PART III.

{ON SYNTAX}.

{Section} 1. {On Government}.

336. The rules for the relative position of the parts of speech are few and simple. They will be first considered without reference to grouping, repetition, etc.; the syntax of words used under those forms will be presented in subsequent sections.

A substantive that governs another as an attributive genitive always precedes it, and the particle 個 kú‘ is inserted.

牛個角比之鹿個角短 nieu kú‘ koh ’pí tsz lók kú‘ koh ’{t}ö{n}, {the horns of oxen are short compared with those of deer}. 羊咾牛個皮有多許用頭拉 {y}áng lau nieu kú‘ bí ’{y}eu tú hau‘ {y}úng‘ deu ’lá, {the skin of sheep and oxen has many uses}. 鷄個聲氣最响 kí kú‘ sáng k’í‘ tsûe‘ ’h’iáng, {the cock crows very loud}.

Obs. i. Thus substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part.

Obs. ii In English this order is reversed, when the particle {of} is employed; e.g. {affairs of the nation} is in our dialect, 國家個事體 kók kiá kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í. When a possessive case is formed with ’{s}, the order agrees with that of the Chinese; e.g. {the emperor’s palace}, 皇帝個宮殿 {w}ong {t}í‘ kú‘ kóng díe{n}‘.

Obs. iii. 個 kú‘ is omitted in some instances where it would incommode the rhythmus; e.g. 外國人總要來帮助此地咸豐皇帝 ngá‘ koh niun ’tsóng yau‘ lé póng ’zú ’t’sz dí‘ Ya{n} fóng {w}ong {t}í‘, {foreigners must come and assist Hien Fung, the emperor of this country}; 一向嘸沒興旺辰光 ih h’iang‘ {m} meh h’iung {w}ong‘ zun kwong, {it has never had a time of prosperity}.

337. Adjectives precede their substantives with or without 個 kú‘.

大地方 {t}ú‘ {t}í‘ fong, {a large place}. 西國 sí kóh, {western nations}. 黑天 huk tíe{n}, {black sky}. 晒拉旺日頭裏 só ’lá {y}ong‘ nyih deu ’lí, {dry it in the hot sun}. 利害個物事 lí‘ {h}é kú‘ meh zz‘, {a dangerous thing}.

Obs. Numbers take the auxiliary word (Part II. section 4.) appropriated to the substantive they precede, between them and the substantive. An adjective if needed, is inserted after the auxiliary, e.g. 一座大房子 ih zû‘ dú‘ vong ’tsz, {a large house}; 匹匹白馬 sz‘ p’ih báh ’mó, {four white horses}.

338. Transitive verbs precede their objects.

生火 sáng ’hú, {light a fire}. 染布 ’níe{n} pú‘, {dye cloth}. 買紅紙頭做帖子, ’má {h}óng ’tsz deu tsú‘ t’ih ’tsz, {buy red paper to make cards}.

Obs. i. If there is a dative and accusative, the latter comes next to the verb. For examples, see Art. 236 and 133.

Obs. ii. Impersonal verbs take a substantive after them as transitive verbs; e.g. 難開花者 na{n} k’é hwó ’tsé, {now the flowers open} (lit. {open the flowers}); 落雨 loh ’{ü}, {it rains} (lit. {falls rain}).

339. Adverbs are placed for the most part before the adjectives and verbs that they qualify.

忒認眞 t’uh niung‘ tsun, {unnecessarily industrious}. 廟裏最興 miau‘ ’lí tsûe‘ h’iung‘, {in the temple, it is most crowded}. 此地寫 ’t’sz dí‘ ’siá, {write it here}. 歇兩日再會 h’ih ’liáng nyih tsé‘ {w}é‘. {after a few days, we shall meet again}. 又是一氣 {í} ’zz ih k’í‘, {that is a different set}.

Obs. The adverbs that follow their adjectives, such as 近煞 ’{k}iun sah, {very near}, 好極 ’hau giuh, {very good}, will be found in their places, where the comparison of adjectives and adverbs of quality are treated of.

340. Of the prepositions, some forming the locative case follow their words; the rest inclusive of 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí, all meaning {being at} or {in}, precede their substantives. 勿在鄕下 veh ’dzé h’iáng ’{a}u, {not down in the country}.

Obs. Prepositions of motion and direction preceding the personal pronouns require a substantive of place to follow. 到我堂來 tau‘ ’ngú dong lé, {come to me}; 拉㑚堂勿有 ’lá ná‘ dong veh ’{y}eu, {where you come from, there are none}. See also Art. 197.

