is present, but requires such assistance to be given.
ART. XII.—All vessels which, according to Japanese law, are to be deemed Japanese vessels, and all vessels which, according to United States law, are to be deemed vessels of the United States, shall, for the purposes of this Treaty, be deemed Japanese vessels and vessels of the United States, respectively.
ART. XIII.—The Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consular Agents of each of the High Contracting Parties, residing in the territories of the other, shall receive from the local authorities such assistance as can by law be given to them for the recovery of deserters from the vessels of their respective countries.
It is understood that this stipulation shall not apply to the subjects or citizens of the country where the desertion takes place.
ART. XIV.—The High Contracting Parties agree that, in all that concerns commerce and navigation any privilege, favour, or immunity which either High Contracting Party has actually granted, or may hereafter grant, to the Government, ships, subjects, or citizens of any other State, shall be extended to the Government, ships, subjects, or citizens of the other High Contracting Party, gratuitously, if the concession in favour of that other State shall have been gratuitous, and on the same or equivalent conditions if the concession shall have been conditional; it being their intention that the trade and navigation of each country shall be placed, in all respects, by the other on the footing of the most favoured nation.
ART. XV.—Each of the High Contracting Parties may appoint Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, Pro-Consuls, and Consular Agents, in all the ports, cities, and places of the other except in those where it may not be convenient to recognize such officers.
This exception, however, shall not be made in regard to one of the High Contracting Parties without being made likewise in regard to every other Power.
The Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, Pro-Consuls, and Consular Agents may exercise all functions, and shall enjoy all privileges, exemptions, and immunities which are, or may hereafter be, granted to Consular officers of the most favoured nation.
ART. XVI.—The subjects or citizens of each of the High Contracting Parties shall enjoy in the territories of the other the same protection as native subjects or citizens in regard to patents, trademarks, and designs, upon fulfilment of the formalities prescribed by law.
ART. XVII.—The High Contracting Parties agree to the following arrangement:—
The several Foreign Settlements in Japan shall, from the date this Treaty comes into force, be incorporated with the respective Japanese communes, and shall thenceforth form part of the general municipal system of Japan. The competent Japanese authorities shall thereupon assume all municipal obligations and duties in respect thereof, and the common funds and property, if any, belonging to such Settlements shall at the same time be transferred to the said Japanese authorities.
When such incorporation takes place, existing leases in perpetuity upon which property is now held in the said Settlements shall be confirmed, and no conditions whatever other than those contained in such existing leases shall be imposed in respect of such property. It is, however, understood that the Consular Authorities mentioned in the same are in all cases to be replaced by the Japanese Authorities. All lands which may previously have been granted by the Japanese Government free of rent for the public purposes of the said Settlements shall, subject to the right of eminent domain, be permanently reserved free of all taxes and charges for the public purposes for which they were originally set apart.
ART. XVIII.—The present Treaty shall, from the date it comes into force, be substituted in place of the Treaty of Peace and Amity concluded on the 3rd day of the 3rd month of the 7th year of Kayei corresponding to the 31st day of March, 1854; the Treaty of Amity and Commerce concluded on the 19th day of the 6th month of the 5th year of Ansei, corresponding to the 29th day of July, 1858; the Tariff Convention concluded on the 13th day of the 5th month of the 2nd year of Keio, corresponding to the 25th day of June, 1866; the Convention concluded on the 25th day of the 7th month of the 11th year of Meiji, corresponding to the 25th day of July, 1878, and all Arrangements and Agreements subsidiary thereto concluded or existing between the High Contracting Parties, and from the same date such Treaties, Conventions, Arrangements, and Agreements shall cease to be binding, and in consequence, the jurisdiction then exercised by Courts of the United States in Japan and all the exceptional privileges, exemptions, and immunities then enjoyed by citizens of the United States as a part of, or appurtenant to, such jurisdiction, shall absolutely and without notice cease and determine, and thereafter all such jurisdiction shall be assumed and exercised by Japanese Courts.
ART. XIX.—This Treaty shall go into operation on the 17th day of July, 1899, and shall remain in force for the period of twelve years from that date.
Either High Contracting Party shall have the right, at any time after eleven years shall have elapsed from the date it goes into operation, to give notice to the other of its intention to terminate the same, and at the expiration of twelve months after such notice is given this Treaty shall wholly cease and determine.
ART. XX.—This Treaty shall be ratified and the ratifications thereof shall be exchanged at Tokyo or Washington as soon as possible, and not later than six months after its signature.
In witness whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the present Treaty in duplicate and have thereunto affixed their seals.
Done at the City of Washington the 22nd day of the 11th month of the 27th year of Meiji, corresponding to the 22nd day of November in the eighteen hundred and ninety-fourth year of the Christian era.
(Signed) SHINICHIRO KURINO. (L. S.)
WALTER Q. GRESHAM. (L. S.)
[Amendment to the Foregoing Treaty Proposed by the Government of the United States of America and Ratified with the Treaty.]
ART. XIX.—Clause 2, after the word “time” insert the word “thereafter” and strike out all after the word “time” down to and including the word “operation,” so that the clause will read: “Either High Contracting Party shall have the right, at any time thereafter, to give notice to the other of its intention to terminate the same, and at the expiration of twelve months after such notice is given this Treaty shall wholly cease and determine.”
_Protocol_
The Government of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and the Government of the United States of America, deeming it advisable in the interests of both Countries to regulate certain special matters of mutual concern, apart from the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed this day, have, through their respective Plenipotentiaries, agreed upon the following stipulations:—
1.—It is agreed by the Contracting Parties that one month after the exchange of the ratifications of the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed this day, the Import Tariff now in operation in Japan in respect of goods and merchandize imported into Japan by the citizens of the United States shall cease to be binding. From the same date the General Statutory Tariff of Japan, shall, subject to the provisions of Article IX. of the Treaty of March 31, 1854, at present subsisting between the Contracting Parties, so long as said Treaty remains in force, and thereafter, subject to the provisions of Article IV. and Article XIV., of the Treaty signed this day, be applicable to goods and merchandize, being the growth, produce, or manufacture of the territories of the United States upon importation into Japan.
But nothing contained in this Protocol shall be held to limit or qualify the right of the Japanese Government to restrict or to prohibit the importation of adulterated drugs, medicines, food, or beverages; indecent or obscene prints, paintings, books, cards, lithographic or other engravings, photographs or any other indecent or obscene articles; articles in violation of patent, trademark, or copyright laws of Japan; or any other article which for sanitary reasons or in view of public security or morals, might offer any danger.
2.—The Japanese Government, pending the opening of the country to citizens of the United States, agrees to extend the existing passport system in such a manner as to allow citizens of the United States, on the production of a certificate of recommendation from the Representative of the United States at Tōkiō, or from any of the Consuls of the United States at the open ports in Japan, to obtain upon application passports available for any part of the country and for any period not exceeding twelve months, from the Imperial Japanese Foreign Office in Tōkiō, or from the Chief Authorities in the Prefecture in which an open port is situated, it being understood that the existing Rules and Regulations governing citizens of the United States who visit the interior of the Empire are to be maintained.
3.—The undersigned Plenipotentiaries have agreed that this Protocol shall be submitted to the two High Contracting Parties at the same time as the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed this day, and that when the said Treaty is ratified the agreements contained in the Protocol shall also equally be considered as approved, without the necessity of a further formal ratification.
It is agreed that this Protocol shall terminate at the same time the said Treaty ceases to be binding.
In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the same and have affixed thereto their seals.
Done at Washington the 22nd day of the 11th month of the 27th year of _Meiji_, corresponding to the 22nd November, in the eighteen hundred and ninety-fourth year of the Christian era.
(Signed) SHINICHIRO KURINO. (L. S.)
WALTER Q. GRESHAM. (L. S.)
IMPERIAL RESCRIPT ON THE NEW TREATIES
Governing Our realm by the abiding aid of Our ancestors’ achievements, which have enabled Us to secure the prosperity of Our people at home and to establish relations of close amity with the nations abroad, it is a source of heartfelt gratification to Us that, in the sequel of exhaustive planning and repeated negotiations, an agreement has been come to with the Powers, and the revision of the Treaties, Our long cherished aim, is to-day on the eve of becoming an accomplished fact; a result which, while it adds materially to the responsibilities of Our empire, will greatly strengthen the basis of Our friendship with foreign countries.
It is Our earnest wish that Our subjects, whose devoted loyalty in the discharge of their duties is conspicuous, should enter earnestly into Our sentiments in this matter, and, in compliance with the great policy of opening the country, should all unite with one heart to associate cordially with the peoples from afar, thus maintaining the character of the nation and enhancing the prestige of the empire.
In view of the responsibilities that devolve upon Us in giving effect to the new Treaties, it is Our will that Our Ministers of State, acting on Our behalf, should instruct Our officials of all classes to observe the utmost circumspection in the management of affairs, to the end that subjects and strangers alike may enjoy equal privileges and advantages, and that, every source of dissatisfaction being avoided, relations of peace and amity with all nations may be strengthened and consolidated in perpetuity.
(Imperial Sign Manual.)
(Signatures of all the Cabinet Ministers.)
(Dated) June 30th, 1899.
SCHOOLS IN JAPAN[226]
The latest returns compiled by the educational authorities show that education in Japan is in a satisfactory condition. For instance the percentage of the children newly admitted to primary schools throughout the country out of every 100 of those who had attained the school-going age last month [March, 1903] was 93.78 for boys, 81.08 for girls, and 88.05 for boys and girls together, which show respectively an increase of 3.23, 9.18, and 6.38 against the figures for last year. Again, the different schools throughout the country totalled 29,335, while the teachers totalled 110,104, the attendance 5,265,006, and the graduates 911,621, representing respectively an increase of 473; 11,977; 339,333; and 112,737 as compared with the figures for the preceding year. [In 1909-10, these totals were 34,659; 172,228; 7,170,470; and 899,288.]
NUMBER OF SCHOOLS, ETC. IN JAPAN IN 1900-1901.[227]
By the government establishments are meant all institutions under the control of the Department of Education.
Statistical items relating to the Higher Normal School for Females are included among those for the Higher Normal School, and those relating to the three institutes for the training of technical teachers among those for technical schools.
=======================+===============================+ | NO. OF SCHOOLS. | +----+--------+--------+--------+ |GOV.|PUBLIC. |PRIVATE.| TOTAL. | -----------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+ Elementary schools | 2 | 26,485 | 369 | 26,856 | Blind and dumb schools | 1 | 1 | 9 | 11 | Normal schools | .. | 52 | ... | 52 | Higher normal schools | 2 | ... | ... | 2 | Middle schools | 1 | 183 | 34 | 218 | Higher female schools | 1 | 44 | 7 | 52 | Higher schools | 7 | ... | ... | 7 | Imperial universities | 2 | ... | ... | 2 | Special schools | 3 | 4 | 41 | 48 | Technical schools | 9 | 265 | 23 | 297 | Miscellaneous schools | .. | 122 | 1,195 | 1,317 | -----------------------+----+--------+--------+--------+ Total | 28 | 27,156 | 1,678 | 28,862 | =======================+====+========+========+========+ 1899| 27 | 27,051 | 1,639 | 28,717 | 1898| 22 | 26,799 | 1,600 | 28,421 | 1897| 22 | 26,753 | 1,677 | 28,452 | 1896| 21 | 26,621 | 1,762 | 28,404 | =======================+====+========+========+========+
=======================+====================================+ | INSTRUCTORS AND TEACHERS. | +-------+--------+---------+---------+ | GOV. |PUBLIC. | PRIVATE.| TOTAL. | -----------------------+-------+--------+---------+---------+ Elementary schools | 31 | 91,767 | 1,101 | 92,899 | Blind and dumb schools | 15 | 15 | 25 | 55 | Normal schools | ... | 958 | ... | 958 | Higher normal schools | 110 | ... | ... | 110 | Middle schools | 22 | 3,067 | 659 | 3,748 | Higher female schools | 19 | 525 | 114 | 658 | Higher schools | 345 | ... | ... | 345 | Imperial universities | 291 | ... | ... | 291 | Special schools | 128 | 81 | 734 | 943 | Technical schools | 238 | 1,382 | 137 | 1,757 | Miscellaneous schools | ... | 90 | 4,273 | 4,363 | -----------------------+-------+--------+---------+---------+ Total | 1,199 | 97,885 | 7,043 | 106,127 | =======================+=======+========+=========+---------+ 1899| 1,128 | 92,286 | 6,692 | 100,106 | 1898| 983 | 86,634 | 5,346 | 92,963 | 1897| 913 | 81,632 | 5,310 | 87,855 | 1896| 785 | 77,720 | 5,509 | 84,014 | =======================+=======+========+=========+=========+
=======================+==========================================+ | STUDENTS AND PUPILS. | +--------+-----------+---------+-----------+ | GOV. | PUBLIC. | PRIVATE.| TOTAL. | -----------------------+--------+-----------+---------+-----------+ Elementary schools | 1,124 | 4,622,930 | 59,544 | 4,683,598 | Blind and dumb schools | 231 | 196 | 194 | 621 | Normal schools | ... | 15,639 | ... | 15,639 | Higher normal schools | 803 | ... | ... | 803 | Middle schools | 321 | 64,051 | 13,943 | 78,315 | Higher female schools | 306 | 9,746 | 1,932 | 11,984 | Higher schools | 5,684 | ... | ... | 5,684 | Imperial universities | 3,240 | ... | ... | 3,240 | Special schools | 968 | 1,447 | 10,985 | 13,400 | Technical schools | 1,730 | 23,599 | 2,126 | 27,455 | Miscellaneous schools | ... | 4,817 | 80,117 | 84,934 | -----------------------+--------+-----------+---------+-----------+ Total | 14,407 | 4,742,425 | 168,841 | 4,925,673 | =======================+--------+-----------+---------+-----------+ 1899| 13,230 | 4,339,490 | 160,614 | 4,513,334 | 1898| 11,788 | 4,086,323 | 149,230 | 4,247,341 | 1897| 10,839 | 4,005,164 | 152,714 | 4,168,717 | 1896| 9,321 | 3,872,794 | 148,858 | 4,030,973 | =======================+========+===========+=========+===========+
=======================+====================================+ | GRADUATES. | +-------+---------+--------+---------+ | GOV. | PUBLIC. |PRIVATE.| TOTAL. | -----------------------+-------+---------+--------+---------+ Elementary schools | 318 | 736,907 | 8,580 | 745,805 | Blind and dumb schools | 14 | 8 | 12 | 34 | Normal schools | ... | 7,323 | ... | 7,323 | Higher normal schools | 180 | ... | ... | 180 | Middle schools | 40 | 5,584 | 2,163 | 7,787 | Higher female schools | 91 | 1,832 | 637 | 2,560 | Higher schools | 1,019 | ... | ... | 1,019 | Imperial universities | 633 | ... | ... | 633 | Special schools | 138 | 210 | 1,687 | 2,035 | Technical schools | 349 | 4,406 | 249 | 5,004 | Miscellaneous schools | ... | 721 | 15,783 | 16,504 | -----------------------+-------+---------+--------+---------+ Total | 2,782 | 756,991 | 29,111 | 788,884 | =======================+-------+---------+--------+---------+ 1899| 2,454 | 655,112 | 27,201 | 684,767 | 1898| 2,129 | 600,528 | 23,486 | 626,143 | 1897| 2,146 | 550,738 | 20,912 | 573,796 | 1896| 1,819 | 507,969 | 20,419 | 530,207 | =======================+=======+=========+========+=========+
JAPAN’S UNIVERSITY FOR WOMEN[228]
The most remarkable occurrence in Japan in the opening year of the Twentieth Century was the establishment of a University for Women. What does this mean? It means that the Twentieth Century is to be the century for women in Japan and perhaps in other parts of the Orient, just as the Nineteenth Century was the century for women in the Occident. This new University will be the centre of woman’s activity, social, educational, economical (and perhaps political?), in the future in Japan. About ten years ago Mr. Naruse began to think about establishing a university for girls and went to America to inspect female institutions of learning. There he spent three years going about from place to place, and thus made a thorough observation and study of colleges for women in the United States of America. In 1894 he was encouraged to start the enterprise, in which his special friends were such men as Marquis Itō, Marquis Saionji, Counts Ōkuma and Itagaki, and Baron Utsumi, then Mayor of Ōsaka, now Home Minister. Among the first promoters of the enterprise were well-to-do persons of Ōsaka, such as Mr. Dogura and Mrs. Hiroöka (of the Mitsui family). The idea was, and still is, to secure 300,000 _yen_, of which half should be used for property and half for endowment. It was also decided not to begin to build unless at least 100,000 yen had been raised. The money was obtained quite rapidly; and in this Mr. Naruse’s skill and tact were remarkable. Many not in sympathy with the idea of higher female education (like Baron Katō, ex-President of the Imperial University), were won over by Mr. Naruse’s presentation of the cause. The problem of location was thoroughly discussed in Ōsaka, and at last it was unanimously agreed that Tōkyō, being the capital, was the most convenient place, because the institution was not local, for either Ōsaka or Tōkyō alone, but was national, for all Japan. The faculty number forty-six in all, among whom are several professors of the Imperial University. The President is, of course, Mr. Naruse; and the Dean is Professor S. Aso, a Dōshisha alumnus. There are also several ladies; and it is the purpose to have as many lady teachers as possible.
