Part 10

=Greek Male Dress.=--A dress worn in early times was a tunic falling to the feet, with or without the mantle. It continued in use as a ceremonial and festal attire of elderly men, minstrels and charioteers. It is illustrated in a drawing of Peleus by the vase-painter Amasis (?) (fig. 134), in which the soft texture of the long white Ionian chiton is indicated by wavy lines, and the heavy mantle hangs stiffly across the shoulders. Subsequently the long tunic was discarded, and either a short form of the same garment, which had been in use before for outdoor exercise, was adopted in its place, or the outer cloak was worn alone. The short tunic was worn as before by men engaged in active pursuits, and by boys, workmen and slaves. A common fashion of wearing it was to fasten the shoulder on one side only, so that the right arm and breast were free for violent movement. A series of statuettes in the Bronze Room represents the blacksmith god Hephaestos in this working garb (fig. 135). The ordinary costume of the citizen was the himation or a mantle of smaller size. With this the right shoulder was usually left free, as with the tunic; it is the common dress of men on the red-figure Athenian vases (see the Third Vase Room), from one of which (E 61) the illustration is taken (fig. 136). Men of leisure or high rank affected a more elaborate arrangement of the himation, by which the whole body was enveloped and the free movement of the hands impeded. The statue of Sophokles in the Lateran Museum at Rome is a good example of the care which a cultivated man of the fifth century bestowed upon the adjustment of this garment (fig. 137).

Other mantles were of various sizes and were distinguished by many names. The _chlamys_ was the smallest, and differed from the rest also in shape, though its scheme was still rectangular. It was rather longer in proportion to its width, and was clasped round the neck by a brooch. Its origin was in Thessaly, where it was the cape of the native horsemen, and it continued to be used for this purpose in the rest of Greece. Young men wore it, especially when riding, and it was a light and convenient dress for travellers. A young horseman on a cup by the painter Euphronios (fig. 138) has a gaily embroidered chlamys hung evenly across his shoulders, and underneath is seen the skirt of the short chiton.

=Roman Dress.=--The dress of Roman women was the same as that of the Greeks of the Hellenistic period, who are vividly portrayed in the terracotta statuettes (fig. 133). Their undergarment was the Ionian chiton, now called _tunica_, of which two were sometimes worn together, and the overmantle was the Greek himation, by its Roman name, _palla_.

For men there was also a tunic similar to that worn by the Greeks; but in place of the himation the Roman _toga_ was worn, a garment of entirely different shape. In the relief of a cutler's shop, which is exhibited in Case 41, the shopman wears the tunic without a belt, while the customer, who has just come in from the street, wears the toga as well (fig. 193). In that of the forge, in Case 48, both the smiths have the tunic alone, with but the right shoulders unfastened and the skirts girt up to the knee in Greek fashion (fig. 192; compare fig. 135). Yet the Roman tunic seems already to have departed from the Greek pattern in having sleeves, though only to the elbows. Sleeved tunics were not unknown to the Greeks, whose slaves are often represented in this dress; but it was a foreign habit, and as such avoided.

The shape of the toga was roughly semicircular, the straight edge being about six yards long and the width in the middle about two yards, as in the diagram (fig. 139). The simplest mode of putting it on was to place one end on the left shoulder, with the straight edge nearest the centre of the body and the point almost touching the ground. The left hand would be just covered by the curved edge. The rest was then passed behind the back, over or under the right arm, and over the left shoulder again, so that the point hung almost to the ground behind. This was also a method of wearing the Greek himation, and it is difficult to distinguish the two garments when so arranged; but a close examination will discover the sharp point and the curved edge in the case of the toga. At the end of the Republic and under the Empire, to which period most of the monuments belong, more elaborate fashions were developed, as in fig. 140, from a statuette in the Bronze Room.

We turn to the accessories of the dress and the toilet in Table Case F.

=Greek and Roman Footwear.=--The general distinction was that the Greeks wore both sandals, and also boots or shoes. The Romans wore the boot, the _calceus_, but disapproved of the sandal. Part of Cicero's charge against Verres was that he wore sandals, as well as other Greek dress.

The objects shown in Case F are either actual shoes and sandals or representations of them from works of art, such as fragments of statues; or applications of the device of a foot to the decoration of such things as vases, lamps, tripod-feet, etc.