{Section} 2. {Interchange of the Parts of Speech}.

341. Under this heading, will be exhibited examples of the manner in which words by a change in position, must be construed as included in parts of speech, different from those to which when alone, they obviously belong. First, there are three principal changes of position, by which {adjectives} become {substantives}.

{а}. Adjectives when they follow a substantive with 個 kú‘ are to be construed as substantives.

心裏向個勿好, 總要改正 sing ’lí h’iáng‘ kú‘ veh ’hau, ’tsóng yau‘ ’ké tsung‘, {the evil of the heart must be rectified}. 泰山個高量勿出 t’é‘ sa{n} kú‘ kau liáng veh t’seh, {the height of T’ai-shan cannot be measured}. 房間個闊狹勿清爽 vong ka{n} kú‘ k’weh {h}ah veh t’sing ’song, {the width of the room, I do not know}. 吾個相好死者 ngú kú‘ siáng ’hau ’sí ’tsé, {my friend is dead}.

Obs. i. Compare In English “the theory of the beautiful,” etc.

Obs. ii. Sometimes 處 t’sû‘ is added to the adjective, as also 頭 deu and fah 發, compound substantives are thus formed; cf. Art. 110. The same words also form substantives from verbs.

{b}. Adjectives are frequently the objects of transitive verbs, and in consequence are necessarily translated in such cases as substantives.

學好 {h}oh ’hau, {to grow good (to learn good)}. 講和 ’kong {h}ú, {treat for peace}. 學壞 {h}oh {w}á‘, {to grow bad}.

Obs. These examples differ from compounds, such as 加大 ká dú‘, {make larger}; 開闊 k’é k’weh, {to extend in width} (see Art. 219), which in their combined form, constitute transitive verbs with a regimen. These on the other hand contain the verb and its object within them.

勿論大咾小, 全是一樣個 veh lun‘ dú‘ lau ’siau, dzé{n} ’zz ih {y}áng‘ kú‘, {without taking account of the great and the small, all are the same}. 勿要話別人個長短 veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ bih niun kú‘ dzáng ’tö{n}, {do not speak of the faults of others}.

Obs. 短處 ’tö{n} t’sû‘ is also used for {faults}.

第條河開多少闊 {t}í‘ diau {h}ú k’é tú ’sau k’weh, {how wide is this river?}

Obs. Adjectives with the interrogatives {how much? how many?} preceding them, the verb being understood, are in common use; e.g. 幾許深淺 ’kí hó‘ sun ’t’síe{n}, {how much depth is there?} or {how deep is it?} 多少深 tú ’sau sun {ib}.; 勿知多少高低 veh tsz tú ’sau kau tí, {I do not know how high it is}.

{c}. When one adjective is qualified by another, it becomes a substantive; with this, English usage agrees, as in the following names of colours.

濃黑 nióng huh, {deep black}. 淡紅 ’{t}a{n} {h}óng, {light red}. 老黃 ’láu {w}ong, {faded yellow}. 嫩黃 nung‘ {w}ong, {fresh yellow}. 重藍 ’dzóng la{n}, {deep blue}. 淺藍 ’t’síen la{n}, {light blue}.

{Verb as Substantive}. 342. Construing verbs as substantives is common to many languages. The infinitive and gerund forms are used for this purpose, as also the present participle. In Chinese these are all identical, being the root itself.

{a}. The verb as {subject} of a proposition with a predicate following (inf. and pres, part.).

活命難 {w}eh ming‘ na{n}, {it is hard} (predic.) {to live}. (subj.） 會得勝總好個 {w}é‘ tuk sung‘ ’tsóng ’hau kú‘, {to be able to conquer must be a good thing}. 行篷船走得快個 {h}áng bóng, zé{n} ’tseu tuk k’wá‘ kú‘, {by using a sail, the boat will go quickly}. 國度亂做生意勿便當個 kóh dú‘ lö{n}‘ tsú‘ sáng í‘ veh bíe{n}‘ tong‘ kú‘, {the country is disturbed and in consequence, it is hard} (pred.) {to carry on trade}. (subj.) 兵勿好咾, 打仗勿見得成功 ping veh ’hau lau, ’t’áng tsáng‘ veh kíe{n}‘ tuh zung kóng‘, {the soldiers are bad, and consequently fighting} (subj.) {is not likely to be successful}. (pred.)

{b}. The verb as {subject}, with a noun as {attribute} (in Latin grammar, the genitive of the gerund).