There are three departments in the University course:
1. Department of Domestic Science.
2. Department of Japanese Literature.
3. Department of English Literature.
In the first department the greater part of the time is devoted to various branches of Applied and Domestic Science; in the second and third departments the largest number of hours is given up to Japanese and English respectively. Ethics, Sociology, Psychology, Education (including Child-Study) and Calisthenics are required studies in all departments; and Drawing, Music, and Science of Teaching, are electives in all cases.
The boarding-department includes seven “Houses,” each with a matron and a head cook. The girls live just as at home, and take turns in cooking.
This school is not, of course, to be compared with foreign universities, or the Imperial University; nor is it a copy of other universities; but it is intended to make this university just suited to the needs of the time and the social conditions of Japanese women. The standard will be gradually elevated. In the system of female education, it is a university, at least in germ.
It is the purpose as soon as possible to increase the number of courses; to add, for instance, pedagogy (including sociology, psychology, etc.), music, science, art, and calisthenics. It is intended also to extend the preparatory course downward, so that it shall include, not a _Kōtō Gakkō_ only as at present, but also a _Shō Gakkō_ (Grammar School) and a kindergarten. Thus the system of female education will be complete in all its grades: from three to six in the kindergarten; six years in the grammar school; five years in the secondary school (_Kōtō Jō Gakkō_); three years in the university; with a post-graduate course of three years. Then surely the institution will be worthy to be called a university.
STATISTICS OF CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN[229]
Under the title, “The Present State of Christianity,” the “Tōkyō Maishū Shinshi” publishes a number of statistics culled from the Rev. D. S. Spencer’s “Tidings from Japan.” Here is the “Maishū Shinshi’s” summary of Mr. Spencer’s report:
===============+===============+==============+============ MISSIONS. | MISSIONARIES. | NATIVE | | | PASTORS AND | MEMBERS.[230] | | EVANGELISTS. | ---------------+---------------+--------------+------------ Protestant | 789 | 494 | 50,512 Roman Catholic | 229 | 98 | 55,824 Greek Church | 4 | 152 | 27,245 ===============+===============+==============+============
These figures, when compared with those of ten years ago, do not, as far as the Greek Church and the Roman Catholic Church are concerned, indicate remarkable progress, but to Protestants they are on the whole encouraging. There are 23 Protestant denominations working in Japan, but the most important sects are the Congregationalists, the Presbyterians, the Episcopalians, the Methodists, and the Baptists. The statistics for the 5 principal missions are as follows:—
===============+=============+=========+=========+==========+========== MISSIONS. | FOREIGN | JAPANESE| ADULT |INCLUDING |BAPTISMS |MISSIONARIES.| PASTORS.| MEMBERS.|CHILDREN. | LAST | | | | | YEAR. ---------------+-------------+---------+---------+----------+---------- Congregational | 71 | 45 | 10,856 | 11,548 | 880 Presbyterian | 153 | 79 | 10,156 | 11,651 | 1,213 Episcopalian | 224 | 47 | 9,968 | 10,997 | 846 Methodist | 233 | 125 | 9,283 | 9,711 | 1,598 Baptist | 56 | 9 | 2,213 | 2,213 | 328 ===============+=============+=========+=========+==========+==========
The following table gives other interesting particulars:
================+===========+=================+=========== MISSIONS. | CHURCHES. | SELF-SUPPORTING | CHURCH | | CHURCHES. | PROPERTY. | | | _Yen._ ----------------+-----------+-----------------+----------- Congregational | 81 | 34 | 125,794 Presbyterian | 71 | 23 | 218,252 Episcopalian | 69 | 2 | Methodist | 146 | 13 | 225,559 Baptist | 30 | | ================+===========+=================+===========
================+===========+==================+============ MISSIONS. | SUNDAY- | NATIVE | AMOUNT PER | SCHOOL | MONEY SUBSCRIBED.| MEMBER. | SCHOLARS. | _Yen._ | _Yen. Sen._ ----------------+-----------+------------------+------------ Congregational | 6,880 | 33,791 | 3.11 Presbyterian | 7,879 | 29,027 | 2.86 Episcopalian | 5,524 | 15,827 | 1.59 Methodist | 12,613 | 30,011 | 3.24 Baptist | 3,775 | 4,283 | 1.94 ================+===========+==================+============
It is calculated that if all the different kinds of property held by the Protestant Church be included, it is worth over 1,500,000 _yen_.
_The Catholic Church in Japan_
A writer signing himself “K. M.” contributes to the “Fukuin Shimpō” an account of the methods followed by the Roman Catholics and of their work in Japan, said to have been derived from an interview with L’Abbé E. Ligneul. The following is a summary of “K. M.’s” article. (1) _The revival of Roman Catholicism in Japan._ This began at Nagasaki in 1865, where a church was built and when the descendants of the old Christians came forward in large numbers to welcome the arrival of foreign missionaries. Having mentioned the principal works of reference on the Roman Catholic Missions in Japan, M. Ligneul went on to speak (2) _Of the present state of their churches_. The following table gives the numerical strength of the mission:--
===============+===========+==========+==============+============== | | | | FOREIGN ECCLESIASTICAL | | JAPANESE | JAPANESE | MISSIONARIES DISTRICTS. | CONVERTS. | PRIESTS. | EVANGELISTS. | (MALE). ---------------+-----------+----------+--------------+-------------- Tōkyō | 9,245 | 4 | 20 | 37 Nagasaki | 38,160 | 27 | 180 | 31 Ōsaka | 4,273 | 2 | 40 | 27 Hakodate | 4,643 | 1 | 20 | 20 ---------------+-----------+----------+--------------+-------------- Total | 56,321 | 34 | 260 | 115 ===============+===========+==========+==============+==============
The fact that comparatively little is known of the work being carried on by the Roman Catholics throughout the country is no accidental affair. It is one of the principles observed by the whole mission to refrain from the use of the methods employed by other missions for making their work known to the public generally.
_The Greek Church in Japan_
In the issue of the “Tserkovniya Vyedomosti” or “Church Gazette” (the official organ of the Russian Church) for March 29 (O. S.) there is a long article taken from the “Moscow Gazette” on the state of the Greek Church in Japan.
The writer says that there are now 260 congregations, one more than last year; 41 clergymen, including 1 bishop, 2 Russian clergymen (who have now left Japan—Translator), 30 Japanese clergymen, 1 Russian deacon, 7 Japanese deacons: altogether three more persons than last year; Christians 27,245 (935 more than last year); Catechists 1,214 (643 adults, 571 minors, altogether 305 more than last year); deaths 279 (18 less than last year); marriages 29 (9 more than last year); churches or preachers’ houses 174. The sum of the offerings made by the Christians in support of their church totalled 11,870 _yen_ 41.8 _sen_, 4,505 _yen_ 72.5 _sen_ more than last year. The number of pupils in Mission schools totalled 152, 12 less than last year.
* * * * *
The annual meeting of clergy (Shinpin Kwaigi) of the Greek Church Mission was held in the cathedral of that mission in Tōkyō on the 15th inst. It was reported at the meeting that there were 1,037 converts last year, deaths 320; and now that the members of the church number 27,956, including 40 clergymen and 146 _denkiosha_ (preachers or unordained evangelists and helpers).
JAPAN’S NATIONAL SONG[231]
Few Europeans have learned to detect and enjoy the subtle beauty of Japanese poetry. Fewer still, perhaps, are acquainted with the delicate charm of the little poem which, although not a hymn, takes the place in Japanese minds and hearts of the Briton’s “God Save the King,” or the American’s “My Country, ’tis of Thee.” It is sung to a native air, the custom being to sing the poem through thrice, and when thus rendered by a large and enthusiastic company it is often truly impressive. The poem itself is very old, being found in the “Manyōshiu,” which dates from about the middle of the eighth century, and its author is unknown. As originally composed, it was not addressed to the actual ruler, but in all probability to an Emperor who had gone into retirement. Now, however, it is exclusively applied to the reigning Sovereign. The poem consists of the usual number of thirty-one syllables, and runs as follows:—
Kimi ga yo wa Chiyo ni yachiyo ni Sazare ishi no Iwao to narite Koke no musu made.
So far as we are aware only two English translations have been published. One of these is by Viscount Fukuba, and, closely following the original, reads as follows:
“May our Sovereign live for thousands and ten thousands of years, until the tiny pebble becomes a moss-covered rock.”
The other, by Professor Chamberlain, is more finished but less literal than the foregoing, and is included in his excellent “Classical Poetry of the Japanese”:—
“A thousand years of happy life be thine! Live on, My lord, till what are pebbles now, By age united, to great rocks shall grow, Whose venerable sides the moss doth line.”
To the above translations may be added a third by the late Dr. Gordon:—
“O Prince upon the throne! Ten thousand years live on, Till pebbles shall great rocks become With moss all overgrown!”
FLORAL JAPAN
The Japanese are a nature-loving people, and frequently give practical expression to their feelings by taking a holiday simply for “flower-viewing.” At the proper season the entire nation, so to speak, takes a day off, and turns out on a big picnic to see the plum blossoms, or the cherry blossoms, or the maples, or the chrysanthemums. No utilitarian views of the value of time or miserly conceptions of the expense of such outings prevail for a moment; for the Japanese are worshippers of beauty rather than of the “almighty dollar.” A few pennies on such occasions bring many pleasures; and business interests are sacrificed at the shrine of beauty. And, as one or more flowers are blooming every month, because twigs, leaves, grasses, etc., are included in the scope of the word _hana_, there is almost a continuous round of such picnics during the year. It is our purpose, therefore, to arrange a calendar of flowers popular each month.
At the very outset we are confronted with a chronological difficulty in presenting this subject to Western readers. For the programme of Japanese floral festivals was originally arranged on the basis of the old lunar calendar so long in vogue in Japan. By that calendar the New Year came in at varying dates from about the 21st of January up to the 19th of February; in 1903 it fell on Thursday, January 29; so that it is from three to seven weeks behind the Occidental solar calendar. And yet, when Japan adopted the Gregorian calendar, many of these festivals were transferred to the “New Style” without regard to the awful anachronism that necessarily followed.
For instance, the following is a floral programme according to the “Old Style”:—
OLD STYLE. NEW STYLE.
1st month, February Pine. 2d „ March Plum. 3d „ April Cherry. 4th „ May Wistaria. 5th „ June Iris. 6th „ July Tree peony. 7th „ August Lezpedeza. 8th „ September Eularia. 9th „ October Chrysanthemum. 10th „ November Maple. 11th „ December Willow. 12th „ January Paulownia.
Now, the pine is chosen for the 1st month (O. S.) on account of the prominent part that it plays in the New Year’s decorations, but when the new year begins the first of January, that calendar suffers serious dislocation, because all of the other flowers cannot be moved a whole month.
A similar confusion arises in connection with the great festival of the “autumn full moon,” in which certain grasses also figured. By the lunar calendar it fell about the 15th day of the 8th month, which never comes in the Western 8th month, August. It came in 1902 on September 18; and 1903 it will not come until early in October! It may now be readily seen how difficult it is in Japan to run on schedule time!
But, taking all these difficulties into consideration, and harmonizing them so far as possible, we have been able to construct the following modern Japanese floral calendar:—
January Pine. February Plum. March Peach. April Cherry. May Wistaria. June Iris. July Morning-glory. August Lotus. September “Seven Grasses.” October Chrysanthemum. November Maple. December Camellia.
JAPAN AND SIAM[232]
Mr. Inagaki, Japanese Representative in Bangkok, has been making strenuous efforts to bring about the establishment of a direct line of steamers between Japan and Siam. He maintains that there cannot be any substantial development of trade without some improvement of the means of communication. Tōkyō newspapers report that the Ōsaka Shōsen Kaisha has been induced to undertake the extension of its Formosan line to Siam, and that arrangements are now under discussion with the Formosan officials.
In a lecture delivered by Mr. Inagaki before the Japan Economic Society, he insisted that Siam could be of the greatest service to Japan in supplying raw materials and food stuffs. Her production of sugar, hemp, and gum is very large, and whereas her export of silk ten years ago was only 250,000 _yen_, it is now 10 millions. The Siamese government has decided to devote a quarter of a million _yen_ to agricultural experimental stations, and there can be no doubt that if Japan sent seeds of raw materials to be grown in that country, fine results would be obtained. It is important that a country like Japan should have a source of supply which would certainly remain neutral in time of war, and Siam is essentially such a source. This question of food supply will one day be as important for Japan as it is already for England, and its solution seems to lie in the direction of Siam.
FORMOSA UNDER JAPAN
Concerning Formosa under Japanese rule the following additional items are worthy of notice. The Governor-General, 1913, is Count Sakuma.