The extant specimens include a Roman leather shoe (No. =344=) of cut leather work, found in London; slippers from Antinoe in Egypt (No. =345=), with coloured and cut leather work; a pair of cork soles from Egypt (No. =346=), the edges of which were formerly gilt. A well-preserved pair of soles is exhibited (No. =347=). They are made of wood, divided at the instep, and plated with bronze, held in place by iron nails. These appear to be of Etruscan origin, as several examples have been found at Vulci (_Mus. Etr. Vat., I._, pl. 57, fig. 7). The sandal in its simplest form, as in the vase B 587 (No. =348=), consists of a sole attached to the foot by thongs passing between the great and second toes, and round the heel. The arrangement of the thongs gradually became more elaborate, with the result that the uncomfortable separation of the toes could be avoided. In the case of the foot of the Hermes of Olympia (No. =349=; fig. 141) there is no toe-thong, but only a reminiscence of the ornament from which it formerly started. An undershoe or sock now became possible, and the shoe and laced sandal in combination (cf. the statue of Mausolos, about 350 B.C.) became highly elaborate. See also the cast of a relief in the Third Graeco-Roman Room (No. =350=) and the feet in marble and bronze. In effect, the result was not greatly different from the Roman military boot (_caliga_) bound up the leg with thongs.

A simpler boot or shoe of modern pattern was also in use. In its plainest forms it represents the Roman boot (_calceus_). Several examples (No. =351=) are shown in this case. See also a vase (No. =352=) in the form of a modern lace-boot. The nails on the sole are arranged so as to impress _alpha_ and _omega_, and the mystic symbol of the _swastika_ on the ground. A delicate gold model of a boot (No. =353=) has [Illustration] [Greek: patou] "walk!" (?) on the sole. A shoe has been found in Egypt, impressing at every step the invitation [Greek: AKOLOUTHEI] ("follow!") The shoemaker at work in his workshop is seen in the fifth century kylix (E 86; No. =354=). He is in the act of cutting the leather with the semicircular knife of the form still in use.

In conclusion, attention should be drawn to the bronze statuette (No. =355=; fig. 142) of a kneeling negro slave cleaning a boot.

On Greek Dress, cf. Lady Evans, _Greek Dress_; E. B. Abrahams, _Greek Dress_; on Roman, Heuzey in _Rev. de l'art ancien et moderne_, 1897; Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pallium_, _Peplos_, _Toga_. On shoes and sandals, see _ibid._, _Calceus_, _Caliga_, _Solea_.

=Fibulae.=--Although the straight pin (cf. p. 137) was used for fastening the dress, fibulae--that is, brooches on the safety-pin principle--were most commonly worn. This method of fastening was of early origin, and its use can be traced in all parts of Europe, but, curiously enough, it seems to have been unknown in Egypt and the East. The fibula experienced in the first centuries of its existence and in the hands of different peoples so many variations and developments of form, that these can be classified in distinct types, and their presence in tombs and other deposits affords valuable evidence of the date and origin of the objects with which they occur.

The reader who wishes to pursue the study of the fibula with more detail is referred to drawers 1-8 in Case D of the Bronze Room, and to the collections in the Iron Age Room. In this case of toilet accessories only a few of the typical forms are shown.

The simplest form of fibula is represented here by examples excavated at Enkomi in Cyprus, which belong to the end of the Bronze Age, before 1000 B.C. (No. =356=; fig. 143). Starting from this primitive form, the history of the fibula is one of progressive development and elaboration. It must be observed in the first place that the whole class of fibulae may be divided into two great groups--viz., an older group, in which the coiled spring is unilateral, that is, a plain spiral, between the bow and the pin; and a younger group, in which the spring is bilateral, that is a symmetrically disposed double coil, on each side of the pin. We deal first with the =Unilateral group=. In Greek regions the development of the form, fig. 143, was mainly a development of the catchplate in a vertical plane--that is in the plane of the bow of the fibula. This plate, often with incised patterns (Fig. 144; No. =357=) was a characteristic of the period of geometric art in Greece. Two very large examples are shown above Case D in the Bronze Room. The plainly curved bows may have some further ornament, such as beads strung on them (No. =358=; fig. 145) or imitation bead patterns, or a figure of a standing bird (No. =359=; fig. 146). All these examples come from the island of Rhodes.

Some from Cyprus are quite distinct, and seem to have no connection with the others (No. =360=; fig. 147). In the classical period the fibula was little used in Greece, in consequence of modifications in dress which rendered such fastenings unnecessary.