種田個家生有鋤頭鐵咾還有多許 tsóng‘ díe{n} kú‘ ká sáng ’{y}eu zz deu, t’ih tah lau, {w}a{n} ’{y}eu tú hó‘, {the implements of husbandry are the spade, the spiked hoe, and such like} (arma colendi). 嘸沒反个意思 {m} meh ’fa{n} kú‘ í‘ sz‘, {he has not the intention of rebelling} (consilium deficiendi). 敎書个本事勿有 kau‘ sû kú‘ ’pun zz‘ veh ’{y}eu, {the ability to instruct, he does not possess}.

{c}. The verb preceded by or followed by case particles.

我現在拉做 ’ngú {h}íe{n}‘ dzé‘ ’lá tsú‘, {I am now doing it}. 勒拉吃茶 leh ’lá k’iuh dzó, {drinking tea} ({inter bibendum}). 勒裏打算 leh ’lí ’táng sö{n}‘, {he is considering} ({inter putandum}). 做官裏向也有辛苦 tsú‘ kwé{n} ’lí h’iáng‘ ’{á} ’{y}eu sing ’k’ú, {in the office of mandarin, there is much care and anxiety} (in magistrato gerendo). 寫字裏向也有法則 ’siá zz‘ ’lí hiáng‘ ’{á} ’{y}eu fah tsuh, {in writing, there is a method}.

{d}. The verb as regimen of another verb.

斷絕往來 ’{t}ö{n} dzih ’{w}ong lé, {cease to have communications}. 嘸啥做 {m} sá‘ tsú‘, {I have nothing to do}. 勿曾有啥爭論 veh zung ’{y}eu sá‘ tsáng lun‘, {there has not been any quarreling}. 我勿想去 ’ngú veh ’siáng k’í‘, {I do not think of going}. 勿要討我厭 veh yau‘ ’t’au ’ngú {y}íe{n}‘, {do not make me displeased}.

{e}. The verb as the {instrument} of effecting an action.

問之咾曉得 mun‘ tsz lau ’h’iau tuh, {you would know by asking}. 開之砲咾攻破城頭 k’é tsz p’au‘ lau kóng p’ú‘ zung deu, {he made a breach in the wall by firing cannon}. 勿留心咾忘記脱者 veh lieu sing lau mong‘ ki‘ t’eh ’tsé, {though not attending to it, I have forgotten it}.

Obs. Some verbs are found among substantives and adjectives too. 孝 h’iau‘ is a substantive in 百善孝爲先 puh ’zé{n} h’iau‘ {w}é‘ síe{n}, {of all the virtues, filial piety is the chief}; an adjective in 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, {a filial son}, and a verb in 孝順父母 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, {to reverence parents}. In the books such variations of grammatical character in the same words are very numerous. In the verse 庶民子來 sû ming ’tsz lé, {all the people came as if they were his sons}, 子 ’tsz is used adverbially.

{Verb as Adjective}. 343. The passive gerund of Latin is related to adjectives as the active gerund is to substantives. The corresponding forms in our dialect are compounds which may be translated either as adjectives or passive gerunds.

可惡 ’k’ó ú‘, {to be hated}, or {hateful}. 可殺 ’k’ó sah, {ought to be killed}. 好笑 ’hau siau‘, {laughable, fit to be laughed at}. 好種个 ’hau tsóng‘ kú‘, {capable of cultivation}.

Obs. The examples given In Art. 246, as in the {permissive} mood, might also be explained as verbs construed as adjectives.

344. Many of the longer verb groups are translated most conveniently as verbal adjectives.

耐勿過 né‘ veh kú‘, {unbearable}. 話勿來 {w}ó‘ veh lé, {unutterable}. 數勿明白 sú‘ veh ming báh, {incalculable}.

Obs. i. For a classification of these phrases v. Art. 227.

Obs. ii. Adjectives coming after verbs, with 得 tuh and 來 lé are best translated as adverbs; 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, {it is done badly}；

寫來通極 ’siá lé t’ong giuh, {it is written exactly to the purpose}; 燕子飛起來頂快 ’íen ’tsz fí ’k’í lé ’ting k’wá‘, {the swallow flies very swiftly}; 幅子戴得齊整 mau‘ ’tsz tá‘ tuh zí tsung‘, {he wears his hat properly}.

345. Many verbs are used as prepositions. They are 從 zóng, 由 {y}eu, 到 tau‘, 連 líe{n}, 朝 zau, 望 mong‘, 對 té‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’{h}au. Examples of both uses are given.