It has been pointed out by the “Japan Mail” that the revenue of the new territory in the first six years after its cession to Japan has increased by 600 per cent, as shown in the following table:—
_Yen._ 1896 2,710,000 1897 5,320,000 1898 8,250,000 1899 11,750,000 1900 14,900,000 1901 16,370,000
* * * * *
The number of the pest patients in Formosa has been decreasing year after year, as the following returns for the period January 1 to June 17 of the respective years show:—
CASES. MORTALITY. 1901 3,481 2,619 1902 1,795 1,352 1903 750 606
* * * * *
The government is making strenuous efforts to increase the export trade. It has subsidized a modern sugar-mill which has commenced operations in South Formosa, manufacturing brown sugar for refining purposes; it has likewise given assistance to a white-sugar factory; it has started an experimental paper-factory; in fact, it has devoted all its energies toward increasing the island’s productions. Independent Japanese firms have likewise done a good deal, though not as much as we had reason to anticipate. Two gold-quartz mills, one being of considerable size, are successfully at work in the Formosan gold fields; two wealthy companies are engaged in plantation work on a large scale in Southeast and in North Formosa; and there is a glass-factory in the north, several Japanese-owned coal-mines, a paper-factory at Kagi, several modern salt farms, and other small industries, to Japanese credit. In improving transportation, the Japanese have done much, and are planning to do much more. The Chinese railway line was handed over to the Japanese in such a condition that it had to be all reconstructed. We thus have practically a new line to Kelung and another to Shinchiku (formerly Teckoham). In addition to these, new lines were constructed from Taihoku to Tamsui, and from Takow to Shinyeisho via Tainan-fu, which gives a total of 93 miles of rail. The trunk line connecting the north and south is now in course of construction.[233] The Japanese have also built over 200 miles of narrow gauge for the temporary transport of military supplies, general freight, and passengers. Nearly a thousand miles of ordinary road have been constructed.[234]
* * * * *
Rev. W. Campbell, a Scotch missionary in Formosa, testifies concerning what Japan has accomplished in the island:—
At the outset it should be remembered that, when they [Japanese] arrived in 1895, instead of being allowed to take quiet possession, they found the people everywhere up in arms against them, and had literally to fight their way from north to south before anything like settled government could be established.... Immediately after some measure of peace had been restored, the executive sent out qualified experts to engage in survey work and to report on the resources of their newly ceded territory.
A complete census of the population was taken in 1897, 800 miles of roads were made, and a tramway line laid down from Takow to Sin-tek. This was followed by construction of the main line of railway from Kelung to Takow, about one-half of which has already been opened for goods and passenger traffic. Three cables were also laid down, connecting Formosa with Japan, Foochow, and the Pescadores, and over the existing 1,500 miles of telegraph and telephone wires immediate communication has been made possible with every important inland centre. The post offices recently opened in Formosa number over a hundred, and letters can now be sent to any part of the empire for two cents each. Up till the close of 1899, 122 government educational institutions had been established, only 9 of those being for Japanese, and 113 for natives. There are at present 10 principal Government hospitals in the island, at which about 60,000 patients are treated gratuitously every year, while sanitary precautions and free vaccination have become so general that the danger from visitations like small-pox and plague has been very much reduced.[235]
THE AMERICO-JAPANESE ENTENTE
“1. It is the wish of the two Governments to encourage the free and peaceful development of their commerce on the Pacific Ocean;
“2. The policy of both Governments, uninfluenced by any aggressive tendencies, is directed to the maintenance of the existing _status quo_ in the region above mentioned and to the defence of the principle of equal opportunity for commerce and industry in China;
“3. They are accordingly firmly resolved reciprocally to respect the territorial possessions belonging to each other in said region;
“4. They are also determined to preserve the common interests of all Powers in China, by supporting by all pacific means at their disposal, the independence and integrity of China and the principle of equal opportunity for commerce and industry of all nations in that Empire;
“5. Should any event occur threatening the _status quo_ as above described, or the principle of equal opportunity as above defined, it remains for the two Governments to communicate with each other in order to arrive at an understanding as to what measures they may consider it useful to take.”
INDEX
A
Abdication, practice of, 90, 97
Aborigines, 44
Academy of Music, Tōkyō, 217
Acrobats, 66
Actors’ guild, 27
Adams, Will, 91
“Advance Japan,” 15, 28, 59, 117, 132, 158, 208
Agricultural College, 216
Agricultural College in China, 297
Agricultural experiment stations, Siam, 411
Agriculture, 16-22, 216, 350
Ainu, 44, 45
“Ainu Folk-lore,” 45
“Ainu of Japan,” 45
Akashi, 8
Alaska, 15
Alcock, 117
Ale, 56
Aleutian Islands, 15
Almonds, 351
Amaterasu, _see_ Sun-Goddess
America, 2, 3, 7, 14, 20, 21, 28, 34, 37, 61, 106, 112, 140, 145, 189, 213, 219, 220, 237, 268, 270, 271, 281, 285, 290, 292, 299-301
American baby, first, 60; books, favorite, 204; fleet visits Japan, 335; life, 80; state legislature, 135
“American Japanese Relations,” 341
“American Journal of Sociology,” 175
“American Missionary in Japan, An,” 190, 269
Americans, 33, 36, 47, 66, 79, 104, 107, 144, 165, 168, 210, 216
Americo-Japanese Entente, the, 335
Amoy, 295
Amusements, 66-69
Anarchists, 337
Ancestors, worship of, 64
“Ancestor-Worship and Japanese Law,” 174, 249
“Ancient Matters, Records of,” 92
Anderson, 235
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 4, 92, 147, 153, 154, 156, 157, 299, 332, 338
Anglo-Saxon influence, 157; town meeting, 142
Anglo-Saxons, 128, 168, 310
Animals, _see_ names of animals
“Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,” 129
Anti-Christian edicts removed, 91, 111, 112
Anti-foreign reaction, 92, 114, 115
Antimony, 23
Aomori, 17, 32
Aoyama, Dr., 220
Apples, 19
Apricots, 19
Arbitration treaty with United States, 335
Architecture, 51, 91
Area, 5, 7
Arima, 8
Arita ware, 229
Armor, 230
Army, 126, 147-151; statistics, 381, 382
Arnold, Sir Edwin, 78, 253
Arsenal, 149, 150, 286
“Art Japonais, L’,” 235, 236
Artisans, 48, 82
“Artistic Japan,” 236
“Artist’s Letters from Japan, An,” 236
Arts, fine, 91, 222-236; mechanical, 24, 25
Aryans, 45
Asahigawa, 149
Asakawa, 328
Asama, 8
Ashikaga period, 98, 99
Ashikaga supremacy, 91
Ashikaga Yoshimasa, 233
Asia, 14, 149, 156, 281, 292, 294, 301
“Asia, the key of,” 4; Eastern, supremacy of Japan in, 299, 300
“Asiatic Loch Lomond,” 8
Asiatic Society of Japan, Transactions, 20, 22, 43, 54, 61, 62, 71, 83, 89, 92, 101, 132, 133, 145, 159, 174, 199, 208, 231, 249, 255, 259, 261
Aso, Mount, 8
Aso, Prof. S., 402
“As the Hague Ordains,” 328
Aston, W. G., 50, 92, 208, 232, 236, 249
Atami, 8
Athletics, 66
“Atlantic Monthly,” 302
Atsu, Prince, 123
Audsley, G. A., 235, 236
Australasia, 281
Australia, 34, 45
Austria, 85
Automobiles, 31, 34
Autumn, Japanese, 12
“Awakening of the East, The,” 28, 158
“Awakening of Japan, The,” 117, 304, 328
Ayrton, Mrs. Chaplin-, 75
B
Babylon, 300
Bacon, Miss Alice M., 59, 75, 189, 190, 221
Badgers, 13
Baelz, Dr., 46, 47
Baggage, 29
Baggage check system, American, 33
Bakan, 9
Ballard, Miss, 70
Ballard, Walter J., 356
Baltic fleet, Russian, 316, 317-318
Bamboo, 13, 22, 74
Bananas, 19
Bandai, Mount, 8, 113
Bank of Formosa, 38
Bank of Japan, 38, 39, 92, 170; organized, 113
Banks, national, 38; _see also_ specific names; private, 38; savings, 38, 39; deposits, 364
Baptists, 264, 272, 404, 405
Barbers’ guild, 27
Barley, 19, 26, 55
Base-ball, 66
Bastiat’s “Science of Finance,” 206
Batchelor, J., 45
Bathing, 58, 59
Battleships, _see_ Warships
Bays, 9
Beans, 19, 37, 55
Bear, 13
Beechey, Capt., 105
Beef, 54
Beer, 56; brewing, 24
Beets, 19
Beggars, 48; guild, 27
Bellows, U. S. Consul, 351
Bettelheim, Dr., 105
Bevan, Paul, 236
Bicycle boats, 85
Bicycles, 31, 34, 280, 281
Biddle, Commodore, 105
Bimetalism, 92, 111
Bing, S., 236
Bird, Miss, _see_ Bishop, Mrs. Isabella Bird
Birds, 13
Birth and birthdays, 60, 61
Bishop, Mrs. Isabella Bird, 15, 43, 45, 341
Biwa Lake, 8
Bizen ware, 229
Black, J. R., 117, 200
Blind, the, 217
“Blossom,” 105
“Blue-Jacket Spirit,” 152
Boar, 13
Boatmen, 30
Boats, 29, 31; _see also_ Steamboats
Boissonade, M., 161
Bonin Islands, 34
Books, 197, 203-206
Booth, General, 334
Bowes, J. L., 235
Boxer troubles, 115, 146, 153, 308
Bramhall, Mrs., 60, 75, 221
Brick industry, 24
Bricklayers’ guild, 27
Brinkley, Captain, 208, 231-233, 235, 309, 311
British, 7, 66
British Columbia, 14
Brothels, 166, 167, 271
Buckwheat, 19
Buddha, 253-255, 260; statue of, 228; birthday, 74
Buddhism, 48, 54, 90, 96, 99, 177, 224, 237, 252-260, 269, 288; Buddhist ceremonies, 62; education, 209; festivals, 63, 65; periodicals, 203; philosophy, 198; priests, 224, 258; temples, 65, 166, 240, 243, 253, 258
Buffalo, N. Y., 37
Bushidō, 251-252
“Bushidō, the Soul of Japan,” 89, 239, 252, 261
Business ability of Japanese, 39-42, 82-83
“Business men’s party,” 131
Business men, American, visit Japan, 335; Japanese visit United States, 337
Butter, 37
Button industry, 24
Byron, Lord, 204
C
Cabinet, 124, 125, 130, 143, 340, 375, 376; reconstruction, 113, 114
California, 5, 14, 37
Camellia, 410; trees, 12
Campbell, W., 398
Camphor, 37; trees, 12, 21
Canada, 335
Canadian Pacific steamship line, 3
Candles, 37
Canning industry, 22
Canton river, 14
Capital punishment, 162
Capitals of Japan, 91, 96, 97
Carpenters, wages of, 26, 360; guild, 27
Carriage, 281
Carrots, 19
Cary, Otis, 89, 249, 259, 276
“Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the British Museum,” 235
“Catalogue of the Morse Collection of Japanese Pottery,” 235
Cats, 13
Caucasians, 45
Cedar trees, 12
Cemeteries, 258, 259
Central America, 291
Chamberlain, B. H., 15, 22, 45, 58, 75, 86, 92, 152, 161, 192, 197, 199, 208, 222, 236, 252, 256, 408
Chang Chih-tung, Viceroy, 297
Changtu, occupation of, 317
Cha-no-Yu, _see_ Tea-ceremonial
Characteristics of the people, 46-50, 76-89
“Charter Oath,” 91, 110-112, 118
“Chautauquan, The,” 211, 401
Chemulpo, 311
Cherry flowers, 65, 79, 408-410; trees, 13
Chestnuts, 19
Chicago, 3, 11, 37, 38
Chickens, 13, 54, 56
“Child-Life in Japan,” 75
Children, 66, 181, 182
China, 4, 5, 7, 14, 21, 34, 35, 37, 42, 92, 96, 99, 103, 106, 115, 143, 146, 149, 150, 153, 154, 157, 221, 224, 237, 250, 255, 285, 287, 291, 292, 294-299, 301; tribute to, 91; war with, 92, 115, 307, 308; Japanese influence in, 294-298; Revolution, 340
“China and the Far East,” 341
Chinese, 7, 85, 94, 100, 105, 143, 144, 178, 198, 281, 297, 298; Chinese art, 224; Chinese Empire, 157; ideographs, 193, 194, 207, 220, 227; government service, 297; language, 209; literature, 90, 208, 209, 296; zodiac, 71; students in Japan, 340
“Chinese Recorder,” 297
Ching-ho-cheng, 317
Cholera, 10
Chop-sticks, 55
Chōshiu, Clan of, 109
Christian home, 177
Christian literature, 265, 266; periodicals, 203
“Christian Movement in Japan, The,” 276
Christianity, 48, 61, 71, 91, 99, 100, 107, 111, 156-158, 167, 177, 190, 219, 237, 240, 242, 243, 247-249, 253, 256, 259, 276, 286-288; helped by war, 324, 334, 336, 337; statistics, 404-406; _see also_ Anti-Christian
“Christianity in Japan, History of,” 276
“Christianity in Modern Japan,” 276
Christmas, 66
Chromoxylography, _see_ Color printing
“Chronicle,” Kōbe, 201
“Chronicles of Japan,” 92
Chrysanthemum Festival, 64, 65
Chrysanthemums, 408-410
“Chrysanthemums, War of the,” 91, 99
Church, Japanese, 336
Churches, 91, 110, 111, 267, 268, 287
Chūzenji, Lake, 8
Cire perdue process, 230
Cities, opening of, 91
Citizen (_kōmin_) 138-140
City Council, 140, 141
“Civil Code, New Japanese, Lectures on,” 174
