Part 6

A fight might end in three ways: (1) the better gladiator might kill his adversary in the heat of the fray; (2) the vanquished gladiator might lay down his arms and raise his left hand as a sign of defeat and a prayer for mercy. See lamp, No. =165= (fig. 54). It rested officially with the giver of the spectacle to grant or refuse the defeated man's request, but the matter was really decided by the spectators, who expressed their desire that he should be spared by shouting for his discharge, waving a piece of cloth in the air, or raising the left hand. The opposite decision was expressed by pointing the thumb downwards and shouting "slay" (_jugula_). (3) If two men fought on equal terms and displayed great courage, they might both be discharged before the combat reached a definite result (_stantes missi_). The victor, when finally discharged from service in the arena, was presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), similar to those used in practice, as a sign that he had fought his last serious fight. Horace alludes to this in his _Epistles_, when asking Maecenas if he may retire from his service.

Gladiators were divided into classes according to their equipment and mode of fighting. The following were the most important:--(1) The _Samnite_ (figs. 54, 55). He wore a helmet with high crest, one or sometimes two greaves, and a guard on the right arm. He also had an oblong shield. The equipment is well shown in the bronze statuette (No. =166=, fig. 55), lately acquired from the Gréau and Weber collections. (2) The _retiarius_ or net-thrower (No. =167=, fig. 56), who carried a trident, a dagger, and a large net in which he tried to envelop his adversary. The net-thrower was matched against a gladiator called a _secutor_, who was armed like the Samnite, and perhaps received his name because he was the follower (_secutor_) of his lightly-armed foe. (3) The _Thrax_ (Thracian), armed with the Thracian curved dagger, a small shield, and a helmet. He fought the _hoplomachus_, another variety of Samnite. (4) The _mirmillo_, the origin of whose name and nature of whose equipment are not certainly known. He was opposed to the net-thrower, and later to the Thracian. Among other classes of less importance may be mentioned the mounted gladiators (_equites_), who appear on the left of fig. 57 (a Pompeian relief).[34]

A curious marble relief from Halikarnassos (No. =168=; fig. 58) gives a vivid picture of an unusual form of gladiatorial combat, between two women. They are armed like the _Samnites_, but without helmets, and the fight seems to take place on a sort of platform on either side of which the head of a spectator is visible. Their names are given as Amazon and Achillia, and above their heads is inscribed in Greek "discharged," [Greek: apelythêsan]. It is known that women fought in the arena under the Empire[35]; but under Septimius Severus (193-211) so much scandal was caused by a specially furious combat of a large number of female gladiators that such exhibitions were forbidden.[36]

The objects exhibited in illustration of gladiatorial shows are numerous and varied, though not artistically remarkable. The subject was especially popular with the smaller craftsmen, the makers of bronze statuettes and the potters of Italy and Gaul, who produced terracotta lamps and vases for a large but uncritical public. A selection of some dozen lamps (No. =169=) is here given illustrating different stages of the combat, or single gladiators; one is simply ornamented with specimens of gladiatorial armour (helmets, greaves, shields, and daggers).

No complete example of a gladiator's helmet is shown in the Case, but the bronze visor (No. =170=), a small bronze model (No. =171=), and a model in glazed pottery (No. =172=) suffice to give an idea of the usual type. The illustration (fig. 59) of a helmet at Pompeii shows the arrangement of the visors. The cast (No. =173=) is from a relief from Ephesus (the original is in the Sculpture Galleries) which shows combats and corn-waggons (see Case 50) the _panem et circenses_ demanded by the Roman populace.

Some interest attaches to the series of ivory tickets (_tesserae_), which are inscribed with the names of gladiators, and are valuable as being dated by the names of the consuls in office (No. =174=). They range from the beginning of the first century B.C. to the time of Domitian (81-96 A.D.); those shown in the Case extend from 85 B.C. to 32 A.D. The usual formula of the inscription gives (1) the gladiator's name, (2) the name of his master, (3) the letters +SP+ and the date of the day and month, (4) the consuls of the year. The meaning of the letters +SP+ is disputed, but the most likely explanation is that they stand for _spectavit_, "became a spectator," with reference to the honourable discharge of the recipient. Several examples are known in which the word is thus written in full. The ticket of which an illustration is given in fig. 60 bears the inscription, "Cocero the gladiator of Fafinius became a spectator on the 5th of October in the Consulship of Lucius Cinna and Gnaeus Papirius" (85 B.C.).