由儂末哉 {y}eu nóng‘ meh tsé‘, {it will be as you decide}. 由那裏一條路 {y}eu ’{á} ’lí ih diau lú‘, {by which way?} 字眼要連下來 zz‘ ’nga{n} yau‘ líe{n} ’{a}u lé, {words and expressions should be connected}. 紙頭連筆全勿有 ’tsz deu líe{n} pih dzé{n} veh ’{y}eu, {paper and pencil are both wanting}.

{Adverb as Substantive}. 346. Adverbs of time and place precede substantives with 個 kú‘, just as one substantive precedes another.

此地個百姓 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ pák sing‘, {people of this place}. 什蓋能個人 {s}eh ké‘ nung kú‘ niun, {people of that sort}. 明朝個事體測度勿出 ming tsau kú‘ zz‘ ’t’i t’suh doh veh t’seh, {the things of to-morrow cannot be known by thinking}.

Obs.先 síe{n}, is an adverb in síe{n} yau‘ ’tsung ’tung ’hau, 先要整頓 好, {you must first make preparations}, and an adjective in 出世最先 t’seh sz‘ tsûe‘ síe{n}, {he was born very early}.

347. When the adverbs take case particles, they must be regarded as substantives.

轎子拉前頭 {k}iau‘ ’tsz ’lá zíe{n} deu, {the chair is before}.

{Adverb as Adjective}. 348. The derivative adverbs like the pure adjectives, form the predicate of a proposition.

人是好好能個 niun ’zz ’hau ’hau nung kú‘, {the man is good}.

Or they qualify substantives.

做私底下個事體 tsú‘ sz ’tí ’{á}u kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {to do underhand things}.

{Adjective as Adverb}. 349. Some adjectives precede verbs, and must in such cases be regarded as adverbs.

多話兩句 tú {w}ó‘ ’liáng kü‘, {say a few sentences more}. 好聽來些 ’hau t’ing lé, {very pleasant to hear}. 酒要少吃 ’tsieu yau‘ ’sau k’iuk, {drink sparingly of wine}. 好走進去 ’hau ’tseu tsing‘ k’í‘, {you are quite at liberty to enter}.

Obs. 前 zíe{n} is an adjective in 前門 zíe{n} mun, {the front door}; a post-position in 門前 mun zíe{n}, {before the door}: and an adverb in 前兩日 zíe{n} ’liáng nyih, {a few days ago}: 大 is usually an adjective, but in 大兩樣個 {t}ú‘ ’liáng {y}áng‘ kú‘, {very different} and in 勿大哩 興 veh dá‘ ’lí h’iung‘, {not very crowded}, it is an adverb.

{Postposition as Adjective}. 350. When the locative case particles 外 ngá‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’{h}au, 前 zíe{n}, 後 ’{h}eu, precede their words, they are adjectives. When they follow them, they are postpositions.

外國 ngá‘ kóh, {foreign nations}. 城外 zung ngá‘, {outside the city}. 下手 ’{h}au ’seu, {an under workman}. 手下 ’seu ’{a}u, 手底下 ’seu ’tí ’{a}u, {another’s authority}. 後門 ’{h}eu mun, {back door}. 飯後 va{n}‘ ’{h}eu, {after breakfast}.

Obs. The words for north, south, east and west, are employed in the same manner, and may be regarded as postpositions. 北斗星 póh ’teu sing, {north star}; 江北 kong póh, {north of the river}; 浦東 p’u‘ tóng, {east of the Hwáng-p’ú river}. In the last two examples, 北 and 東 may be considered locative case particles.

{Substantive as Adjective}. 351. When one substantive qualifies another, it may be regarded as an adjective.

窵籠 ’tiau lóng, {bird-cage}. 牛棚 nieu báng, {cow shed}. 花園 hwó {y}ö{n}, {flower garden}. 玻璃窻 pú lí t’song, {glass window}. (See Art. 174).

{Section} 3. {Government of words in groups or combinations}.

{Inseparable groups}. 352. In the closest kind of combinations, when words of different parts of speech form a dissyllabic word, one of them loses its proper grammatical validity by becoming a syllabic appendage to the other.

{a}. Thus, 交 kiau, {to join}, in the noun 交界 kiau ká‘, {a boundary}, has not the property of governing a substantive, that belongs to it in 相交朋友總要實際 siáng kiau báng ’{y}eu ’tsong yau‘ zeh tsí‘, {in treating friends you must be true}. So also other verbs, as—

應 {y}ung‘, {to correspond}, in 應騐 {y}ung‘ níe{n}‘, {agreement with prediction}. (Sometimes also {to agree, etc}.) 容 {y}úng, {to allow}, in 容易꜄ {y}úng {í}‘, {easy}. 過 kú‘, {to pass}, in 過失 kú‘ seh, {a fault} (cf. {trans}gression).