Civil war, 91, 109, 110
“Classical Poetry of the Japanese,” 236, 408
Clearing-houses, 354
Clement’s “Christianity in Modern Japan,” 276
Clement’s “Japanese Floral Calendar,” 65
Climate, 5, 6, 11, 12
Cloisonné, 230
Coal, 23, 37, 41, 42, 152, 292, 295, 298
Coast line, 5, 9, 10
Cocoa, 37
Code, Civil, 61, 114-116, 176, 178, 18O-182, 190; commercial, 38, 114, 115, 161; criminal, 161; Napoleon, 161; penal, 113; civil procedure, 161; criminal procedure, 113, 161; codes, new, 92
Co-education, 211
Coffins, 62
Coins, 39
Collotype, 227
Colonial Bank of Hokkaidō, 38
Color printing, 227
Columbia University, 296
“Commentaries on the Constitution of the Empire of Japan,” 132
Commerce, 36, 37, 39-43; Treaty of commerce and navigation, 385-399
Commercial centre, 291
Compulsory school attendance, 212
Conder, Josiah, 54, 236
“Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism,” 275
Confucian education, 209; influences, 91; philosophy, 198
Confucianism, 48, 96, 100, 101, 237, 250-252, 260
Congregationalists, 264, 404, 405
Constantine, 248, 275
Constitution, 92, 113, 114, 120-122,124, 127, 128, 132, 150, 273, 287
“Constitutional Development of Japan,” 111, 132, 145
“Constitutional Government in Japan,” 129
Continental influences, 90
Convicts, 162
Cooking, 56
Cooks’, European-style, union, 27
Coolies, 27, 29, 31, 32, 282; guild, 27
Co-operative stores, 27, 28
Copper, 23, 37, 41
“Corea, the Hermit Nation,” 341
Cornstarch, 37
Corporal punishment, 212
Costumes, _see_ Dress
Cotton, 21, 37; mills, 21, 286; spinning, 21; velvet, 37
Counsel, 163, 164
Couriers, 29, 35, 281
Courts, 163-165
Cream, evaporated, 37
Credit Mobilier, 38
“Creed of Half Japan, The,” 261
Crimes, 162 Criminal law, 160, 161
Criminals, 163
Currency, 39
Curtis, W. E., 28, 43, 56, 66, 132, 174
Curtius, ——, 107
Customs, 60-75
D
Dai Nihon Shi, 101
“Dai Nippon,” 28, 59, 89, 117, 132, 158
Dalny, 295, 309, 313
Damascus, 230
Dancing, 68, 69, 228, 231-233; dancing-girls, 69
Dan-no-ura, Battle of, 98
Darwin’s “Origin of Species,” 204
Davidson, U. S. Consul, 21, 143, 145, 398
Days, special, lucky or unlucky, 71-75
Deaf, education of, 217
Death, 62
Deer, 13
De Forest, Dr., 276
Deme Jikan, 228
Dening, Prof., 86, 89
Deportation, 162
Development, internal, 104, 113, 114
“Dial, The,” Chicago, 204, 206, 208
“Diamond edition of humanity,” 47
“Diary of a Japanese Convert,” 265
Dickens, F. V., 236, 303
Dickson, Walter, 117
Dining-cars, 33
Diosy, Arthur, 39, 117, 145, 151, 152, 156, 158
Disciples, 264
Divisions, 5, 6
Divorce, 61, 177, 179, 180, 181
Dixon, W. G., 109, 117
Docks, 110, 111, 286; dockyards, 91
Dogs, 13
Dogura, Mr., 402
Dolls, 66
Dolls’ festival, 61, 64, 65
Dōshisha, 215
Dowie, J. A., 264
Drama, 233
Dress, 56-59, 284 Duarchy, 97
Dumb, education of, 217
Dutch, 91, 100, 105, 106, 210, 281; books, 285
“Dux Christus,” 276
Dyeing, 24
Dyer, Prof., 28, 59, 89, 117, 132, 158
E
“Earthquake, The Great,” _see_ Cabinet reconstruction
Earthquakes, 8, 10, 51, 88, 106; Gifu, 92, 114; Professor of, 216
Easter, 66
Eastlake, F. W., 117, 158, 283
Ebara, Mr., 274
Editors, 201
Education, 47, 209-221, 285, 341
“Educational Conquest of the Far East, The,” 221
Edwards, Osman, 68
Egg-plants, 19
Eggs, 26, 55, 56, 60
Election, First National, 114; first under Constitution of 1889, 127
Electoral franchise, extension of, 115, 116
Electric cars, 34, 281; lights, 31, 36; railways, 31; apparatus manufactories, 286
Elgin, Lord, 106, 107
“Elizabethan Age,” Japan’s, 97
Elocution, 195
Embroidery, 24, 231
Emperor Yoshihito, 123, 339
Emperors and Empresses, chronological table, 374-375
Empire, New, 91
Empress Dowager, the, 111, 188, 280
Empress Sada, 123, 188
Enamelling, 230
“Encyclopædia Britannica,” 204
Engine works, 286
Engineering, 23
Engineers, American, 32
England, 37, 61, 85, 93, 300
English, 91, 145
“English-Japanese Dictionary,” 208
“English-Japanese Etymology,” 208 English language, 113, 195, 201, 211, 219, 285, 298
English normal school, 186
Epicureanism, 79, 81
Epidemics, 10
Episcopalians, 264, 272, 404, 405
Eularia, 409
Europe, 3, 34, 112, 156, 189, 213, 237, 281, 290, 292, 299, 301
European books, favorite, 204; languages, 220
Europeans, 47
Evangelical alliance, 271
“Every Day Japan,” 15, 43, 59, 75, 89, 158, 174, 190, 221, 261
“Evolution of the Japanese, The,” 89
Exports, 36, 37, 298, 368
F
Factories, 352-353
“Fairy Tales from Far Japan,” 70
Family, Japanese, 50, 51
Fan industry, 24
Farming, 16, 17-19; farmers, 48, 82, 248, 283
Fenollosa, E. F., 235
Festivals, 63-65
“Feudal and Modern Japan,” 59, 89, 101, 132, 208, 249
Feudalism, 91, 110, 112, 119, 133, 134, 370
Figs, 19, 351
Filial piety, 87, 166, 176, 250
Fillmore, Millard, 102, 106
Finck, H. T., 15, 59, 89
Fine Arts School, Tōkyō, 217
Firefly lamp, 285
“Fire-Fly’s Lovers, The,” 70
Fire-Shine and Fire-Fade, Princes, 90
Fish, 13, 22, 23, 26, 55, 56; fisheries, 294; considered by Peace commissioners, 319, 320
Fisher’s “Universal History,” 205
Flag, Imperial, 5; first foreign, officially raised, 107; flags, feast of the, 61, 64, 65; red and white, wars of, 91
Florenz, Dr., 249
Flour, 37 Flowers, 408-410; arrangement, 233, 234; festivals, 65, 409, 410; “Flower-viewing,” 394; _see also_ specific names
“Flowers of Japan and the Art of Floral Arrangement, The,” 236
Folk-lore, 70
Food, 54-56, 284
Foreign Language School, Tōkyō, 217
Foreign trade, 368
Foreigners, status of, 170-174
Formosa, Island of, 3, 5, 6, 12, 14, 16, 21, 30, 34, 91, 92, 111, 115, 142-144, 220, 295, 336, 347; under Japan, 143, 144, 411-413
Formosan Bank, 295
Foxes, 13
France, 37, 85, 164, 278, 290
Franco-Japanese Agreement, 333
Freight, 29, 30; carts, 30, 31
French language, 211, 285
Friends, 264, 272
Froebel, Friedrich, 214
“From Far Formosa,” 276
“From Tōkyō through Manchuria with the Japanese,” 328
Fruit, _see_ specific names
Fruit-growing, 351-352
Fuchow, 294, 295, 413
Fuji, Mount, 8
Fujiwara bureaucracy, 91; epoch, 97; family established in regency, 91
Fukuba, Viscount, 408
Fukuzawa, Mr., 184, 185, 215
Fukwai, 135-138
Funeral ceremonies, 62
Furniture, 52, 53
Fushun, occupation of, 317
“Future of Japan, The,” 304
G
Gale, J. S. 341
Gamblers’ guild, 27
Game, 54
Games, 66
Gardens, 17, 53, 54
Gas, 36
Geisha, _see_ Dancing-girls
Genroku era, 356 German liberals, 264
Germany, 37, 85, 122, 145, 147; and Japan, 300; German language, 211, 285
“Geschichte des Japanischen Farbenholzschnitts,” 235
Gifu earthquake, 92, 114
Ginko or Salisburia, 351
Ginza, the, of Tōkyō, 26
“Gist of Japan, The,” 15, 89, 249, 276
Glass-blowing, 24
“Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan,” 43, 54, 65
Glyptic art, 227
_Go_, 66
Goats, 13
Goethe’s “Faust,” 204
Goh, ——, 50
Gokinai, 6
Gold, 23, 27, 41, 369; _see_ Coins; gold standard, 39, 92, 115, 116
Golownin, Captain, 104
Gonse, Louis, 235, 236
Gordon, Captain, 104
Gordon, Dr., 190, 408
“Gospel ship,” 267, 287
Goto family, 230
Government, Constitutional, 113, 116; and Liberals, alliance between, 115; ownership, 33
Governor, 136-138
Governors, assembly of, 91, 111
Græco-Roman mythology, 95
“Grammar of the Japanese Written Language,” 208
Grant, U. S., 113, 369
Grapes, 19, 351
Grave-diggers, 48
Great Britain, 4, 37, 146, 147, 153-157, 308, 310, 317
Greater Japan, 331-341
“Great Righteousness,” Era, 339
Greece, 248, 300
Greek church, 263, 404, 406, 407; language, 211, 285; chorus, 68
Greene, D. C., 259
Gregorian calendar, 64, 91, 103, 111, 112, 409
Gribble, Henry, 20
Griffin, Professor, 380
Griffis, Dr., 18, 43, 59, 70, 71, 73, 75, 99, 101, 117, 206, 208, 210, 241, 242, 249, 252, 256, 257, 276, 341
“Grippe, La,” 10
Guam, 299
Guano deposits, 6
Gubbins, J. H., 117, 161, 176, 178, 182
Guilds, 27
Gulf Stream, 11
Gulick, S. L., 89, 117, 304, 328
Gumma Prefecture, Governor of, 138
Gunboat, United States, 23
Guncotton, 85
Gunpowder, smokeless, 85
H
Hachiman, god of war, 90, 96
Hachisuka, Marquis, 188
Hades, God of, 74
Haga, 261
Hakodate, 9, 107
Hakone, 8, 37; lake, 8
Hakuchi era, 370
Hakuseki, Arai, 210
Ham, 54
Hamaoka, 39
Hamath, 46
Hancock, H. I., 66
“Hand-Book for Japan,” 15
“Hand-Book of Colloquial Japanese,” 208
Hand-carts, 31
Handkerchief industry, 24
Hangchau, China, 297
Happiness of the people, 79
Hara, Mr., 168
Harbors, 9
Hardy, Thomas, 204
Hare, 13
Harris, Townsend, 106, 107, 117
Hartshorne, Miss, 15, 43, 59, 75
Haru, Prince, 92, 113, 115, 123, 188, 211
Harunobu, 227
Harvard University, 307
“Hatsuse,” sinking of, 314
Hawaii, 3, 7, 35, 299
Hayashi, Mr., 312 Hearn, Lafcadio, 43, 54, 65, 75, 77, 89, 190, 238, 249
Hebrew, 285
Heco, Joseph, 200
Heikeutai, battle of, 315
Heine, Heinrich, 204
“Herald,” Kōbe, 201
Herbart, J. F., 205
“Heroic Japan,” 117, 158, 283
Hideyoshi, 91, 99
Hildreth, Richard, 101
Hiroöka, Mrs. Asa, 186, 187, 402
Hirose, Commander, 313
Hiroshima, 148
Hirth, Dr., 296
“Histoire de l’Art du Japan,” 235
History (Old Japan), 90-101 I. Divine Ages, 94 II. Prehistoric Period, 94-96 III. Imperialistic Period, 96-97 IV. Civil Strife, 97-100 V. Tokugawa Feudalism, 100-101
History (New Japan), 102-117 I. Period of Seclusion, 104-106 II. Period of Treaty-Making, 106-107 III. Period of Civil Commotions, 107-110 IV. Period of Reconstruction, 110-112 V. Period of internal Development, 113-114 VI. Period of Constitutional Government, 114-117 Greater Japan, 331-341
History and mythology outline, 90-92
“History of Japan,” 101
“History of Japanese Literature,” 208, 232, 236
“History of Japanese Political Parties,” 132
“History of Protestant Missions in Japan,” 276
“History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist Sects,” 253
“Hitachi Maru,” sinking of, 314
Hittites, 46
Hizen ware, 229
Hoang-Ho river, 14
Hōjō tyranny, 91; family, 98 Hokkaidō, 5, 6, 9, 11, 42, 142, 143, 292, 347; _see also_ Yezo
Hokurikudō, 6
Hokusai, 227
Holidays, 63-66
Holland, 37
Holme, Charles, 22
Honda, Y., 334
“Honda the Samurai,” 75
Hondo, 5, 6
Hongkong, 33, 35, 37, 355
Honolulu, 3, 33
Horse-cars, 31, 34, 281
Horses, 13, 24
Hours, 72-73
House, E. H., 117
House of Commons, 119, 126, 130
House of Peers, 126, 128, 130, 376, 377
Houses of Japanese, 51-53, 284
Hozumi, Dr. N., 174, 249
Hugo’s “Les Misérables,” 204
Huish, Marcus, 22, 222, 229, 236
Hulbert, H. B., 341
“Human Bullets,” 328
“Hundred Poems,” 199
Hyōgō, _see_ Kōbe
I
Ice industry, 24
“Ichijiku,” 266
“Ideals of the East, The,” 224
Iga ware, 229
Ii, Prime Minister, assassinated, 107, 108
Ikao, 8
Illinois, 37
Imari ware, 229
Imbrie, Dr., 208, 323
Imitation, Japanese ability for, 41, 85
Immigration, 335, 338
Imperial Court, 278, 296
Imperial Diet, 36, 92, 114, 122, 126-128, 130, 165, 207, 212, 247, 313
Imperial family, 48, 93
Imperial Guard, 149
“Imperial Japanese Navy, The,” 158
Imperial Library, _see_ Library
Imperial Rescripts, 212, 398-399
Imperial University, _see_ University
Imperialism, 91, 96-97, 101, 118-132 Imperialistic period, 90
Imports, 36, 37, 170, 368
“In the Mikado’s Service,” 75
Inagaki, Mr., 410
Inari Sama, 248
Incomes, _see_ Wages and incomes
Indemnity, War, 319
India, 14, 21, 34, 37, 45, 48, 301
Indigo, 17
Industrial and commercial Japan, 17-28, 39-42, 183, 341
Industrial Bank, 38
“Industries of Japan, The,” 28, 231, 235
Inland Sea, 10, 267, 287
Inouye, Jukichi, 74
“Intercourse between the United States and Japan,” 117
International, law, violated by Russia, 317; Oil Company, 36; Postal Union, 35
Invention, Japanese ability for, 41, 85
Investment, foreign, 40-42
Iris, 65, 409, 410
Iron, 23, 37, 42, 295; foundries, 286; workers’ union, 27
Ise, shrine at, 167, 243
Ishigami, Dr., 220
Ishikari river, 9
Ishikawajima, 355
“Island of Formosa, The,” 21, 143
Itagaki, Count, 119, 131, 402
Italian, 285
Itō, Prince, 40, 120, 131, 132, 332, 336, 381, 402
“Ito, With Marquis, in Korea,” 341
Iwakura Embassy, 110, 112
Iyemochi, Shōgun, 108, 109
Iyenaga, 111, 132, 145
Iyenari, Shōgun, 280
Iyeyasu, Shōgun, 91, 99, 100
Iyeyoshi, Shōgun, 105
Izanagi, 90, 95
Izanami, 90, 95
Izumo, 94; ware, 229
J
Janes, 158
“Japan,” 15, 59, 101, 208, 249 “Japan, An Interpretation,” 89
“Japan: Its History, Arts, and Literature,” 231, 233, 235
“Japan and America,” 39, 42, 356
“Japan and her people,” 15, 43, 59, 190
“Japan and its Art,” 236
“Japan and its Regeneration,” 89, 249, 276
“Japan and its Trade,” 28
“Japan and the Japanese,” 300
“Japan as it Was and Is,” 101
“Japan Daily Advertiser,” 201
“Japan Evangelist,” 276
“Japan in History, Folk-lore, and Art,” 59, 101, 208, 210
“Japan in Transition,” 28, 145, 158, 291
