c. As you see dogs and cats outside do you see any evidence in either

case of a tendency to gather in packs (gregariousness)?

d. What different emotions are expressed by a dog's tail? a cat's tail?

e. What sounds do cats and dogs make? Significance?

f. Contrast the sleeping habits of cats and dogs.

g. How large is the litter in case of dogs and cats? Condition of young at birth? How long before the eyes of the young are open? Care of young.

_Summary._

To what kind of life does a cat or dog seem best adapted: (a) as to food? (b) protection from enemies?

Carnivora; Review and Library Exercise

_Characteristics._

1. The general characters of carnivora.

2. Five important families. The characteristics and examples of each family.

_Morphology and physiology._

3. The dentition of the cat, the dog, and the bear. Variation in the "chewing teeth."

4. Three types of paired appendages among carnivora. Relation to habitat.

5. The difference in structure and use of the posterior legs of the seal and walrus.

6. The alimentary canal of a cat and rabbit compared.

7. The tongue of cats and dogs contrasted as to structure and use.

_Economics._

8. The difference between hair and fur.

9. The fur-bearing carnivora. Families, and habitat.

10. Trapping.

11. Game laws and game wardens. Hunters' licenses.

12. Hunting big game.

13. Carnivora harmful to man.

14. Carnivora useful to man.

15. Carnivora as pets.

16. Chief types or breeds of domesticated dogs. Characteristics. Special value of each.

17. Chief types or breeds of domesticated cats.

18. Dogs as burden bearers.

_Natural History._

19. Distribution and range of carnivora. Carnivora of the United States.

20. Winter habits among carnivora.

21. Food of carnivora. Various methods of obtaining it.

22. The hunting habits of the dog and cat family.

23. The habits and distribution of the raccoons.

24. The color schemes of the more important families of the carnivora.

25. Seasonal variation in color.

26. Distribution and habits of the ferrets and weasels.

27. How carnivora protect themselves from enemies. Which carnivora have been most successful in resisting man's advance?

28. Peculiar and interesting carnivora to be seen in museums and zoölogical gardens.

29. Origin of the domestic dog.

30. Intelligence of dogs.

31. Fox-hunting.

32. Coyotes and their relation to stock raising, etc.

The Ungulates

_Materials._

Pictures, charts, lantern slides, and books showing cow, sheep, hog, goat, horse, etc. Diagram of skeleton.

_Directions._

Since it is impossible to have living ungulates in the laboratory, this study should be supplemented by trips to a museum and to a zoölogical garden. Observe also such hoofed animals as may be common in your neighborhood. Use your camera and make "snapshots," showing characteristic attitudes of these animals.

_Definitions._

_Ungulates_, an order of mammals characterized by the possession of hoofs.

_Ruminant_, a division of ungulates, which "chew the cud."

_Perissodactyl_, a division of ungulates with an odd number of toes.

_Artiodactyl_, a division of ungulates with an even number of toes.

_Carnivorous_, flesh-eating.

_Herbivorous_, plant-eating.

_Omnivorous_, eating both plant and animal food.

_Observations in the laboratory._

_Note._--Answer the following questions for one or more of the following: The cow, sheep, goat, hog, and horse. If desired, the questions may be answered in the form of a table.

1. What is the relative length of the neck? What is its direction with reference to the body? Of what importance is this length and direction?

2. What is the length and appearance of the tail? What is its use?

3. What is the relative length of the legs? Locate the heel, knee, and elbow. (Reference should be made to a diagram of a skeleton.) When the leg is long, in which bone is this lengthening accomplished (compared with human skeleton)?

4. How many toes on each foot? Is the animal an artiodactyl or a perissodactyl? Is it plantigrade or digitigrade?

5. What is the relative size and position of the ears (external ear)?

6. What is the relative size and position of the eyes? nostrils?

7. Are horns of any kind present? If so, note the size, shape, and direction. Are they present in both sexes? If not, in which one? If in both, note any differences distinguishing the sexes.

_Suggested drawings._

a. Head, side view.

b. Entire animal, side view.

_Observations in the field or at home._

1. Note how the animal uses its lips, tongue, and teeth in feeding. Is it a ruminant?

2. In what order does the animal use its feet? Look up the definition of _walk_, _run_, _gallop_, _canter_, _trot_, _lope_, _single foot_, _pace_. Which of these forms of locomotion are optional with the animal?

3. Describe the process when the animal lies down and gets up.

4. Describe the covering of the animal, noting its length, fineness, etc. What variations in different regions of the body?