{b}. In the same manner 功 kóng, {work}, 形 {y}ung, {form}, and 氣 k’í‘, {anger}, in the following examples are not nouns, since they are neither in the nominative or accusative, or any other case. They simply add their primitive sense to the verbs they assist to form.

勿會成功太平 veh {w}é‘ zung kóng t’á‘ bing, {he cannot establish peace}. 形容出來 {y}ung {y}óng t’seh lé, {bring into visible form}. 有啥要動氣我 ’{y}eu sá‘ yau‘ ’dóng k’í ’ngú, why are you angry with me?

{c}. Similarly, adjectives in composition, while retaining their etymological sense, lose their individuality, and cease to qualify substantives, or to form a predicate to a subject.

討一個大娘子 ’t’au ih kú‘ dú‘ niáng ’tsz, {to take a wife}. 燒小菜 sau ’siau t’sé‘, {to cook vegetables}. 定牢個生意 {t}ing‘ lau kú‘ ’tsû í‘, {to fix one’s determination}. 保全萬物 ’pau dzíe{n} va{n}‘ veh, {to preserve all things}.

Obs. In the first example 大 {great} is prefixed to the word for {wife}, independently of any second wife, and is usually equivalent to niáng ’tsz. In the third 牢 {firm} is joined with 定 {t}ing‘, and the two words together govern the following substantive.

353. So in larger groups, when words of different parts of speech combine, the predominant character of the group is communicated to words, which alone have quite another kind of force; e.g. if 針 tsun, {needle}; 線 síe{n}‘, {thread}; 情 zing, {feeling}, represent {actions} not {things} in the sentences—

女人認眞針線紡織 ’nü niun niung‘-tsun tsun-síe{n}‘-’fong-tsuh, {women diligently sew, spin and weave}. 甘心情願 ké{n} sing zing niö{n}‘, {ready for and wishing}.

354. When words combine to form a new compound term, different in sense from both of them, their grammatical validity is lost, and the new phrase is recognized in its entirety as a noun, verb, etc. according to its meaning. Thus, 引 ’{y}ung, to {lead}, and 線 síe{n}‘, {thread}, form the compound 引線 ’{y}ung síe{n}‘, {a needle}; 方 fong, {square}, and 便 {p}íe{n}‘ {convenient}, form 方便 fong bíe{n}‘, {alms}; 裁 dzé, {to cut with scissors} and 縫 vóng‘, {a seam}, form 裁縫 dzé vóng, {tailor}; 招 tsau, {to call}, and 軍 kiün, {an army}, form 招軍 tsau kiün, {a trumpet}.

開路先鋒 k’é lú‘ síe{n} fóng, {a herald}. 牢頭禁子 lau deu kiun‘ ’tsz, {jailor}. 地保 {t}í‘ ’pau, {village bailiff}. 代書 {t}é sû, {notary}.

355. Coordinate words having the same grammatical power, arranged in groups of from two to five or even more characters, form a numerous class. In regard to the laws of position, the whole group is treated as a single noun or verb, or adjective as the case may be. In the examples, a hyphen connects the coordinate words.