“Japan Mail,” 46, 131, 184, 201, 243, 296, 350, 370, 376, 383, 404, 410, 411
Japan Mail Steamship Company, 34, 92, 113, 114, 139
Japan Society, London, Transactions, 22, 50, 92
“Japan Times,” 24, 130, 131, 188, 201, 204, 362, 381, 384, 399, 404
“Japan To-day,” 15, 43, 158, 261
“Japan Tract Society,” 266
“Japan Year Book,” 28, 43
“Japanese Boy, A,” 75, 221
“Japanese Calendars,” 71, 83
“Japanese Education,” 221
“Japanese Epigrams,” 208
“Japanese Fairy Book,” 70
“Japanese Fairy Tales,” 70
“Japanese Floral Calendar,” 65
“Japanese Girls and Women,” 59, 75, 189, 190, 221
“Japanese Homes,” 51, 54
“Japanese Illustration,” 235
“Japanese, Interior, A,” 59, 190, 221
“Japanese Legal Seal, The,” 174
“Japanese Life in Town and Country,” 59, 75, 89, 261
“Japanese Nation,” 341
“Japanese Odes,” 236
“Japanese Physical Training,” 66
“Japanese Plays,” 68 “Japanese Plays and Playfellows,” 68
“Japanese Rule in Formosa,” 145
“Japanese Wood-cutting and Wood-cut Printing,” 235
“Japanese Wood Engravings,” 235
Java, 45; Javanese, 45
Jevon’s “Money,” 206
Ji sect, 254
Jimmu Tennō, Emperor, 63, 90, 93, 95, 121
“Jingles from Japan,” 83
Jingorō, Hidari, 228
Jingu, Empress, 90, 95, 96
Jinrikisha, 31, 32, 281
“Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” 15, 20, 43, 56, 123, 236
“Jinrikisha men,” 32, 203
Jōdo sect, 253, 255
Journalism, 200-202
Judges, 163-165
Julian, 248
Jūmin, _see_ Resident
Justice, 160
K
Kaga ware, 229
Kagi, Formosa, 398
Kago, 30
Kagoshima, 32, 107, 108
“Kaigai Shimbun,” 200
Kaiping, 313
Kaiyuan, 317
Kajima, 186
Kamimura, Admiral, 314, 316
Kanazawa, 215
Kaneko, Baron, 120, 139, 307
Kanin, Prince, 278
Kansas City, 37
Karuizawa, 8
Kataoka, Mr., 274
Katayama Sea, 28
Katō, Baron, 402
Katsura, Prime Minister, 324; ministry, 331, 332, 336-338, 340
Kawakami, E. E., 132, 341
Kawamura, Count and Countess, 123
Kawasaki, 341
Kegon waterfall, 9 Keiki, Shōgun, 108,109
Keiō-gijiku, 215
Kelung, Formosa, 412, 413
Kenkwai, 135-138
Kennan, George, 328
Kenzan ware, 228
“Keramic Art of Japan,” 235
Keramic wares, 228
Kii, 9
Kikuchi, Dr., 221
Kimotsuki, Admiral, 291
Kinchow, 313
Kindergartens, 210, 213, 214, 269, 403
Kingsley Hall, 28
“Kinse Shiriaku,” 117
Kipling, Rudyard, 204
Kirby, E. C., 341
Kiso river, 9
Kitakami river, 9
Kitasato, Dr., 10, 220
Kites, 66
Kiyomori, 98
Knapp, A. M., 59, 89, 101, 132, 208, 249
Knight, 283
Knox, G. W., 59, 75, 89, 249, 261, 304
Kōbe, 2, 9, 33, 110, 201, 355, 364
“Kōbe Herald,” 407
Koch, Dr., 220
Kodama, Baron, 220, 321
Koike, Major, 381
Kojiki, 241
Kojimachi Ku, 139
Kōkaku, Emperor, 278
“Kokumin Shimbun,” 335
Komagatake, 8
Komatsu II., Emperor, 99
Kōmei, Emperor, 64, 108,109, 122
Kōmin, _see_ Citizen
Komura, Baron, 318
Korea, 4, 5, 7, 14, 32, 34, 90, 91, 95, 96, 99, 111, 154, 157, 224, 237, 252, 255, 292, 294, 299, 331; Japanese convention with Japan, 332; agreement influence in, 294; Russia in, 309; with Japan, 333; annexed, 337; Supreme Court in, 334; Koreans, 85; students, 341
“Korea and Her Neighbors,” 341 “Korean Sketches,” 341
“Korea in Transition,” 341
“Korea, The Passing of,” 341
“Korea, The Tragedy of,” 341
“Korea, With Marquis Ito in,” 341 _See also_ “Corea the Hermit Nation,” 341
Koriusai, 227
Korsakoff Harbor, Sakhalin, 315
Kublai Khan, 98
Kuchinotsu, 9
Kumamoto, 32, 149, 215
Kure, 150, 355
Kurihama, 102
Kurile Islands, 5, 6, 12, 44, 105, 111
Kuroki, General, 313, 315
Kuropatkin, General, 313, 315
Kuro Shio (Black Stream), 11
Kurozumi-kyō, 259
Kusatsu, 8
Kusunoki, 91, 98
Kyonaga, 227
Kyōto, 19, 91, 97, 109, 215, 230, 278, 280, 282, 350
Kyōto ware, 229
Kyōwa era, 277
Kyūshiu, 5, 9, 10, 12, 14, 42, 45, 95, 292
L
Labor unions, 27, 28
“Labor World,” 28
Lacquer trees, 12; lacquer work, 24; lacquering, 230-231
Ladd, George T., 87, 341
“Ladoga” (American), 105
La Farge, John, 236
Lakes, 8
Lamps, 298
Land, arable, 350, 351; foreign ownership of, 170, 171
“Land of the Morning,” 109
Landscape-gardening, 54, 234
“Landscape-Gardening in Japan,” 54, 236
Lange, Dr., 208
Language, 191-198, 206, 207, 232
Lanman, Chas., 117
Latin, 211, 285 Latitude, 5
“Lawrence” (American), 105
Laws, 96, 137
Lay, A. H., 132, 376, 380
Lead, 23
Legal Japan, 159-174
Leroy-Beaulieu, A., 28, 158
Lespedeza, 395
Lewis, R. E., 221
Liaotung Peninsula, 307, 308
Liaoyang, 313, 315
Library, Imperial, 203, 220; Max Müller, 220
“Life of Sir Harry Parkes,” 303
Light-houses, 91, 110
Ligneul, L’Abbé, 391
Literary class, 48
Literature, 70, 100, 198-208
Lithography, 227
Living expenses, 26, 27, 358-360
Lizards, 13
Lloyd, Prof., 15, 59, 75, 89, 158, 174, 190, 221, 259, 261
Loans, war, 313
Local self-government, 113, 114, 116, 120, 133-145
Locomotives, 37
London, 341
Longford, J. H., 101, 174
Lönholm, Dr., 161
Loo Choo (Ryūkyū) Islands, 5, 12, 34, 92, 105, 113
Loquats, 19, 351
Loti, Pierre, 77
“Lotos-Time in Japan,” 15, 59, 89
Lotus, 65, 410
Lotze, R. H., 87
Louisiana, 5
Lowell, Percival, 26, 43, 50, 75, 89, 195, 223, 239, 249, 257
Loyalty, 87
Lucky and unlucky days, 71-75
Lumber, 24
Lunar calendar, 64
Lutherans, 264
M
MacCauley, Clay, 199
McClatchie, T. R., 68 McCormick, Frederick, 328
McDonald, Roland, 105, 106
McKenzie, F. A., 341
Mackay, Dr., 276
Maclay, A. C., 75
Magazines, 202, 285
“Magna Charta of Japanese liberty,” _see_ Constitution
Maize, 19
Maizuru, 150
Makaroff, Admiral, 314
“Maker of the New Orient, A,” 276
Malays, 45, 46, 95
Manchoo Court, 301
Manchuria, China, 30, 32, 295, 308-310, 313, 331
Manila, 33, 35
Manners, _see_ Customs
Manufacturing plants, 286
“Manyōshiu,” 407
Maple, 65, 408, 409
Marcus Island, 6
“Mariner” (British), 105
Marriage, 61, 62, 178-182
Masamune, 230
Mason, W. B., 15
Masujima, Dr., 169, 170, 174
Match industry, 24, 37, 298
Matsukata, Count, 128
Matsumai, Yezo, 105
“Matthew Calbraith Perry,” 117
Matting, 37
“Mayors of the Palace,” 98, 278
Mechanics, 283; wages of, 26, 358-360
Megata, Mr., 351
Meiji era, 91, 277, 339
Melons, 19
Memorial Day, 65
Men-of-war, American, 23
Mercantile Marine, 384
“Mercator” (American), 105
Merchants, 48, 82, 283
Meredith, George, 204
Merovingians, Japanese, 98
Metal work, 24, 229-230
Meteorological table, 346
Methodist Publishing House, 266, 276
Methodists, 264, 272, 334, 404, 405
Michi, Prince, 123
Migrations, 95 “Mikado’s Empire, The,” 43, 66, 71, 206
Military class, 48
Mill, John Stuart, 380
Miller, ——, a criminal, 165
Millet, 19, 55
Milne, Professor, 15
Minamoto, 98
Mining, 23, 294
Minko, 228
Minnesota, 5
Mint, 39, 91, 110, 111
Miochin family, 230
Mission of Japan, the, 289-304
Mission schools, 211, 219
Missionaries, 107, 157, 173, 177, 218, 245, 263-269, 272, 287
Missionary Conference, First, 110; at Ōsaka, 92, 113; at Tōkyō, 92, 115; at Yokohama, 91
Mississippi valley, 5
Mitake, 8
Mitford, A. B. F., 70, 75, 261
Mito, 54, 60, 67, 280
Mito clan, 100
Mito, Prince of, 149, 286
“Mito Yashiki,” 75
Mitschenko’s cavalry, 315
Mitsu Bishi Company, 23
Mitsui Bank, 370
Miwa, 228
“Miyako-Dori,” 236
Miyanoshita, 8
“Modern Japanese Legal Institutions,” 174
Moji, 9, 32, 187
“Moji no Shirube,” 208
Money, Table of, 347-349; in circulation, 367; money-making, 81-82, 408
Mongolians, 45
Monkey, 13
Morals, 48, 257, 271, 287
Mormons, 265
Morning-glory, 65, 410
Morris, John, 15, 28, 117, 132, 158, 208
Morrison, Arthur, 235
“Morrison” Expedition, 105
Morrison, Mt., 8 Morse, E. S., 51, 54, 235
“Moscow Gazette,” 406
Mosquitoes, 10
Mossman, Samuel, 117
Mother-in-law, 176
Mott, John R., 270
Mounsey, A. H., 117
Mountains, 8
Mourning, 62
Mousseline, 37
Mukden, battle of, 317
Mulberry trees, 19
Munichika, 230
Munzinger, Carl, 85
Muramasa, 230
Murata rifle, 149
Murdock, James, 101, 276
Muroran, 9, 150
Murray, David, 15, 59, 94, 97, 101, 132, 263
“Murray’s Hand-Book,” 12, 15
“Muscovite Menace,” 322
Music, 68, 69, 231, 232
“Music and Musical Instruments of Japan, The,” 236
Mutsuhito, Emperor, 108-110, 118, 121, 122, 279; death of, 339, 340
Mythology, 90, 92-95; history, outline, 90-92
N
Nachi waterfall, 9
Nagasaki, 9, 23, 32, 104-107, 201, 281, 341, 405, 406
Nagoya, 21, 148, 230, 364
Namikawa, 230
Nanjo, 253
Nankaidō, 6
Nanshan, 313
“Napoleon of Japan,” 91, 99
Nara, 97, 228; Nara epoch, 90, 97
“Narrative of a Japanese,” 200
Naruse, Jinzō, 187, 188, 402
“Nation, The,” 132, 134, 145
National Assembly, 120
National development, 366, 367
National exhibition in Tōkyō, 111
National song, 407, 408
Nature-worship, 45, 79 Naval increment, 383, 384
Navy, 126, 147-152
Nelson, Lord, 151
Nemoto, Mr., 274
“New Far East, The,” 39, 117, 145, 151, 158
New Year’s Day, 61, 64, 75
New York City, 296
New York State Bar Association, 170
Newchang, 315
Newspaper, first, 91, 110, 111, 200; newspapers, 200-202, 257, 266, 273, 285; _see also_ specific names
Nichiren sect, 253, 255-256
Nicolai, Bishop, 263
Nietzche’s “Zarathustra,” 204
Nightingale, 13
Niigata, 9, 110
Niitaka, 8
Nikkō, 8, 9, 185, 228
Ninigi, 90
Ninsei ware, 228
Nippon Electric Company, 38
Nippon Yūsen Kwaisha, _see_ Japan Mail Steamship Company
“Nisshin Shinjishi,” 200
Nitobe, Dr., 45, 89, 117, 239, 252, 261, 341
Nitta, 91, 98
_Nō_ dances, 228, 233
Nobility, new orders of, 92, 113, 114
Nobles’ School, 123, 211
Nobunaga, persecutor of Buddhists, 91, 99
Nodzu, General, 313, 315
Nogi, General, 313, 316, 340
Norimono, _see_ Sedan-chair
Normal schools, 211, 216, 400
Norman, Henry, 56, 57, 69, 152, 158, 174, 202
Noss, Christopher, 208
“Notes on Shippo,” 235
“Noto, an Unexplored Corner of Japan,” 43
Novik, sinking of, 315
Nunobiki waterfall, 9
Nuts, 55
Nuttall’s “Standard Dictionary,” 205 O
Oak trees, 12
Oatmeal, 37
Occidentalization, 69
“Occult Japan,” 249
Ocean currents, 11, 14
Officials, 26, 48
Ōhashi, Mr., 220
Oil, 23, 36, 41, 42; industry, 364-365
Ōjin, 90, 96
Okakura, Kakasu, 117, 224, 235, 304, 328
Okayama, 215
Oku, General, 313, 315
Ōkuma, Count, 119, 130, 154, 215, 218, 333, 381, 402
Olcott, Colonel, 253
Omaha, 37
Omnibus, 34
Onions, 19
Onohama, 355
Onsen, 8
Oöka, 159
“Open door,” 310, 322
Opium, 144, 170
Oranges, 19, 351, 352
Orchestras, 67-69
Oregon, 14, 106
“Orient, The Spirit of the,” 304
Oriental Steamship Company, 23, 35
“Ornamental Arts of Japan,” 235
Ōsaka, 9, 21, 39, 92, 110, 148, 149, 186, 355, 364, 402, 406; “Ōsaka Asahi Shimbun,” 202; Exhibition, 24, 356-358; Gas Company, 36; “Ōsaka Mainichi Shimbun,” 202; Merchant Steamship Company, 34, 295; Missionary Conference, Proceedings, 276; Shōsen Kwaisha, 34, 295
Oshū, 45
Ota ware, 229
“Othello,” 68
Ōuchi, Mr., 322
“Out of the Far East,” 190
Outcasts, 283; admitted to citizenship, 91, 110, 112
“Outline of the History of Ukiyo-ye, An,” 235 “Outlook, The,” 309, 328
Owari ware, 229
Oxen, 13; ox-carts, 29, 31
Ōyama, Marquis, 150, 321
Ozaki, Mme., 70
P
Pacific Ocean, 1-3, 6, 14, 299, 301
Pack-horses, 29, 31
“Painters of Japan, the,” 235
Painting, 225-227; collections in America, 225
Palanquin, 30
Palmer, Frederick, 328
Pantomime, 68
Paper-making, 24; mills, 286
Paper money, 39
“Paradise of the East,” 290
“Party Cabinet,” first, 115
Paulownia, 409
Peace, articles of, 318-320
Peace commissioners, 318; conference by, 318
“Peace Preservation Act,” 113, 114
Peace Resolutions, 335
Peace Society, 333
Peach trees, 13; blossoms, 410; peaches, 19, 351, 352
Peanuts, 19
Pears, 19, 351, 352
Peas, 19, 37
Peeresses’ School, 188, 211
Peery, R. B., 15, 89, 249, 276
Peking, 115, 296, 297, 301
Penal Code, 113
People, 44-59; _see also_ Characteristics of the people
Perry, Commodore, 102, 103, 105-107, 116; anniversary of treaty, 314; Memorial Relief Fund, 314; expedition, 91, 117
Persimmons, 19, 351
Pescadores Islands, 5, 413
Petroleum, 37, 365
“Petropavlovsk,” sinking of, 314
“Phaethon” (British), 104
Philippine Islands, 3, 14, 15, 291, 299
Phillips, Fs. C., 205
Phœnicia, 300 Physiographical advantages, 291
Physiography, 1-15
Pickles, 37
Pickpockets’ guild, 27
“Pictorial Arts of Japan, The,” 235
Piggott, F. T., 22, 236
Pine, 12, 409, 410
Pisciculture, 24
Plague, 10, 413
Plasterers’ guild, 27
Plum trees, 13; blossoms, 65, 79, 408, 409, 410; plums, 19, 351, 352
Poetry, 192, 198-200, 225, 226, 231, 232, 407
Policemen, 162, 163
“Political and Commercial Reasons for the Study of Chinese,” 296
“Political Development of Japan (1867-1909), The,” 132
“Political Ideas of Modern Japan, The,” 132
Political parties, 113, 114, 130, 376-381
“Political Science Quarterly,” 145
Pomegranate, 351
Population, 7, 366
Porcelain, 24, 37, 228-229
Pork, 54
Port Arthur, 307, 309, 311, 313, 315, 316
Portland, Oregon, 2
Ports, opening of, 91