5. Is the animal alert or sluggish? Upon what senses does it most depend? What mental characteristics are most marked, _e.g._ curiosity, fear, suspicion.

6. Note any movements of the ear. What is gained by these movements?

7. What is the position of the eye? What is the shape and direction of the pupil? Reason?

8. What means has the animal for getting away from its enemies.

_Observations based upon museum trip or natural history._

1. Identify as many ungulates as you can; for example, buffalo, musk ox, big-horn sheep, Rocky Mountain goat, chamois, antelope, giraffe, red deer, elk, moose, reindeer, wild boar, peccary, rhinoceros, zebra, hippopotamus.

2. Answer the following questions about each:--

a. What is the family, scientific name?

b. What is the size of the animal? the relative length of the hind and fore legs? the relative length of the neck?

c. What is the nature of the covering of the animal?

d. Are any horns developed? If present, what is their size, shape, direction, and appearance?

e. What is the habitat of the animal? its distribution and social life?

_Summary._

In a short thesis summarize the facts you have found out about ungulates, using the following outline:--

1. Why called ungulates? Variation in number of toes.

2. General fact about the food of ungulates. The two divisions.

3. The general adaptations for protection.

4. The social life of the ungulates.

5. The native ungulates of the United States.

6. Commercial uses and value.

Ungulates: Review and Library Exercise

_Characteristics._

1. Classification of ungulates based upon number of toes, kind of horns, "chewing the cud," etc. Some of the more important families with examples.

_Morphology and physiology._

2. The variation in the number and kinds of teeth. The dentition (or dental formula) of horse and cow.

3. The various types of horns. Shedding of horns and sexual variation.

4. The structure and function of the stomach of a ruminant. Meaning of the cud-chewing habit.

5. The structure of the stomach of a camel.

_Economics._

6. Ungulates which have been domesticated.

7. Breeds of cattle--their distinguishing marks and valuable points.

8. Breeds of horses--their distinguishing marks and valuable points.

9. Breeds of sheep--their distinguishing marks and valuable points.

10. Breeds of hogs--their distinguishing marks and valuable points.

11. Angora goats.

12. The making of butter and cheese. Kinds of cheese. Substitutes for butter.

13. The packing industry. Ungulates useful as food.

14. The various methods of preserving meat.

15. Cattle ranches and "round-ups." Free cattle in winter.

16. Cattle raising in your state; in other countries.

17. Transportation of cattle. Stock cars, care and feeding.

18. Useful products derived from ungulates.

19. Tanning. Varieties and use of leather.

20. Diagrams showing chief cuts of meats.

21. Sheep husbandry. Shearing.

22. Ungulates as beasts of burden. Advantages and disadvantages.

23. Government inspection--quarantine.

_Natural History._

24. Geographical distribution of ungulates. Habitat and range.

25. Native ungulates of North America.

26. How, when, and by whom cattle and horses were introduced into America.

27. The geological history of the horse.

28. The story of the buffalo.

29. Deer hunting.

30. Methods of protection from enemies among ungulates.

31. Breeding habits and care of young in case of ungulates.

32. Intelligence in the case of horses.

33. Strange and peculiar ungulates to be seen in museums and zoölogical gardens.

The Horse

The pupil is expected to study carefully the account of Eohippus or Hyracotherium in his text or any other available reference book, and to supplement that work and this brief sketch with original observations upon horses on the street, at a local store, or wherever possible or convenient.

From the early horses which migrated from North America there arose in Asia and Africa the ass, famous in the history of early civilization and still used in some localities as beasts of burden or for the breeding of mules, which are the crosses between ass and horse. There also arose the zebra and the most primitive of modern horses, Przewalskii's horse, a wild pony of western China, about forty inches high and almost identical with the drawings of the horse made by early man, 30,000 years ago. Doubtless the modern ponies of Ireland, Iceland, and Shetland are descendants of the original Przewalskii type and not, as is often claimed, true horses stunted by rigors of climate and scant fare.

The horse is characterized largely by the presence of a lock of hair between the ears, a full mane and tail, small ears, large hoofs, and peculiar neigh. The ass has no forelock, a scanty mane and tail, long ears, small hoofs, and a distinct bray.

By means of various crusades and raids, the modern horse was introduced into Europe from Asia, where it is clearly traced in history to the reign of King Solomon. Here, in Europe, because of local conditions and demands, it assumed differing type forms. The roadster type is closest to the Arabian in character. The draft or heavy type was bred in western Europe when heavy armor came into use for rider and horse, and the coach or carriage type was developed when armor was abandoned for gunpowder. Finally explorers and colonists brought the horse back to America, its original home.