伊個行事, 全是仁義道德 í‘ kú‘ {h}áng-zz‘, dzé{n} ’zz zun-ní‘-’{d}au-tuh, {his actions are all based on benevolence, rectitude, reason and virtue}. 做親個時候, 夫妻兩個板要拜天地神明 tsú‘ t’sing kú‘ zz-k’í‘, fú-t’sí ’liáng kú‘ ’pa{n} yau‘ pá‘ t’íe{n}-dí‘-zun-ming, {at the time of marriage, the husband and wife must worship heaven, earth and the inferior deities}. 大細有啥事體, 爺娘要問醫卜星相要好勿要好 {t}ú‘ sí‘ ’{y}eu sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {y}á-niáng yau‘ mun‘ í-póh-sing-siáng‘ yau‘ ’hau veh yau‘ ’hau, {if there be anything that concerns their children, the parents will ask the doctor, the diviner, the astrologer, and the physiognomist, if all will be well}. 勿能用之器皿傢生, 測量伊個長闊高深 veh nung {y}úng‘ tsz k’í‘-’ming-ká-sáng, t’seh liáng, í‘ kú‘ dzang-k’weh-kau-sun, {you cannot by taking instruments measure its length, breadth, height and depth}. (four adj. here form one substantive, viz. {dimensions}.) 人勿好担兇來, 待之馬牛羊三樣中牲, 因備人用 niun veh ’hau ta{n} h’iúng lé, de‘ tsz ’mó-nieu-yáng sa{n} yáng‘ tsóng sáng, yung bé‘ niun {y}úng‘, {men ought not to be cruel in treating the three animals, horse, cow and sheep, because they are useful to man}. 人嘸啥事體個辰光, 担琴碁書畫來, 消悶過日 niun {m} sá‘ zz‘ ’tí kú‘ zun kwong, ta{n}‘ giun-gí-sû-{w}ó‘ lé‘ siau mun‘ kó‘ nyih, {when men have nothing to do, they take to the harp, chess, writing and painting, to dissipate care and pass away the time}. 被褥鋪盖 {p}í‘-niók-p’ú-ké‘, {coverlid and mattrass, for bedding}. 鞋襪衣帽 {h}á-mah-í-mau‘, {shoes, stockings, clothes and hat}. 順從 zun‘-zóng, {to yield to and follow}. 等待 ’tung-dé‘, {wait for}. 骨頭指節 kweh-deu-tsz tsih, {bones, limbs and joints}. 廣大 ’kwong dú‘, {wide and great}. 牢硬 lau ngáng‘, {firm and hard}. 播揚奧妙個道理 pú‘-yáng au‘-miau‘ kú‘ ’{t}au-’lí, {to propagate mysterious and wonderful doctrines}.

356. Another numerous class of compounds consist of words, which, while helping to form a larger group, retain a grammatical relation to each other.

有一種爲非作歹個人 ’{y}eu ih ’tsóng {w}é-fí-tsok-’té kú‘ niun, {there is a sort of vicious mischief-making men}. 一眼嘸情嘸義個 ih ’nga{n} {m}-dzing-{m}-ní‘ kú‘, {quite destitute of feeling and principle}. 正管偷閑懶惰 tsung‘ ’kwé{n} t’eu {h}a{n} ’la{n} dú‘, {they do nothing but waste time and be lazy}. 認差之假佯頭發囘往心 niung‘ t’só tsz ’ká {y}á deu fah {w}é ’wong sing, {he was misled by his pretend change of mind}. 領之傳杯弄盞個朋友出去 ’ling tsz dzé{n} pé lóng‘ ’tsa{n} kú‘ {p}áng ’{y}eu t’seh k’í‘, {he led out his friends who were his drinking companions}. 嘸沒出典 {m} meh t’seh ’tíe{n}, {has on classical authority}.

Obs. i. 出 governs 典 {ancient books}, and the two words together form a substantive in the objective case, after the verb {m} meh. The whole is equivalent 勿上書本 veh ’zong sû ’pun, {it is not used in books}.

Obs. ii. In phrases of this sort, we have government within government. A transitive verb with its regimen, may form part of a group, which is an elongated adjective, qualifying the following noun. Compare in English, such phrases as “a luxurious, {do-nothing} life.”

Obs. iii. Verbs with their regimen are freely used as adjectives, and connected by means of 箇, with the following noun; e.g. 養蠶咾種茶葉個百 姓, 今年苦惱者 {y}áng‘ zé{n} lau tsóng‘ dzó {y}ih kú‘ pká síng‘, kiun níe{n} ’k’ú ’nau ’tsé, {the silk-worm breeders and tea cultivators will this year suffer greatly}. So also other combinations, 拉廣東做個 物事, 全是巧個 ’lá ’kwong tóng tsú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, dzé{n} ’zz ’k’iau kú‘, {things made at Canton are all ingeniously worked}.

357. In many cases, while there is a common grammatical character belonging to the whole group, only part of the constituent words give the {sense}. Thus in 苦楚 ’k’ú ’t’sú, {miserable}; 福氣 fók k’í‘, {happiness}; 恩典 un ’tíe{n}‘ {favour}; the second word in each has no influence on the sense. So also 相 in 相信 siáng sing‘, {to believe in}, does not in colloquial usage retain the sense of reciprocity. To give that idea, an adverb such as 大家 {t}á‘ ká, must be prefixed.

358. Some terms originally consist of two syllables, which are written separately, only because the Chinese mode of writing requires each character to be the sign of a monosyllable.

吩咐 fun fú, {to command}. 須張 sü tsáng,[1] {to nurse} (C). 叮囑 ting tsóh, {give directions}.

Obs. Such words as these are construed as verbs, just as if they were monosyllabic words.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Or 張羅 tsáng lú, {to nurse} (also c.) -----------------------------------------------------------------

{Separable groups}. 359. Those combinations that admit of the insertion of other words, so as to lengthen the group will now be illustrated.