Portsmouth, N. H., peace conference at, 318
Portuguese, 20, 91, 99
Postage, letter, 35, 36
Postal system, 31, 35, 91, 110, 111; postal savings, 35, 362-364
Potatoes, 19, 26
Pottery, 24, 228-229; “Father of Pottery,” 229
Poultry, 24
“Powers, Great,” 146, 307, 308
“Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing,” 208
“Preble” (United States), 105
Prefectural assemblies, 92, 111-114
Prehistoric period, 90
Presbyterians, 264, 272, 404, 405
Presents, 60 Press, freedom of the, 92, 115, 116, 201
Printers’ union, 27
Prison system, 165, 166; officials, school for, 168; treatment of prisoners, 321
Privy council, 92, 113, 124
Professional schools, 218
“Progress of Japan, 1853-1871, The,” 117
Pronunciation, xvii
Prophecy, 288
Proverb, a Japanese, 46
Provinces and Prefectures, 345, 347
Prussian voting system, 141
R
Radicals, dissatisfaction of, 113, 114
Radish, 19
Railroad, first, 91, 110; fare, 33; carriages, 37; engineers’ union, 27; workmen’s union, 27
Railroads, 31-33, 282, 294, 333, 360-362, 367
Rainy seasons, 11
Ransome, Stafford, 28, 145, 158, 291
Rathgen, Dr. Karl, 17
Rats, 10, 13
“Real Japan, The,” 56, 57, 69, 152, 158, 174, 190, 202
“Real Triumph of Japan, The,” 158
Red Cross Society, 188, 269, 270, 280, 321
Reform School, 168
Reform work, 271
Registration, system of, 168, 169
Rein, J. J., 15, 22, 28, 46, 59, 75, 85, 89, 208, 231, 235, 249
Religion, 172, 173, 237-276
“Religion in Japan, Development of,” 249, 261
Religions, Bureau of, 243
“Religions of Japan, The,” 242, 249, 257, 276
Remmon-kyō, 259
Remsen, Ira, 205
Resanoff, 104
“Rescue homes,” 168
Resident (_jūmin_), 138, 139
Resources, 41, 42, 340 Restoration, 108, 110, 118, 144, 210, 242
Revolutionary war, 91
Rice, 18, 19, 26, 37, 54, 56, 169, 351
Richardson affair, 91, 107, 108
Rifles, 85
Ritter, H., 276
Rivers, 9
Roman Catholic, 264, 404-406
Roosevelt, President, 318
Rosen, Baron, 318
Roses, War of the, 99
Rowing, 66
“Rurik,” loss of, 314
Russia, 4, 14, 36, 145, 263, 285, 294, 295; and Japan, 299, 300, 307-328
“Russia, The Tragedy of,” 328
Russian aggressions, 155, 157
Russian Church, 406
Russian epidemic, 10
Russian language, 285
“Russo-Japanese Conflict, The,” 328
Russo-Japanese convention, 333
Russo-Japanese war, 307-327, 331, 332, 336
Ryūkyū Islands, _see_ Loo Choo Islands
S
Sada, Empress, 123, 188, 211
Saga rebellion, 91, 111
Saikaidō, 6
Saionji, Marquis, 402; cabinet, 332, 336, 340
“Saiseikwai” Society, 338
_Sake_, 24, 55
Sakhalin traded off for Kurile Islands, 111; indemnity from Russia, 331
Salisburia, or Ginko, 351
Salt, 23
Salvation Army, 168, 264, 271
Samurai, or Knight, 283
San Diego, 2, 3
San Francisco, 2, 3, 35, 37
Sanindō, 6
Sanskrit, 211, 285
Sanyō Railway Company, 33
Sanyōdō, 6
Sapporo Agricultural College, 216
“Saramang” (British), 105 Saseho, 150, 311
Satin, 37
Satow, Sir Ernest, 22, 117, 241, 249
Satsuma, Prince of, 108
Satsuma rebellion, 91, 111
Satsuma ware, 229
Sawyers’ guilds, 27
Saxons, 93
Scandinavian Alliance, 264
Scherer, J. A. B., 15, 43, 117, 158, 221, 261
Schools, 210-212, 214-218; statistics, 399-401; _see also_ Academy of Music, Fine Arts School, Foreign Language School, Kindergartens, Mission, Nobles’, Normal, Peeresses’, Professional, and Technical schools, Sapporo Agricultural College, University for Women, and University, Imperial
Schopenhauer, Arthur, 204
Scidmore, Miss E. R., 15, 20, 43, 56, 75, 123, 236, 328
“Scribner’s Monthly,” 87, 132
Scripture Union, 271
Sculptors, 228
Sea of Japan, battle of, 318
Seaman, Louis L., Major, 158, 328
Seattle, Washington, 2, 35, 355
Seaweed, 55
Second Army, 313
Sedan-chair, 30
Seidlitz, 235
Seifu ware, 228
Sei-i-Tai-Shōgun, 98
Seismology, 15, 216
“Seiyō Kibun,” 210
Sekigahara, 91, 100
Senate, 91, 111, 119
Sendai, 148, 215, 332
Seoul, 311, 312
Seto ware, 229
Setonouchi, _see_ Inland Sea
Setouchi, _see_ Inland Sea
“Seven grasses,” 410
Seventh-Day Adventists, 264
Shaho River, battle of, 315; skirmishes on, 317
“Shakai Zasshi,” 18
Shanghai, China, 298, 355 Sheep, 13
Shibata, Mr., 323
Shibusawa, Baron, 39, 82
Shigemi, 75, 221
Shikoku, 5, 10, 12
Shimada, Mr., 274
Shimoda 107
Shimonoseki, and Straits of, 32, 91, 107, 108
Shin sect, 253, 255, 256
Shinano river, 9
Shinchiku, Formosa, 412
Shingon sect, 253, 254
“Shinshiu,” 255
Shintō, 48, 50, 62, 68, 94, 177, 224, 237-249, 250, 251, 254, 259, 260, 288, 340; periodicals, 203; shrines, 166, 240, 243, 244; temples, 65, 238
“Shinto: the Way of the Gods,” 249
Shinyeisho, Formosa, 412
Shioya, S., 75, 221
Ship-building, 23, 24, 354-356
Ship-carpenters’ union, 27
_Shippō_, 230, 235
Shirane, 8
Shirozaemon, 229
Shizuoka, 280
Shōgunate, 91, 98, 99, 108-110
Shops, shopkeepers, shopping, 25-26
Shōtoku Taishi, 90, 96
Shrines, Bureau of, 243
Shunsho, 227
Siam, 4, 299; and Japan, 298, 410-411
Siberia, 4, 14, 34
Siberia railway, 291, 309
Sick poor, relief of, 338
Silk, 17, 20, 21, 37, 41; silkworms, 20
Silver, 23, 41, 42
Simmons, Dr., 133
Simplicity of life, 78-81
Singapore, 355
Sin-tek, Formosa, 413
“Sketches of Tōkyō Life,” 74
Sleeping-cars, 33
Smallpox, 10, 220, 413
Smelt-fishing, 22
Smoking, 20
Snakes, 13
Soap, 37 Social evil, 166-168
Social settlement, 28
Socialism, 28
Society, classes of, 48-49, 282, 283
Soldiers, 30, 82, 283
“Solomon, Japanese,” 159
Soma ware, 229
Sone, Viscount, 337
“Soul of the Far East,” 26, 50, 89, 195, 239, 249
Soups, 55
South Pacific Islands, 45
Soy, 24, 55
Spanish, 285
Spencer, D. S., 404
Spencer, Herbert, 206
Spokane Falls, Washington, 37
Spring, Japanese, 12
Springs, hot, mineral, 8, 59
Stage, 31, 34, 281
“Standard, The,” Chicago, 237
Standard Oil Company, 36
Star Vega, Festival of the, 64, 65
Stature of Japanese, 47
Steamboats, 31, 281
Steam-car, 281
Steamers, 37; companies, 34; lines, 2, 3; steamships, 286
Steel, 37
Stevenson, R. L., 204
Stoicism, 81
Stonemasons’ guild, 27
Stores, _see_ Shops
“Story of Japan, The,” 15, 59, 94, 132, 263
“Story of Old Japan, The,” 101
Strange, E. F., 235
Strawberries, 19
Street-car conductors, wages, 26; drivers, 26
Stroessel, General, 316
Students’ Standard Dictionary, 205
Sugar-raising, 24
Sugawara, 91
Suiko, Empress, 96
“Sūjin, the Civilizer,” 90, 95
Sulphur, 23
Sumac tree, 230
“Summary of Japanese Penal Codes,” 174 Summer, Japanese, 12
Sunday-school, National Association, 334
Sunday-school picnics, 66
Sun-goddess, 90, 95, 248, 259
“Sunrise Kingdom, The,” 5
“Sunrise in the Sunrise Kingdom,” 276
Superiors, obedience to, 49, 50
Superstitions, 70-75
“Superstitious Japan,” 73
Suyematsu, Baron, 120
Swords, 24, 48, 230
T
Tacoma, Washington, 2
Taft, W. H., 334
Taggart’s “Cotton Spinning,” 205
Taihoku, Formosa, 412
Taikwa Reformation, 370
Tainan-fu, Formosa, 412
Taine’s “English Literature,” 206
Taira supremacy, 91, 98
Taisho Era, 339
“Taiyō,” 291, 293, 368
Takahashi, K., 290
Takahira, Minister, 318
Takekoshi, 145
Take-no-uchi, 90, 96
Takow, Formosa, 412, 413
Takushan, 313
“Tales of Old Japan,” 70, 75, 261
Tamsui, Formosa, 412
Tamura, N., 61
Tanners, 48
Tariff, 92, 108, 115, 116, 170
Tartars, 98; armada, 91
Tax, land, 18, 49, 139, 169; business, 169; house, 169, 170; income, 169
Taxation, 48, 142, 150, 169
Tea, 19, 20, 26, 37, 41, 55; ceremonial, 99, 233
Teachers’ Institutes, 219, 220
Technical schools, 211, 216, 400
Telegraph, 31, 91, 110, 282, 294, 367, 413
Telephone, 31, 33, 34, 282, 413
Telissu, 313
Temperament, 87-89 Tempō era, 370
Tendai sect, 253, 254
Tennis, 66
Tennyson, Alfred, 204
Tenrikyō, 259
Tenryu-gawa, river, 9
Terauchi, Gen., 339
Terry, Prof., 161
Teru, Prince, 123
“Text-book of Colloquial Japanese,” 208
Theatre, 66-68
Thibet, 301
“Things Japanese,” 161, 199, 256
Third Army, 313
“30th year” (of Meiji) rifle, 149
Thomson, Elihu, 205
“Three Provinces,” 310
Tidal wave, 115
“Tidings from Japan,” 404
Tiehling, occupation of, 317
“Time, Land of Approximate,” 83
Tin, 23
Tobacco, 17, 19, 20; sale of, to minors, prohibited, 271
Togo, Admiral, 311, 315, 316, 318
Tōkaidō, 6
Tokonami, Mr., 339
Tokugawa Dynasty, 91, 100, 101, 110, 280
Tokuno, 235
Tōkyō, 21, 26, 28, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 47, 91, 92, 110, 111, 114, 139, 148, 149, 166, 168, 186, 201, 215-217, 220, 230, 270, 276, 280, 282, 285, 286, 322, 334, 336, 360, 361, 364, 370, 402, 406, 410
Tōkyō Bay, 314
Tōkyō Missionary Conference, Proceedings, 276
Toledo blades, 230
Tolstoi, Leo, 204
Tomeoka, 168
Tomotada, 228
Tone river, 9
Torpedo-boats, 311
Tōsandō, 6
Tōyō Kisen Kwaisha, 23, 35
Toyokuni, 227
Trade Unions, 27, 28 Traits, 46-50, 76-89
Transportation, travel, 29-43, 281
Treaties, new, 92; with foreign nations, 91; of-alliance between Japan and Korea, 312; of commerce and navigation between Japan and the United States, 385-399; of Portsmouth between Japan and Russia, 331, 333; new, with United States, 338
Treaty-Making, Period of, 104, 106-107
Tree peony, 409
Trees, _see_ names of trees
Trials, 164
Tri-Religion Conference, 339
Troup, James, 255
Trusteeship, system of, 41
Turnips, 19
“Twain, Mark,” 204
Twentieth Century Japan, 267, 277-288
“203-metre Hill,” 316
Type Foundry, Tsukiji, Tōkyō, 285, 286
Typhoons, 10, 11, 88
U
Uchimura, 265, 300
Uhlhorn, Gerhard, 275
Uji, 19
Ukita, K., 293
Umé Tsuda, Miss, 186
“Unabridged Japanese English Dictionary,” 208
United States, 2, 3, 7, 14, 36, 37, 85, 157, 186, 200, 291, 293, 299, 308, 310, 317, 335, 336, 338; President of the, 102, 106; treaties between, and Japan, 338, 385-399
Universalists, 264
University, Imperial, 23, 91, 165, 166; at Kyōto, 211, 215; at Tōkyō, 110, 210, 215, 216, 221
University for Women, 186, 188, 211, 401-403
Uraga, 102, 106, 355; dockyard, 23
Urami waterfall, 9
Uriu, Admiral, 311, 316 Utamaro, 227
Utsumi, Baron, 402
Uychara, G. E., 132
Uyeno, 381
V
Vaccination, 413
Vancouver, 2
“Various impressions,” 45
Vegetables, _see_ names of vegetables
Vehicles, 30
“Verbeck of Japan,” 117, 276
Verestchagin, death of, 314
Vergil, 304
Vessels, 367
Vladivostock, 33, 315; squadron of, 314
Volcanoes, 8
Von Siebold, Dr., 105
W
Wadō era, 370
Wages and incomes, 26, 27, 358-360
Wakayama, 17
Walker’s “Political Economy,” 206
War indemnity, 319, 331
War, Russo-Japanese, 307-327
Warships, 150, 151, 383
Waseda, 215
Washington, 14; D. C., 157
Watanabe, Viscount, 43, 333
Watson, 304
Wealth of Japan, 369-370
Weasels, 13
Weaving, 24
Webster’s Dictionaries, 205
Weddings, _see_ Marriage
“Wee Ones of Japan, The,” 60, 75, 221
Weight and Measure, Table of, 347-350
Weights, comparative, of Japanese and European men, 47
Weihaiwei, battle of, 150
Wheat, 19; cracked, 37
“When I was a Boy in Japan,” 75, 221
Whistler, J. A. M., 223 “White Peril in the Far East, The,” 117, 304, 328
Wigmore, Prof., 132-134, 145, 159, 160
William II. of Holland, 105
Willow, 409
Wine, 56
Winter, Japanese, 12
Wistaria, 65, 409, 410
“With Kuroki in Manchuria,” 328
Witnesses, 164
Witte, Sergius, Count, 318
Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, 168, 264, 270, 271
Women, 175-190, 286; Japanese and American, contrasted, 81; legal position of, 178-182; education of, 183, 185, 186, 188, 401-403; employment for, 183, 188, 270
Wool, 37
Woollen mills, 286
World’s Student Christian Federation, 334
Wrestling, 66; wrestler’s guild, 27
Writing, art of, introduced, 92, 94, 96
Wuchang, China, 297
X
Xavier, Francis, 91, 99, 262
Y
Yalu, battle of, 150
Yalu River, battle of, 313
Yamada, 117, 158, 283
Yamagata, Isoh, 276
Yamagata, Marquis, 150, 321
Yamaguchi, 215
Yamamoto, Count, 375, 340
Yamath, Yamato, 46
Yamato-Dake, Prince, 90, 95
Yangtze Kiang river, 14, 295
“Yankees of the East, The,” 28, 43, 56, 66, 123, 132, 174, 190
Year Periods, 370-373
Yedo (now Tōkyō), 91, 100, 106, 110, 280, 282; Bay, 102, 104, 105
“Yellow Peril,” 321
Yezo, 5, 9, 12, 16, 32, 44, 104, 106, 110, 162; _see also_ Hokkaidō
Yinkow, 315
Yi Tchi Yong, Major-General, 312
Yokohama, 2, 3, 9, 14, 28, 91, 107, 165, 166, 201, 360, 361, 364; Athletic Association, 66; Specie Bank, 38, 170
Yokosuka, 150
Yoritomo, 91, 98
“Yoshino,” sinking of, 314
Yoshihito, Emperor, 339
Yoshitsune, 91, 98
“Young Japan,” 117, 221
Young Men’s Buddhist Association, 256
Young Men’s Christian Association, 256, 264, 270; Perry celebration in Tōkyō rooms of, 314; work at Antung, 324; providing teachers, 340
Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor, 265, 271
Young Women’s Christian Association, 270
Yuzu Nembutsu sect, 254
Z
Zen sect, 253-255
Zola, Émile, 204
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Miss Bacon, in “Japanese Girls and Women.”