The contests in the arena were not limited to those between gladiators. Combats of animals, and of men with animals enjoyed equal popularity. In the latter case the men might be hunters (_venatores_), lightly armed, and able to escape by agility and skill. They might also be criminals or martyrs (who were counted as criminals) exposed to wild beasts without hope of resistance or escape. Two terracotta reliefs (Nos. =175=, =175*=) are shown in this Case, of about the time of Augustus, which, though fragmentary, evidently relate to exhibitions of this kind. A better and more complete example is the sculptured relief from Ephesus (No. =176=) with four panels, in each of which is a man in combat with a lion, probably successive stages in a single event. A lamp (No. =177=; fig. 61) shows a man and a bear, separated by a kind of turnstile, called a _cochlea_.

See also Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Gladiator_, and _Venatio_.

(165) _Cat. of Lamps_, 663; (166) _Gréau Cat._, 264; (167) _Cat. of Lamps_, 976; (168) _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., 1117; (173) _ibid._, II., 1285; (174) for a recent theory that the tesserae are records of an _incubatio_ at a medicinal sanctuary (cf. p. 185) see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Tessera_ p. 136; (175) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D 624; (175*) _ibid._, D 655; (176) _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., 1286; (177) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1068.

[Footnote 34: _Mus. Borb._, XV., pl. 30.]

[Footnote 35: Cf. Tac., _Ann._ xv. 32; Suet., _Dom._ 4.]

[Footnote 36: Dio Cass., lxxv. 16.]

VIII.--CHARIOT-RACING AND THE CIRCUS.

(Wall-Case 110.)

Chariot-racing was one of the oldest of Greek sports, and is described in the _Iliad_ as one of the contests held at the funeral of Patroklos. At that time the two-horse war-chariot was used in the race, and a special type of racing-car does not seem to have existed.

The introduction of chariot-races in the great athletic contests was a concession to the wealthy inhabitants of prosperous cities. To enter a chariot with a team of four horses, which was now the usual number for the great race at Olympia, demanded almost as large a proportionate expenditure as to run a horse for the Derby to-day. Rich men in Greece Proper found rivals in the tyrants of Sicily and Cyrene, who ruled over cities with large revenues and districts providing good opportunities for successful horse-breeding.

At Olympia four-horse chariots raced for the first time in 680 B.C., chariots with two horses not until 408. Between those dates a race for horsemen was started, and won on the first occasion by a native of Thessaly, which, owing to its rich plains, was celebrated in antiquity for a magnificent breed of horses. A winner in the horse-race is depicted on the vase No. =178= (exhibited in Case 107), about to receive a wreath and a tripod as his prizes, while a herald proclaims: "The horse of Dysneiketos wins."

The race of four-horse chariots was, perhaps, the greatest event in the Olympian Games, and certainly the most exciting to the spectators, as accidents were frequent, especially at the turn. Consummate skill was necessary to double the post as close and as fast as possible. Readers of Sophokles' _Electra_ will remember the account given by the messenger of the alleged death of Orestes in a collision of chariots turning the post.[37]

The Romans probably derived their custom of chariot-racing from the Greeks, as also the plan which, with some alterations in detail, they adopted for their _circus_. In the early days of Rome the marshy valley between the Palatine and Aventine Hills was the place chosen for the games, and remained so through the succeeding centuries, during which the course was gradually surrounded with an immense building; this in the fourth century after Christ held not far short of 180,000 people.

In the later Roman Empire the charioteers were hired by factions, which were distinguished by different colours, and excited violent enthusiasm among all classes of Roman society. The passion survived the introduction of Christianity, and was perhaps even more violent at Constantinople than at Rome; it was said that the inhabitants of the new capital of the Empire divided their interests between a passion for chariot-racing and theological discussion. Successful charioteers were transferred from one faction to another like modern football-players. Records exist of the number of victories gained by famous whips, and of the proportion won under the different colours.

The costume of the charioteer was always distinct. In Greece he wore a long robe girt at the waist, which is well seen on the bronze statue from Delphi,[38] and on the chariot-racing reliefs from the Mausoleum.[39] At Rome his dress was peculiar, and is illustrated by the terracotta relief (No. =179=; fig. 62) and other objects in this Case, notably the small ivory statuette (No. =180=; fig. 63). It consisted of a close-fitting cap, and a shirt fastened round the waist. Characteristic thongs called _fasciae_ were wound round the ribs. The thongs of the reins were also wound about the body. A knife was stuck in the belt so that the reins might be quickly cut in the event of an accident.