{a}. Those that consist of two coordinate words, admit of a qualifying or governing term being applied to each word.

飛禽走獸 fí giun ’tseu seu‘, {birds and beasts}. 歡天喜地 hwé{n} t’íe{n} ’h’í dí‘, {exceedingly pleased}. 通文達理 t’óng vun ta ’lí, {thoroughly understand literary composition}. 心滿意足 sing ’mé{n} í‘ tsóh, {satisfied}. 咬牙切齒 ’ngau ngá t’sih ’t’sz, {grinding the teeth in pain}. 囘心轉意 {w}é sing ’tsé{n} í‘, {to change one’s mind}. 思前想後 sz zíe{n} ’siáng {h}eu‘, {thinks of the past and future}. 循規蹈矩 dzing kwé‘ dau‘ ’kü, {follow the rule of propriety}. 求神拜佛 {k}ieu zun pá‘ veh, {pray to spirits and worship Buddha}. 早思暮想 ’tsau sz mú‘ ’siáng, {meditate early and late}.

{b}. The groups formed by the numeral particles admit the insertion of adjectives and adjective phrases, between those particles and their substantives. Material nouns sometimes take their auxiliary after them.

一根長銅絲 ih kun dzáng dóng sz, {a long piece of brass wire}. 一片大鐵片 ih p’íe{n}‘ dú‘ t’ih p’íe{n}‘, {a large piece of iron}. 一隻會白話個鸚𪃿 ih tsáh {w}é‘ báh {w}ó‘ kú‘ áng kú, {a talking parrot}. 一根長竹頭 ih kun dzáng tsóh deu, {a long stick of bamboo}. 一隻花狗 ih tsáh hwó ’keu, {a spotted dog}. 一張厚紙 ih tsáng ’{h}eu ’tsz, {a thick sheet of paper}. 一張薄紙張 ih tsáng bóh ’tsz tsáng, {a thin piece of paper}. 一枝有鋒鋩個筆 ih tsz ’{y}eu fóng mong kú‘ pih, {a pencil that has a point}.

{c}. When a group consists of a transitive verb and its regimen (which sometimes answer to a single verb in English), auxiliary words come between the verb, and its object.

上之檔者 ’zong tsz tong‘ ’tsé, {he has been entrapped}. 專之權咾殺脱之皇帝者 tsé{n} tsz giö{n} lau sah t’eh tsz {w}ong tí‘ ’tsé, {relying on his influence, he killed the emperor}. 惹有見識個笑 ’zá ’{y}eu kíe{n}‘ suh kú‘ siau‘, {causing the laughter of those who are intelligent}. 叨儂光嗄 t’au nóng‘ kwong au, {I beg your favour} (light).

Obs. When a verb and adjective are combined, the tense particle follows the adjective; e.g. 繩放鬆之末好 zung fong‘ sóng tsz meh ’hau, {it would be better to slacken the rope}.

{d}. In the verb groups of direction and motion, the substantive governed is sometimes inserted after the principal verb, sometimes between the second and third auxiliaries when there are two, and sometimes it is placed at the end.

同壺滴水下來 {t}óng {ú} tih ’sz ’{a}u lé, {brazen urn dropping water}. 放轎子下來 fong‘ giau‘ ’tsz ’{a}u lé, {let the chair down}. 放我開來 fong‘ ’ngú k’é lé, {let me go}. 赶兵出去 kû{n} ping t’seh k’í‘, {drive out soldiers}. 挑担出來 t’iau ta{n} t’seh lé, {carry out a load}. 打馬前去 ’táng ’mó zíe{n} k’í‘, {drive a horse forward}. 併傢生攏來 ’ping ká sáng ’lóng lé, {collect domestic articles}. 再活別人轉來 tsé‘ {w}eh bih niun ’tsé{n} lé, {call a man to life again}. 轉水進去 ’tsé{n} ’sz tsing‘ k’í‘, {pour in water}. 殺進城來 sah tsing‘ zung lé, {enter the city fighting}. 赶出狗來 kû{n} t’seh ’keu lé, {drive out dogs}. 担出衣裳來 ta{n} t’seh í zong lé, {bring clothes out}. 反轉手來 ’fa{n} ’tsé{n} ’seu lé, {turn one’s hand over}. 旋轉盤來 zíe{n}‘ ’tsé{n} bé{n} lé, {turn the tray round}. 撐開船來 t’sáng ké‘ zé{n} lé, {pole the boat away}. 推開窻來 t’é k’é t’song lé, {push the window open}. 行起風來 {h}áng ’k’í fóng le, {take the wind to work the boat}. 擎起刀來 {k}iung ’k’í tau lé, {lift up a knife}. 放起炮來 fong‘ ’k’í p’au‘ lé, {commence firing cannon}.