The various types and varieties may be briefly described.

_A._ The draft type has short legs, short neck, large round body, and ranges in weight from 1400 pounds to 2000 pounds.

_Varieties:--_

1. _Percheron_: generally about 1700 pounds in weight, 16 hands (64 inches) high, gray or black, blocky body, steep rump, clean legs, and quick action.

2. _Shire_: generally about 1800 pounds in weight, 17 hands high, bay or brown, white marked feet and face, hairy legs and feet, and slow action.

3. _Belgian_: generally about 1800 pounds in weight, 16 hands high, chestnut or roan in color, compact body, short, steep rump, and small feet.

_B._ The coach or carriage type has legs and neck of medium length, a body full-chested but not blocky, and a weight varying from 1150 pounds to 1400 pounds.

_Varieties:--_

1. _Hackney_: generally of full, broad, powerful body, short legs and back, high action and high carriage of neck and head, bay or chestnut in color, 15 hands high, and 1400 pounds in weight.

2. _Coach_: generally lighter than the Hackney, with longer legs and long stride; height, 16 hands; weight, 1300 pounds.

3. _Cleveland bay_: averaging 16-1/2 hands in height, 1350 pounds in weight, high, broad hips, strong action, and bay color.

_C._ The roadster type is long and lean of limb and body, and averages about 1100 pounds in weight.

_Varieties:--_

1. _Thoroughbred_: of small head, long neck, level back, of variable color, 14-1/2--16-1/2 hands high, about 1000 pounds in weight.

2. _American saddle_: an American production; not a distinct breed, but a roadster of high quality.

3. _American trotter_: a superior type of good speed. The off forefoot and the nigh hind foot act together, the nigh fore and the off hind feet together, giving a two-beat gait.

4. _Pacer_: similar to the trotter, but using both off feet and both nigh feet together, giving a swinging gait.

The horse is very similar to man in its physical and mental character, being subject to the same ailments and treatment and having the same impulses of affection, hatred, fear, jealousy, obedience, willfulness, memory, and perhaps reason. It is of all animals most careful in its eating and drinking; because its stomach is small, the food should not be bulky but concentrated, grain forming a goodly portion of the ration.

Perhaps the most important point in the structure of the horse is the form of the leg and foot. The shoulder should slope slightly backward and the pastern joint, immediately above the hoof, slightly backward. The hips, or "quarters," should slope downward somewhat, and the hock should be comparatively wide to afford ample leverage for the pulling muscles. The legs should be straight as pillars when seen from front or rear. The outer walls of the hoof support most of the weight though the frog should normally touch the ground. In nature the hoof wears away properly of itself, but the shod hoof needs regular trimming attention, while the frog must not be trimmed, for it is the soft growing part that nourishes the hoof. In this treatment the foot is comparable with the human finger and finger nail.

_Observations._

If access to a living animal is impossible or inconvenient, the pupil may use reference book or pictures for most of these points. A measuring tape or ruler should be at hand, and the assistance of an experienced person is a valuable aid. If several horses are studied, they should be distinguished by name or number.

Record the color, condition, weight, and height of the horse at the shoulder. (Height is given in "hands," a hand being the breadth of the palm, or 4 inches.) Note the slope of the shoulder, of the back and the hips, the general form of the head and neck, and the facial expression. Find the chestnuts, warty growths on the inside of each leg. Examine the foot, finding the V-shaped frog in the center, surrounded by the horny hoof.

Find the pulse by passing the fingers downward from the upper curve of the neck, along the inside of the jaw; count the pulse. Notice the position and motion of the ears with their lining of hair, and the position of the eyes, the form of the pupil, and the probable range of vision. Watch the horse use its lips, and examine the mouth and teeth, finding the grinding teeth far back in the mouth, the incisors in front, and the space where the canines are missing.

The male may have canines in the upper jaw.

On the surfaces of the incisors are the depressions, or "cups," by means of which age is determined.

At six years the cups leave the lower center teeth; at seven the adjoining teeth; and at eight, the outer lower teeth. At nine years they leave the upper center incisors; at ten, the adjoining teeth; and at eleven, the outer teeth above. At the age of ten years a spot appears in the outer upper incisors, at fifteen years the groove has worn to the center of the tooth, and at twenty-one years the groove is worn to the bottom of the tooth.