A sort of bird's-eye view of the whole circus, with a race in progress, is given on the lamp No. =181= (fig. 64), on which we see on one side the _carceres_ or barriers with folding-doors from which the chariots started; on the other a stand with rows of spectators, while in the lower part of the design is the _spina_, or central rib of the circus, crowded with various structures. Not less instructive is the scene on the terracotta relief (No. =179=), though only one chariot is there represented (fig. 62, above). Two lamps (Nos. =182=, =183=) illustrate respectively the return of a victorious horse (fig. 65) and a victorious four-horse chariot. The former is accompanied by men bearing palm-branches and a tablet probably inscribed with the name of the successful competitor.

The cast No. =184= is taken from a mould in the Terracotta Room (No. E 79) for the central panel of a large lamp. Its chief figure is a successful charioteer, crowned with a bulky wreath.

(178) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 144; (179) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D 627; (181) _Cat. of Lamps_, 626; (182) _ibid._, 788; (183) _ibid._, 671; (184) _ibid._, 1398.

For the circus in general see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v.

Two interesting sarcophagus reliefs, with scenes in the circus, are shown in the Roman Gallery (_Cat. of Sculpture_, III., 2318, 2319).

[Footnote 37: _El._ 680 ff.]

[Footnote 38: _Cat. of Casts_, No. 94.]

[Footnote 39: _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., Nos. 1036, 1037.]

IX.--ARMS AND ARMOUR.

(Wall-Cases 111-119, and Table-Case E.)

The arms and armour of the ancients are contained in Wall-Cases 111-119, and in Table-Case E. The weapons of attack date from the beginning of the use of metal, in the prehistoric period, but all the defensive armour belongs to the historical age.

=Armour.=--There is not much literary evidence for the armour of antiquity, but military subjects are very commonly represented in works of art, and these, with the actual remains of armour, give a good idea of the ancient panoply. The armour of the prehellenic civilisations of Greece, as described by Homer, is a subject of dispute, and as this collection possesses no specimen of such remnants as have been found, there is no need here to discuss the question. It is enough to say that the armour of the inhabitants of Greece of the Mycenaean or Bronze Age was entirely different from that of the Hellenic period, which began with the introduction of iron in the place of bronze, and that the heroes of the Homeric poems, who are so frequently portrayed in classical art, are represented in the armour not of their own day, but of that of the artist. The earliest Greek fashion is seen in a small bronze figure of a soldier from Dodona, a cast of which is exhibited in Case 113 (No. =185=; fig. 66). The original is in the Antiquarium at Berlin. Its date is about 500 B.C. The man was striking with a spear; he carries a shield on his left arm, and wears a metal helmet, cuirass and greaves. These three pieces of body-armour were worn throughout classical times, being adopted from the Greeks by the Romans. All are represented in this collection.

=Helmet.=--The earliest type of helmet is known as Corinthian, because it is worn by the goddess Athena in the well-known coin-type of Corinth (fig. 12_e_). It was a complete metal casing of the head and neck, open only in front of the eyes and mouth; the nose was protected by a vertical strip which was left between the eyes, and the rest of the face was covered as by a mask (fig. 66). In the earliest specimens (No. =186=) the metal is everywhere of the same thickness, the cheek-pieces large and clumsy, the nose-piece straight, and little attempt is made to curve the back so as to fit the neck. Later helmets were more gracefully designed: the nasal and cheek-pieces are shaped and curved, the crown is distinguished from the lower part, the neck has a natural contour, and is set off from the rest of the helmet by a notch on each side of the bottom rim (No. =187=; fig. 67). The lines of hair and eyebrows are often indicated in embossed and engraved patterns (Nos. =188=, =189=; fig. 78).

It would seem that the Corinthian helmet at its best was a cumbrous piece of armour. The ears of the wearer were covered, and the ill-fitting shell must have sat loose upon the head, so as to be easily displaced by a sudden turn. This and the chafing of the metal were obviated in some degree by a lining of felt or leather, which was sewn inside the helmet in the rows of holes along the edges. In No. =189= the actual fastenings may be seen as well as the holes: thin twine along the bottom rim, and rivets in the holes elsewhere. This is an unusually well preserved helmet; the wooden peg on which the plume was tied is still in place (fig. 78). A leathern cap was also worn, and is seen on the coins of Corinth (fig. 12_e_), where the helmet is represented in the position in which it was carried when the wearer was not fighting, _i.e._, pushed back until the lower rim projected in a peak over the forehead. This position came to be adopted in battle also; for in the last of the Corinthian series (Nos. =190=, =191=, fig. 68, =192=) there is not sufficient depth to the helmet to admit of its being worn over the face in the original way, nor are the eyeholes large enough to be of use, while in two examples these are represented only by engraving, a traditional design which shows the evolution of the helmet (No. =192=). Such examples are, however, not really Greek. They come from South Italy, and belong to a late period, when the art and manners of Greek colonists were reproduced in barbarous form among the natives. Drawings of this helmet on Italian vases of the third century B.C. give a date for the class.