In Italy, on the other hand, the fibula flourished exceedingly. The plain wire original, such as that given above (fig. 143) was soon elaborated. In the catch-plate it developed either horizontally, that is, by a beating out of the plate in a plane at right angles to that of the bow (No. =361=; fig. 148) or longitudinally, by the elongation of the catch-plate as in Nos. =362-3= (figs. 149-150). At the same time developments were taking place in the bow. It became larger (fig. 149), and then was hollowed out to save weight and material (fig. 150), and assumed forms known as leech-shaped and boat-shaped--and these threw out lateral knobs and ornaments (fig. 150), often of great elaboration. Alternatively, the bow makes a second convolution (fig. 148), and may be adorned with horn-like pairs of projections (No. =364=).

An independent form is chiefly found at Hallstatt, in cemeteries of the early European Iron Age. In this, two, or perhaps four, spiral coils make the whole decoration of the brooch (No. =365=, fig. 151).

=The Bilateral form.=--The fibulae with the spring coiled on each side of the central bow came into use about 400 B.C., in the late Iron Age civilization, called the La Tène period, from the site on the Lake of Neufchatel, where the richest finds have been made. Together with the introduction of the double spring, there is a continued elongation of the catch-plate, which is turned up as in No. =366= (fig. 152) and attached to the bow as in No. =367= (fig. 153). Later its structural origin is forgotten, and it becomes a solid framework (No. =368=).

The fibula of the Roman Empire was more like a brooch than a safety-pin, if a distinction can be drawn between the two. The bow became broad and heavy, while the pin was often made separately and attached by a hinge. But it shows a strong connection with the La Tène types, especially in the double coil of the spring, which was often protected by a sheath (No. =369=; fig. 154). Even when the spring went out of use, the fibula retained this cross-bow shape (No. =370=; fig. 155). The elaborate bronze brooch in the form of a ribbed band passing through a ring (No. =371=; fig. 156) is stamped underneath with the name of the maker (+VLATI+), in the manner of the Roman pottery. Enamel or metal inlay was liberally applied in the decoration of the later brooches. A large collection with great variety of shapes is exhibited. The effect of the bright colours is best seen in the big round pieces which were popular in the third and fourth centuries A.D. (No. =373=; fig. 157). Animal forms were also common at this time, and were similarly decorated with inlay (No. =374=; fig. 158). These types were widely spread over the western provinces of the Empire, and continued in use among the nations who succeeded to the Roman power.

Somewhat akin to the fibulae are the strap buckles, which appear to have come into use at a late period only. A group, nearly of the modern form, is exhibited (No. =374*=).

=Jewellery and Ornaments.=--Jewellery in gold and silver can be best studied in the Room of Gold Ornaments. The examples shown here are chosen as types of the forms, rather than as choice pieces.

=Bracelets.=--A favourite form of bracelet or armlet was modelled in imitation of a snake coiled round the arm or wrist. See the small silver bracelet of about the fourth to third century B.C., inscribed with the names of its owner Kletis (No. =375=; fig. 159). The same design is also used for finger-rings (No. =376=). Snake-coils of a large size were also worn on the legs, as shown by a small terracotta torso from Ephesus, which has this ornament on the thigh (No. =377=). This torso also has a chain of beads passing over the shoulders and crossing between the breasts. Such an arrangement is common on figures in vases of the fourth to third century B.C.

=Finger-rings.=--The rings are generally set with an engraved gem or bezel; some have revolving scarabs which are pierced through the middle (No. =378=), another has a gold intaglio portrait of the Empress Faustina (No. =379=), while an enormous bronze ring has the design cut in the bezel itself, a double head of Hermes and a Seilenos (No. =380=). These examples are in bronze and of poor workmanship, but they serve to illustrate the general style of ancient rings. A great number in gold and silver, arranged in order of date, are exhibited in the Room of Gold Ornaments, where the subject can be more adequately studied. The intaglio designs were for use in sealing, which was more commonly practised by the ancients than it is now. Others have a purely decorative purpose, and were worn in profusion. The bronze hand (No. =381=) has rings on the upper joints of the fingers, in accordance with a common fashion of the Roman Imperial period. Fragments of bronze and terracotta also show the fashions of wear. The Greeks of an early period did not usually wear ornamental rings, although signets were in constant use, and it was not until the fourth century B.C. that rings were worn for display. In Rome there were class restrictions on the use of the gold ring, but these were lessened as time went on, until in the late Empire they practically disappeared. Betrothal rings were customary among the Romans, but in Greece there is no record of their use. A gold betrothal ring is shown in Case 53 (No. =639=).