_Questions._

1. Describe the horse you studied as to its name or number, its color, markings, weight, and size. Of what type and breed is it a specimen?

2. Upon how much of the foot does the horse walk? How does this affect ease or speed of action? How does an athlete imitate this in sprinting?

3. How many toes has each foot? What advantage or disadvantage can you see in this unusual structure?

4. How is the hoof constructed to distribute the weight over a surface broader than the leg? How general is this among terrestrial animals?

5. What is the difference in the position of the chestnuts of the fore and hind legs?

6. Where in the foreleg is a springiness permitted by curvature? Where does the back leg accomplish the same thing?

7. How do you account for the elongating of the face?

8. Explain the uses of the lips, telling how they are fitted for their work.

9. Tell where the bit lies in the horse's mouth, and how the structure permits this.

10. Where are the ears situated? How does this peculiar position affect the range of hearing and general alertness? Of how much movement are they capable? Describe the lining of the ear, and state its use.

11. What is the rate of the pulse?

12. Measure the height at shoulder and at croup, length of body from withers to rump, of head, of neck; thickness of body from the shoulder to the chest and of distance of chest from ground. Point out any equalities or ratios you find.

_Topics for investigation._

1. The meaning of the terms _gee_, _haw_, _nigh_, _off_, _run_, _gallop_, _trot_, _pace_, _single foot_, _rack_.

2. The location, cause, and effect of these troubles: heaves, blind staggers, knee sprung, shoe boil, quitter, ring bone, spavin, capped hock, flat foot, hoof bound, glanders, mange, sweeny, hide bound, and thrush.

3. The record time for a trotted and a paced mile.

4. The meaning of "one horse power." How much a horse can pull on good roads.

5. Record prices for valuable horses.

6. Current prices for horses; for ponies; for mules.

7. The origin and the use of the mule.

8. Balanced rations.

9. The number and care of the young, and their relative development at birth.

10. Other animals used as beasts of burden in peculiar conditions or localities.

Homology of the Vertebrate Skeleton

_Materials._

Prepared skeletons of an amphibian, a reptile, a bird, another mammal, and man. If any of these be lacking, lantern-slide illustrations may be used in a partially darkened room.

_Observations._

Having studied the frog's skeleton in detail, the student can readily compare each of these types with it. Compare in a very general way the skulls, the girdles, and the limbs; their form and use. Note variations in the form and number of the vertebræ and the number of the ribs.

_Questions._

1. In which types of vertebrates are the joints between the skull bones bound with cartilage? How does the joining change in later types?

2. What dissimilarities occur in the series as regards closure or boxing in of the eye orbits, nostrils, and skull bones? How would these changes in joining and closure affect strength, rigidity, and protection?

3. What evidence is there that such improvement has affected brain capacity and intelligence?

4. State how the attachment of the skull to the vertebral column changes as the animal man assumes an erect position.

5. Are the vertebræ of these types alike in structure? What is the general form of an horizontally placed vertebra, as in the horse or a reptile, and of a vertically placed one, as in man? If you see any differences, account for them.

6. Wherever possible, find the vertebræ of the neck (cervical), and note the number of them in each case.

7. How is flexibility of the column accomplished in certain types or in certain places of one type? How is rigidity gained? State instances in each answer.

8. Examining the interior of the turtle's "shell," find out and explain how the vertebræ have been modified to form the upper "shell." How has the under portion (_plastron_) been formed?

9. In round numbers, which skeleton has the greatest number of vertebræ and which the least?

10. Which skeleton has the greatest number of ribs, and which has the least?

11. In a summarizing statement explain any variations you find in the pectoral and pelvic girdle for strength (rigidity); flexibility. This answer may be written as a table, naming the bones, opposite each stating its condition, and then what it affords or is adapted to.

12. What is accomplished by having two bones in the shank of the leg? In what types or forms is there but one, and which one is it?

13. Can you assign any advantages in power, agility, length of leg, or position of leg and foot accruing from a long ankle? (See horse, frog, _et al._)

14. Enumerate the types or forms, and opposite each state the number of fingers and toes.

15. Make a table, heading one column "Form or type"; another, "Habitat"; and a third, "Habit." Judging from the structure which you see or from your previous knowledge or experience, fill in the table, stating whether the type is aquatic, terrestrial, or aërial; whether it burrows, walks, runs, or climbs, etc.

16. From your statements in 15, explain how the peculiar mode of life affects the structure of these types.