An additional value is given to three of the early helmets by inscriptions which they bear and which help to date them. The first (No. =188=) is a record of a dedication of Corinthian spoils to Zeus by the Argives: [Greek: TARG[EI]OI ANETHEN TOI DIWI TON QORINTHOTHEN], in lettering which belongs probably to the end of the sixth century B.C.[40] The helmet was found in the bed of the river Alpheios, near Olympia, and was doubtless dedicated in the sanctuary. A shield bearing the first word of a similar inscription has since been found at Olympia, and was probably part of the same offering. Another helmet (No. =186=) has five letters, [Greek: OLYMP], scratched on the corner of one of the cheek-pieces in characters of about 500 B.C. The complete word was perhaps [Greek: Olympiô], "_To the Olympian Zeus_." This is said to have been found at Dodona in Epeiros. The third is inscribed on the front with the name of its owner, [Greek: DASIMOS PYRRHOU], "_Dasimos son of Pyrrhos_" (No. =194=). The date of the writing is the beginning of the fifth century. This helmet, which comes from South Italy, differs from the Corinthian only in having holes for the ears, but it is really the first of a new type, the so-called Attic.

The evidence of inscriptions, painting and sculpture shows that the Corinthian helmet was generally worn by the Greeks from the first appearance of metal armour in the eighth century B.C. to the early years of the fifth. It then became less common, but never quite disappeared, and was used, certainly as a decorative type, by the Romans of the Empire.

The Attic helmet, which gets its name from its use on the coins of Athens (fig. 12, _f-l_), appeared first in the sixth century B.C., and in the fourth was the usual type. In shape it is lighter than the Corinthian, and resembles a cap with appendages to protect the neck, cheeks and nose. The ear was thus left free. The finest Attic helmet (No. =195=, fig. 69) has been acquired recently from the British Salonika Force. It was found with a spearhead and other objects in a grave of about 500 B.C. in the camp of the 29th General Hospital at Mikra Karabournou, in January, 1918, and was transferred to this collection from the Imperial War Museum. The nasal is elegantly modelled, eyebrows and tongues of hair over the forehead are wrought in relief, and broad spiral bands in relief decorate and strengthen the cheek-pieces. The cheek-pieces were often hung on hinges (No. =197=), and were pushed up from the face when the wearer was not fighting (fig. 81). No. =198= is a cheek-piece from Loryma in Caria, which reproduces the form of the face beneath it. An Attic helmet from Ruvo in Apulia (No. =196=) has fixed cheek-pieces in the shape of rams' heads, which were completed with applied reliefs like those of a similar helmet at Naples (fig. 70). The nose-piece was often omitted. The forehead was well covered, and was usually marked by a triangular frontal band, often enclosing an ornament. No. =197= has the head of a young Satyr in relief. The Attic helmet was also adopted in Italy, especially by the Etruscans. No. =199= (fig. 78) was found in an Etruscan tomb at Vulci.

These two helmets, the Corinthian and the Attic, were so far the most general among the Greeks as to merit the name of the classical types. No. =193= is an intermediate form which has been assigned to the Aegean Islands because of its occurrence in vase-paintings from the Cyclades. This example was found in the river Alpheios, and was no doubt originally dedicated, like several other pieces in this collection, in the temple at Olympia. It is cut straight over the eyes, has no nose-piece and no ear-holes (fig. 67). A peculiar feature is a broad band with high raised edges which runs over the crown of the head from forehead to neck. A stout pin in front of this shows that the band was a channel in which the crest was fixed. A row of silver studs and a silver band decorate the rim of this helmet, and there are remains of ornaments in relief, palmettes on forehead and at the ears, and on each cheek-piece a horseman. These were no doubt also of silver, but the plates have come away, leaving their impress upon the cement which used to hold them in place. The style of the modelling belongs to the end of the sixth century B.C. Another Greek type has the shape of a Phrygian cap, with the addition of movable cheek-pieces, of which the hinges are partially preserved (No. =200=). Such a helmet is often worn by Amazons, for instance by the Queen Hippolyte on an Attic bowl of about 450 B.C., which is exhibited in the Third Vase Room (fig. 71). It is also shewn in the cast of an Etruscan bronze statuette which stands beside the helmet (No. =201=). The tall oval helmet (No. =202=, fig. 72) with its barbarous pair of horns in the shape of crests of sea-horses, is Italian, but the same type appears on Greek monuments.