[2] Fifth edition.
[3] Twelfth edition.
[4] If any are inclined to delve still more deeply into any of these topics, they will find farther references in the books in the lists, especially in “Things Japanese.” And the most complete treatment of this subject is found in Wenckstern’s “Bibliography of Japan.” Poole’s Index is also valuable.
[5] Including half of Sakhalin, but not Korea.
[6] Another design shows the sun’s rays shooting out from the sun in the centre.
[7] 24° 14´-45° 30´ N.
[8] There is a Tōkyō _Shi_, for instance, in Tōkyō _Fu_. See Appendix for lists of _Kuni_ and _Ken_.
[9] Except Korea.
[10] Niitaka, or Mt. Morrison, in Formosa, is about 13,000 feet high.
[11] _Kawa_, or _gawa_ in composition, means “river.”
[12] See also meteorological tables in Appendix.
[13] This quotation is from Murray’s “Hand-Book for Japan” by Chamberlain and Mason. The Introduction of that book contains most valuable practical information for prospective travellers in Japan.
[14] See Appendix.
[15] See tables of measurement and coinage, in Appendix.
[16] See “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis), chap. xiii.
[17] The “Shakai Zasshi” has the following on the decrease of farmers: The causes of the phenomenon, briefly stated, are as below: (1) The current methods of farming require no intelligence in the farmer. He works very much like an animal in a purely mechanical fashion. Hence lads with minds are attracted to trade and industry. (2) The universality of education has increased the number of intelligent men among the lower classes, and this has made farmers discontented with their lot. (3) City life offers many attractions to active-minded persons; and hence in Japan, as in the Western world, there has been a steady flow of country people towards the towns. The statistics published on this matter show, that, whereas in 1889 the proportion of townspeople to the total number of inhabitants was 15 in every 100 persons, in 1898 it has risen to 18. This accounts for the scarcity of farm labor, which has constantly been complained of in recent years.—_Japan Mail._
[18] See tables in Appendix.
[19] See Appendix.
[20] See tables of weights and measures in Appendix.
[21] Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” chap. xxxv., and Gribble’s paper in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xii. pp. 1-33.
[22] Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” chaps. xxvi., xxvii.
[23] See Davidson’s “Island of Formosa.”
[24] See Transactions Japan Society, London, vol. i., for an interesting paper by Charles Holme, and Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxvii., for an elaborate and finely illustrated paper by Sir Ernest Satow, on “Bamboo.”
[25] See Appendix.
[26] Japan Times. See also Appendix.
[27] See also chapter on “Æsthetic Japan.”
[28] Lowell’s “Soul of the Far East,” pp. 114-117.
[29] The Yankees of the East (Curtis), chap. xii. Also see Appendix.
[30] “Unlike ordinary laborers _jinrikisha_ men have always to work in the open air, often in defiance of the elements, and irrespective of day or night. Sometimes they are covered from head to foot with dust and at other times drenched to the skin with water. Then again they experience a constant change in their bodily temperature, at one time perspiring from their arduous exertions, and at another shivering with cold. No one can doubt that such quick change in bodily temperature will sooner or later tell on the health of those unfortunate victims. At every street corner they are to be found on the eager look-out for customers, but exhaustion soon asserts its claim over them, as they invariably doze whenever and wherever they have the chance.”
[31] See Appendix, for important railway statistics.
[32] Japan is also in cable communication with the rest of the world via Hongkong, or Vladivostock, or Manila, or Honolulu; and press rates are available.
[33] It should be pronounced Mah-ro͝o, _not_ Mă-roo´.
[34] See Appendix.
[35] See Appendix.
[36] See table in Appendix. In 1912 the exports footed up $262,000,000, and the imports $309,000,000.
[37] See Hamaoka’s pamphlet on “The Bank of Japan.”
[38] For tables of currency, weights, measures, etc., see Appendix.
[39] See “Japan and America” for June and July, 1903; also consult Diosy’s “New Far East,” chap. vi.
[40] See “Japan and America” for June and July, 1903.
[41] “Unbeaten Tracks in Japan,” by Miss Bird (now Mrs. Bishop), is interesting and reliable in its treatment of the Ainu of that day. Chamberlain also has written on the “Ainos.” The best single book is, of course, “The Ainu of Japan,” by Rev. J. Batchelor, the leading authority, who has also written a book on “Ainu Folk-lore.”
[42] “Various Impressions” is the title of an address delivered at a meeting of the Imperial Education Society by Dr. Nitobe, reported very fully in the Kyōiku Kōhō. Dr. Nitobe gave an account of his travels in the South Pacific. He visited Java, many other islands, and Australia. At Java he felt persuaded that an eminent French ethnologist who not long ago said that, as the result of much investigation, he had come to the conclusion that the Japanese race was 6/10 Malay, 3/10 Mongolian, and 1/10 mixed, was right. Among the mixed elements there was an Aryan element, which came from India, and a negrito element. “Now it is supposed,” says Dr. Nitobe, “that this negrito element comes from the Javanese. It no longer shows itself in the Japanese in regard to the form of the nose and that of the cheek-bones, but it is to be seen in the curly hair of certain inhabitants of Kyūshiu. In Oshū, from which I come, this peculiarity is not known. During my travels in the South Pacific Islands I was repeatedly struck by the similarity of Malay customs to our own. In the structure of their houses even this was very manifest.”—_Japan Mail._
[43] Dr. Baelz estimates the average stature at about 5 feet.
[44] See also subsequent chapter on “Japanese Traits.”
[45] His is simply a case of what is called “undeveloped moral consciousness.”
[46] See Transactions Japan Society, London, vol. ii., papers by Goh and Aston.
[47] See Lowell’s “Soul of the Far East,” chap. ii.
[48] Morse’s “Japanese Homes” is the one book on this subject.
[49] Besides Morse’s “Japanese Homes,” Conder’s “Landscape-Gardening in Japan” (Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xiv., and in book form, illustrated), is very valuable. An instructive short description of this subject may be found in chap. xvi., vol. ii., of Hearn’s “Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan.”
[50] For descriptions of Japanese meals or banquets, see Miss Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” _passim_; “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis), vol. ii. chap. xiv.; and Norman’s “Real Japan,” chap. i.
[51] See Norman’s “Real Japan,” pp. 180-195.
[52] For instance, “such an attire as Japanese clogs, flannel drawers, swallow-tail coat, and opera hat” has been seen; and another witness testifies to the “oddest mixtures of evening dress and bathing suits, naked legs with a blouse and a foreign hat, high boots with a _kimono_, legs and head Asiatic with trunk European, or _vice versa_, with endless combinations and variations.” There is a great variety, with all kinds of fits and misfits.
[53] Chamberlain.
[54] “The Wee Ones of Japan,” by Mae St. John Bramhall, can be recommended.
[55] See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xiii. pp. 114-137; and “A Japanese Bride,” by Rev. N. Tamura, is admirable.
[56] See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xix. pp. 507-544.
[57] See chap. xx. of Hearn’s “Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan.”
[58] See Appendix, and Clement’s “Japanese Floral Calendar.”
[59] See chapter on “Children’s Games and Sports” in “The Mikado’s Empire.”
[60] See chap. xx. of “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis).
[61] See Hancock’s “Japanese Physical Training.”
[62] On the subject of the Japanese theatre and drama, see McClatchie’s “Japanese Plays” and Edwards’s “Japanese Plays and Playfellows.”
[63] See Norman’s “Real Japan,” chap. ix.
[64] The best books on this subject are Mitford’s “Tales of Old Japan,” Miss Ballard’s “Fairy Tales from Far Japan,” Griffis’s “Fire-Fly’s Lovers,” Mme. Ozaki’s “Japanese Fairy Book,” and the series of crêpe booklets of “Japanese Fairy Tales,” published by the Kobunsha, Tōkyō.
[65] See “Japanese Calendars,” Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part. i.
[66] The sixty-first year of a person’s life is of special interest, because it is the first of a second cycle of sixty years.
[67] “The vast rice crop is raised on millions of tiny farms; the silk crop in millions of small, poor homes; the tea crop on countless little patches of soil.”—LAFCADIO HEARN.
[68] The Japanese seem to have no nerves; or, at least, their nervous system is much less sensitive than ours.
[69] See Baron Shibusawa’s opinion, pp. 40-43.
[70] But “the peasantry is, in the main, honest.”
[71] See “Japanese Calendars,” Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part i.
THE LAND OF APPROXIMATE TIME.
Here’s to the Land of Approximate Time! Where nerves are a factor unknown, Where acting as balm are manners calm, And seeds of sweet patience are sown.
Where every clock runs as it happens to please, And they never agree on their strikes; Where even the sun often joins in the fun, And rises whenever he likes.
—_Jingles from Japan._
[72] For particulars on this point, see chapter on “Æsthetic Japan.”
[73] See “Scribner’s Monthly” for January, 1895.
[74] Chamberlain’s English version is found in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. x., Supplement.
[75] Aston’s English version is found in Transactions Japan Society, London, Supplement.
[76] See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xvi. pp. 39-75.
[77] There are, indeed, many striking resemblances between “things Japanese” of various kinds and the corresponding “things Græco-Roman.” See “Japanesque Elements in ‘The Last Days of Pompeii’” in the “Arena” for October, 1896.
[78] See Appendix, where will also be found a list of the year-periods, or eras.
[79] His younger brother, Yoshitsune, was a popular hero.
[80] See “The Religions of Japan” (Griffis), chap. xi.
[81] Previously Portuguese, English, and others had enjoyed the privilege.
[82] For lists of eras and emperors, see Appendix.
[83] Or [VII. Cosmopolitanism (1899- )].
[84] Recommending to open Japan to foreign intercourse.
[85] The following is what the Japanese themselves stated about this event: “The letter of the President of the United States of North America, and copy, are hereby received and delivered to the Emperor. Many times it has been communicated that business relating to foreign countries cannot be transacted here at Uraga, but in Nagasaki. Now, it has been observed that the Admiral, in his quality of ambassador of the President, would be insulted by it; the justice of this has been acknowledged; consequently, the above-mentioned letter is hereby received, in opposition to the Japanese law.”
[86] Dixon’s “Land of the Morning,” p. 97.
[87] Iyenaga’s “Constitutional Development of Japan,” p. 33.
[88] See Appendix for New Treaty.
[89] Drawn up by the then Count (the late Prince) Itō, Mr., now Viscount, Kaneko and Mr. Suyematsu (now Viscount), and others.
[90] This and following quotations are from the Constitution itself.
[91] See Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” chaps. xi., xii.
[92] See “The Yankees of the East,” chap. iii.
[93] For table of Cabinet changes, see Appendix.
[94] The number is variable; in 1912, it was 373. See Appendix.
[95] The property qualification has since been abolished.
[96] Published in the “Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.”
[97] See Appendix.
[98] See valuable papers by Simmons and Wigmore in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xix. pp. 37-270, and vol. xx., Supplement, part i., pp. 41-62.