=Earrings.=--The bronze earrings are from the site of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and are earlier than the sixth century B.C. (fig. 160). Two types are represented; the swelling hoop of wire, which hung like a liquid drop (No. =382=) and the heavy coil, which was suspended from a ring (No. =383=). For a very great variety of earrings, see the collection in the Room of Gold Ornaments.

=Bullae.=--The flat bronze pendants (No. =384=), with a circular receptacle in the middle, are _bullae_. These are ornaments of Etruscan origin, introduced early into Rome. They were designed to contain amulets and charms, and were worn principally by freeborn Roman boys, and occasionally by domestic animals.

=Necklaces.=--The necklaces here exhibited (No. =385=) consist of beads of painted terracotta and glass. See also the imitation jewellery in terracotta, in the Terracotta Room, Table Case C. Those of more precious materials are in the Gold Ornament Room. Some fragments of terracotta show the Cypriote fashion of wearing numerous necklaces together (No. =386=).

=Studs, etc.=--Links and studs of Roman times (No. =387=) bear a striking resemblance to the modern articles, as does a coiled hook-and-eye which dates actually from the Bronze Age Period (No. =388=). A peculiar fastening is seen in the double hooks which probably served to loop together the two sides of a shawl or cloak (No. =389=). They are probably of Roman date, and come in some instances from the province of Gaul.

=Pins.=--Some of the pins may have been used equally well to fasten the clothing or to adorn the hair; but others were evidently designed to serve only one of these purposes. Those in carved ivory are plainly hair-pins (No. =390=; fig. 161). The roughly worked busts of Roman ladies of the Empire indicate the period to which the series belongs. The little statuette is intended to represent Aphrodite wringing the water out of her hair, after rising from the sea. A fine gold pin similarly modelled is exhibited in the Gold Ornament Room (Case K; No. 3034). The ivory hand, which holds a cone and is encircled by a serpent, has some magical significance, like the bronze votive-hands in Case 106 (p. 57).

The metal pins are less elaborate. The simplest shape was straight and headless, a direct copy of the natural thorn which first suggested the idea. A very primitive head is seen on the small bronze pin which is bent round at the top (No. =391=; fig. 162_a_). It was found in the island of Kalymnos, and belongs to the pre-Mycenaean age, say 2000 B.C. A silver pin is similarly bent, but as it has a head as well, is not so early (No. =392=; fig. 162_b_). Another prehistoric type is represented by several bronze pins which were excavated from tombs of the late Mycenaean age at Enkomi in Cyprus (No. =393=; fig. 162_c_). These are pierced with eyes in which chains were fastened to secure the pins to the dress or to each other. Three pins crowned by large ivory knobs come from the same site and belong to the same period (No. =394=; fig. 162_d_). The bronze pin with a head made of several discs is Greek of the sixth century B.C., as it appears in the paintings of the François Vase at Florence, which is an Attic work of that date (No. =395=; figs. 162_e_, 163). Another classical type is the silver pin with a moulded head (No. =396=; fig. 162_f_). Others of less remarkable designs cannot be definitely dated.

=Toilet.=--In the most personal aspects of life and manners there is least room for change, for in the course of ages it is not man that has altered, but his surroundings; and the study of such intimate details reveals a close similarity between the ancient and the modern worlds.

=Combs.=--To begin with the more necessary implements, the combs go back to a high antiquity. An ivory comb from Enkomi in Cyprus dates from the Mycenaean age (No. =397=; fig. 164). It is of simpler form than later combs, having only one row of teeth. The others are of the Greek and Roman periods, and are made both of wood and bone. The usual pattern is that of a modern tooth-comb, with a row of teeth on each side of the body--one coarse and one fine. There are wooden examples from Kertch, in South Russia (No. =398=). More elaborate is the ivory piece, which is decorated with reliefs, a Gryphon and a lion on one side and two cranes at a fountain on the other (No. =399=. The original is in the case of Ivories, L). Another of good Roman period is carved by an amateur hand with an inscription, doubtless in compliment to the lady to whom it belonged (No. =400=; fig. 164). The legend reads +MODESTINA·V·H·E·E+--the four letters at the end being perhaps abbreviated epithets of the fair Modestina, _V(irgo) H(onesta) E(t) E(gregia)_. A different type appears in the triangular pocket-comb, which fits into a protecting case (No. =401=; fig. 164). This belongs to the end of the Roman Empire, the fourth century A.D., and may already show the influence of barbarian art. Similar combs were brought to England by the Danes, and some of them which have been found at York and elsewhere are exhibited in the British and Mediaeval Department.

With the combs is a brush of vegetable bristles from an Egyptian rubbish heap of a late period of the empire (No. =402=).