[99] See “Nation,” vol. li. (1890).
[100] The sessions are generally very orderly; no smoking or drinking is allowed in the assembly-room.
[101] The principle of local self-government has been most signally upheld in one instance by the Imperial Japanese government. Recently the Governor of Gumma Prefecture, in the face of the public opinion of that section, gave permission for the re-establishment of the system of licensed immorality. Inasmuch as the people of that prefecture have always taken great pride in the fact that their section was an oasis in the desert, they raised a great storm, and accused the Governor of having lent himself to speculators. Whether or not this accusation was true, the Minister of Home Affairs so far respected local opinion as to revoke the permission granted by the Governor and to remove the latter from office.
[102] Baron Kentarō Kaneko has been elected a member of the City Council (of Tōkyō) as representative of the first-class tax-payers in Kōjimachi Ku. It may be added that the Nippon Yūsen Kwaisha (Japan Mail Steamship Company) is the only first-class tax-payer in that ward, and the Baron secured the one vote.
[103] See note at bottom of page 139.
[104] “The Island of Formosa” (Davidson) is invaluable.
[105] See Appendix.
[106] Quotations from Regulations.
[107] For statistics and other information concerning the army and the navy, see Appendix.
[108] “The New Far East,” chap. vii.
[109] “Any foreign power that should venture to attack Japan in her own waters, would be strangely advised.”—CHAMBERLAIN.
[110] See p. 104.
[111] Renewed in 1905 and 1911.
[112] “Japan, geographically to the mighty continent of Asia what Great Britain is to the continent of Europe; Japan, an island people with all the strength, mental and physical, that is the heritage of a nation cradled on the sea; Japan, by the necessities of her environment compelled to appreciate the importance of sea-power; Japan, in short, the Britain of the Orient.”—DIOSY.
[113] The first alliance of a white nation and a yellow nation.
[114] Several paragraphs are here republished, by permission, from “The Standard,” Chicago.
[115] See his voluminous work in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xx., Supplement.
[116] These new codes are available in English, as follows: The Civil Code, by Gubbins; the Civil Code and the Commercial Code, by Lönholm and Terry; the Commercial Code, the Criminal Code, and the Code of Civil Procedure, in official translations.
[117] See “Japan in the Beginning of the Twentieth Century.”
[118] But missionaries, as individuals, are able to unite in organizing a Japanese corporation.
[119] Portions of this chapter are reprinted by permission from the “American Journal of Sociology,” March, 1903.
[120] Chap. iv. on “People, Houses, Food, Dress.”
[121] The Japanese mother-in-law is an awful tyrant; but it is always the wife’s mother-in-law.
[122] Since 1882 they have been upon the same basis.
[123] These are composed of a large circle of relatives, and exercise autocratic influence in most important questions.
[124] The word “family” is here and hereinafter used in a technical sense, peculiar to Japan, of a group of the same surname. In Old Japan the family was the social unit.
[125] “A Japanese judge has ruled in a certain case that the wife is not obliged ‘to obey the unreasonable demands of her husband.’ In this particular instance the man of the house had told the wife to perform some disagreeable manual labor for him; she refused, and he promptly divorced her. The wife appealed, and her plea was upheld by the court. A very important precedent has been established, and this decision may lead to a revolution in Japanese domestic life, in which, thanks to the courage of one woman and the enlightening effect of American ideals, the Japanese wife need no longer be her husband’s slave.”--_Congregational Work._
[126] It is interesting to note that after a marriage ceremony at one of the shrines at Nikkō, the bridegroom and the bride were presented with a copy of Mr. Fukuzawa’s work.
[127] See Appendix.
[128] Chicago Daily Record.
[129] “H. M. the Empress gave a donation of 2,000 _yen_ to the Women’s University established by Mr. Jinzō Naruse. Prince Iwakura and Marquis Hachisuka will call at the Imperial Palace in a day or two in order to express the gratitude of the university for this munificent donation.”—_Japan Times._
[130] Her birthday on May 28 is annually observed by Christian women in special services.
[131] Arranged by the famous Buddhist priest, Kōbō Daishi.
[132] Read from top to bottom and from left to right.
[133] See “The Soul of the Far East,” pp. 78-109.
[134] Translation by Prof. Clay MacCauley, Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxvii.
[135] From Chamberlain’s “Things Japanese.”
[136] It is, however, only fair to state that Joseph Heco, who was probably the first naturalized Japanese citizen of the United States, claims the same honor for his “Kaigai Shimbun,” published in 1864 to give a summary of foreign news. See his “Narrative of a Japanese,” vol. ii. pp. 53, 59.
[137] See also Norman’s “Real Japan,” chap. ii.
[138] Reprinted, by permission, from “The Dial,” Chicago.
[139] Reprinted, by permission, from “The Dial,” Chicago.
[140] Reprinted, by permission, from “The Dial,” Chicago.
[141] Or “Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing.”
[142] Noss’s Lange’s “Text-book of Colloquial Japanese” (1908) is very valuable.
[143] The new “English-Japanese Dictionary of the Spoken Language” (1904) is indispensable.
[144] See chap. xxiii. of “Japan in History, Folk-lore and Art” (Griffis).
[145] See “Chautauquan” for April, 1902.
[146] For a statistical table of schools in the empire, see Appendix.
[147] Official translation, revised.
[148] This has recently secured the famous Max Müller Library.
[149] “The Soul of the Far East,” p. 121.
[150] While it is possible and even probable that this movement may have begun before the formal introduction of Buddhism from Korea in the year 552, our present knowledge of the history of art in Japan anterior to that event is not sufficient to warrant any definite assertion respecting it.
[151] See “The Ideals of the East,” by Kakasu Okakura. London, 1903.
[152] The principal collections of Japanese paintings in America are the Fenollosa collection in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and that of Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit. A few fine works are owned by Mr. Henry O. Havemeyer, Mr. Howard Mansfield, and Mr. C. D. Weldon, of New York; Mr. Denman Ross, Mr. Quincy A. Shaw, and Mrs. John Gardner, of Boston; Mr. Charles J. Morse, of Uniontown, Pa.; and Mr. Frederick W. Gookin, of Chicago. In England the most notable collections are those of the British Museum and Mr. Arthur Morrison, of Loughton. There are also a number of private collections in France and Germany.
[153] A large portion of this chapter is reprinted, by permission, from “The Standard,” Chicago.
[154] “Shintō signifies character in the highest sense,—courage, courtesy, honor, and, above all things, loyalty. The spirit of Shintō is the spirit of filial piety [Lat. _pietas_], the zest of duty, the readiness to surrender life for a principle.... It is the docility of the child; it is the sweetness of the Japanese woman.... It is religion—but religion transmuted into hereditary moral impulse—religion transmuted into ethical instinct. It is the whole emotional life of the race,—the Soul of Japan.”—HEARN.
[155] “Shintō is the Japanese conception of the cosmos. It is a combination of the worship of nature and of their own ancestors.... To the Japanese eye, the universe itself took on the paternal look. Awe of their parents, which these people could comprehend, lent explanation to dread of nature, which they could not. Quite cogently, to their minds, the thunder and the typhoon, the sunshine and the earthquake, were the work not only of anthropomorphic beings, but of beings ancestrally related to themselves. In short, Shintō ... is simply the patriarchal principle projected without perspective into the past, dilating with distance into deity.”
“Shintō is so Japanese it will not down. It is the faith of these people’s birthright, not of their adoption. Its folk-lore is what they learned at the knee of the race-mother, not what they were taught from abroad. Buddhist they are by virtue of belief; Shintō by virtue of being.”—LOWELL, “The Soul of the Far East.”
[156] The earliest sacred book. The ancient records.
[157] See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vols. xiv. and xvii., papers on “Shinshiu” by Troup.
[158] “Things Japanese.”
[159] “The Religions of Japan.”
[160] “Emotionally its tenets do not at bottom satisfy us Occidentals, flirt with them as we may. Passivity is not our passion, preach it as we are prone to do each to his neighbor. Scientifically, pessimism is foolishness, and impersonality a stage in development from which we are emerging, not one into which we shall ever relapse. As a dogma it is unfortunate, doing its devotee in the deeper sense no good, but it becomes positively faulty when it leads to practical ignoring of the mine and thine, and does other people harm.”—LOWELL.
[161] See papers in vol. xxix., Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, by Lloyd and Greene.
[162] See Cary’s article in “Andover Review,” June, 1889.
[163] See Greene’s paper in vol. xxiii., Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan.
[164] See Lowell’s “Soul of the Far East,” pp. 168, 169.
[165] “The wicked sect called Christian is strictly prohibited. Suspected persons are to be reported to the respective officials, and rewards will be given” (1868).
[166] See also Murray’s “Story of Japan,” pp. 172-179, 240-268.
[167] See Uchimura’s “Diary of a Japanese Convert.”
[168] There is now a “Japan Tract Society.”
[169] It is unfortunate that there are any missionaries, with more zeal than knowledge, who seem to forget those wise words of Paul, the courageous, but tactful, and therefore successful, preacher, in 1 Corinthians ix. 22. But most of the missionaries, or the best of them, always bear in mind Christ’s own instructions in Matthew x. 16.
[170] It is no small matter for encouragement to Christian workers in Japan that it is now possible to find among Japanese Christians three generations of believers; so that the words of Paul in 2 Timothy i. 5 may be applied here: “Having been reminded of the unfeigned faith that is in thee; which dwelt first in thy grandmother Lois and thy mother Eunice.” The future of Christianity in Japan is insured when it begins to be inherited.
[171] See “An American Missionary in Japan,” pp. 259-262.
[172] There are said to be 17,530 women employed in the factories and workshops of Tōkyō alone.
[173] “Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism.”
[174] See “Heroic Japan” (Eastlake and Yamada).
[175] Mr. K. Takahashi, President of the Bank of Japan.
[176] Rear-Admiral Kimotsuki in the “Taiyō” (Sun). See also chap. xiii. of “Japan in Transition” (Ransome).
[177] Editorial in the “Taiyō” (Sun).
[178] Formerly of the Dōshisha. From the “Taiyō.”
[179] Osaka Merchant Steamship Company.
[180] “The Political and Commercial Reasons for the Study of Chinese.”
[181] “Chinese Recorder.”
[182] Japan exports chiefly matches, lamps, and coal, and imports principally rice and cotton-seed.
[183] Uchimura’s “Japan and the Japanese.”
[184] “Life of Sir Harry Parkes.”
[185] Pages 299-300.
[186] Baron Kaneko at Harvard University.
[187] Captain Brinkley in “The Outlook.”
[188] Captain Brinkley.
[189] Official.
[190] The following is the authorized English text of the Protocol, signed at Seoul, on February 23, 1904:—
Mr. Hayashi, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, and Major-General Yi Tchi Yong, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs _ad interim_ of His Majesty the Emperor of Korea, being respectively duly empowered for the purpose, have agreed upon the following Articles:—
ARTICLE I.—For the purpose of maintaining a permanent and solid friendship between Japan and Korea and firmly establishing peace in the Far East, the Imperial Government of Korea shall place full confidence in the Imperial Government of Japan and adopt the advice of the latter in regard to improvements in administration.
ARTICLE II.—The Imperial Government of Japan shall in a spirit of firm friendship insure the safety and repose of the Imperial House of Korea.
ARTICLE III.—The Imperial Government of Japan definitively guarantees the independence and territorial integrity of the Korean Empire.
ARTICLE IV.—In case the welfare of the Imperial House of Korea or the territorial integrity of Korea is endangered by aggression of a third Power or internal disturbances, the Imperial Government of Japan shall immediately take such necessary measures as the circumstances require, and in such cases the Imperial Government of Korea shall give full facilities to promote the action of the Imperial Japanese Government.
The Imperial Government of Japan may, for the attainment of the above-mentioned object, occupy, when the circumstances require it, such places as may be necessary from strategical points of view.
ARTICLE V.—The Governments of the two countries shall not in future, without mutual consent, conclude with a third Power such an arrangement as may be contrary to the principle of the present Protocol.
ARTICLE VI.—Details in connection with the present Protocol shall be arranged as the circumstances may require, between the Representative of Japan and the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs of Korea.
[191] See Chapter XXI.
[192] Pages 14 and 301.
[193] Certainly the Japanese enjoy more social freedom and political privileges than the subjects of the Czar. Intellectual liberty is not repressed in Japan as in Russia, and freedom of assembly and of the press is permitted in Japan, but not in Russia. The administration of law and justice in Japan is by far more humane than in Russia with its Siberian horrors. Again, strongest of all, nominally non-Christian Japan grants religious liberty, while nominally Christian Russia cruelly persecutes Jews and Stundists. In fact, in what constitutes true greatness, Japan is superior to Russia.
[194] It had established a record by holding office for four and one-half years, the longest period of any Ministry since the establishment of constitutional government.
[195] For text, see end of Appendix.
[196] The word “Meiji” means “Enlightened Rule.”
[197] From Chamberlain’s “Things Japanese.”
[198] From “Japan and America.”
[199] From the “Japan Mail.”
[200] From a Report by U. S. Consul-General Bellows, Yokohama.
[201] From the “Japan Times.”
[202] The first figures in each group represent the end of 1896, and the second figures the end of 1900.
The grand total of operatives had increased in 1909 to 692,221—240,864 males and 451,357 females.
[203] From a Report by U. S. Consul Lyon, Kōbe.
[204] From “Japan and America,” by Walter J. Ballard. This account, with a few changes, is retained because of the impressive witness it bears to the progress of Japan. (Ed.)
[205] With board.
[206] From the “Japan Times,” revised.
[207] From the “Japan Mail.”
[208] In 1910, it was over 14,000,000 _yen_.
[209] From the “Japan Mail.”
[210] From official sources.
[211] Beginning 660 B. C.
[212] Northern Dynasty.
[213] Southern Dynasty.
[214] Empresses in Italics. Bracketed names (Nos. 15 and 99) are omitted from some lists.
[215] _Go_ is a prefix signifying the second of the name.
[216] From summary of “A Brief Sketch of the History of the Political Parties in Japan,” by A. H. Lay, in the “Japan Mail.”
[217] Professor Griffin, in discussion of Mr. Lay’s paper.
[218] From the “Japan Times.”
[219] From “The Real Triumph of Japan” (Seaman).
[220] From the “Japan Mail.”
[221] In 1910, it was more than 600,000 tons.
[222] In 1908, it was more than 47,000 men.
[223] From the “Japan Times.”
[224] In 1910, it was more than 1,600,000 tons.
[225] See also Elgar’s paper on “Japanese Shipping” in the Transactions Japan Society, London.
[226] From the “Japan Times.”
[227] From 28th Annual Report of the Minister of State for Education.
[228] Condensed from “The Chautauquan,” April, 1902.
[229] From the “Japan Mail” and the “Japan Times.”
[230] Later statistics give respectively 83,638—66,689—32,246.
[231] From the “Kōbe Herald.”
[232] From the “Japan Mail.”
[233] Completed in 1908.
[234] U.S. Consul Davidson.
[235] For details concerning what the Japanese have accomplished in Formosa, see Takekoshi’s “Japanese Rule in Formosa.”