Obs. Rarely the nominative is placed after the verb it governs, 走人下來 ’tseu niun ’{a}u lé, {men are coming down}; 吹風進去 t’sz fóng tsing‘ k’i‘, {wind blows in}.

{e}. Negative verb groups sometimes admit of an adverb qualifying the principal verb, and coming immediately after it.

認大勿出 niun‘ dá‘ veh t’seh, {I scarcely recognize him.} 話大勿來 {w}ó‘ dá‘ veh lé, {I cannot well talk}. 看大勿見 k’ö{n}‘ dá‘ veh kíe{n}‘, {I can scarcely see it}. 吃大勿落 k’iuh dá‘ veh loh, {I cannot well eat}.

{f}. Verb groups with the affirmative and negative particles, also admit the objective case after the principal verb.

呌伊勿出 kiau‘ í veh t’seh, {I do not know its name}. 甩伊勿開 hwah í veh k’é, {I cannot throw him off}. 拔伊勿起 {p}ah í veh ’k’í, {I cannot pull it up}.

Obs. In many cases, the object comes after the whole group; e.g. 當勿 住大兵 tong veh dzû‘ dá‘ ping, {he cannot resist the great army}; 做勿動 生活 tsú‘ veh ’dóng sáng {w}eh, {I cannot do any work}.

{g}. Repeated verbs with the tentative 看 k’ö{n}‘, take their accusative case before 看 k’ö{n}‘.

問問伊看 mun‘ mun‘ í k’ö{n}‘, ask him and see. 做做文章看 tsú‘ tsú‘ vun tsáng k’ö{n}‘, {write an essay as a specimen}.

{Section} 4. {On Repetition}.

360. The repetition of words frequently affects the grammatical sense of the words repeated. At other times it is mere tautology adopted for rhythmical reasons, or for the purpose of emphasis as in English. Cases in which the repeating of a word has a grammatical value, will be first considered.

Appellative and relative substantives, when repeated, are translated by {all} or {every}.

人人算日頭, 無價之寶 niun niun sö{n}‘ nyih deu, vú ká‘ tsz ’pau, {all men feel that the sun is inestimably precious}. 處處反亂 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’fan lö{n}‘, {rebellion and disturbance everywhere}. 君君臣臣 kiun kiun zun zun, {all princes and magistrates}. 樹樹有皮, 人人有面 zû‘ zû‘ ’{y}eu bí, niun niun ’{y}eu míe{n}‘, {trees all have bark, and men all have faces}.

361. The numeral particles are all repeated, thereby giving the sense of {all} and {every} to their substantives. Subdivisions of time, and space, measures of material nouns, etc. are also repeated in the same sense.

店家家關者 tíe{n}‘ ká ká kwa{n} ’tsé, {the shops are all shut}. 門扇扇鎖好拉 mun sé{n}‘ sé{n}‘ ’sú ’hau ’lá, {the doors are all locked}. 羊隻隻要修 {y}áng tsáh tsáh yau‘ sieu, {the sheep all need to be shorn.} 城裏向舖舖有小甲 zung ’lí h’iáng‘ p’ú‘ p’ú‘ ’{y}eu ’siau kah, {in the city every ward has a bailiff}. 天天好日頭 t’íe{n} t’íe{n} ’hau nyih deu, {the sun shines every day}. 物事斤斤缺少 meh zz‘ kiun kiun k’iöh ’sau, {each catty of articles is short}. 把把刀磨快末者 pó pó tau mú k’wá‘ meh ’tsé, {grind all the knives}. 間間房子坍脱者 ka{n} ka{n} vong ’tsz t’a{n} t’eh ’tsé, {every house is fallen}. 今年菓子種種勿好 kiun níe{n} ’kú ’tsz ’tsóng ’tsóng veh ’hau, {this year all kinds of fruits have failed}. 姊妹雙雙出來 tsí mé‘ song song t’seh lé, {the elder and younger sisters are come out in pairs}. 寫字個法則是筆筆中鋒 ’siá zz‘ kú‘ fah tsuh pih pih tsóng fóng, {the method of writing is for each stroke to be made with the point of the pencil}. 條條大路 {t}iau diau dá‘ lú‘, {they are all great roads}. 句句眞話 kü‘ kü‘ tsun {w}ó‘, {every sentence is truth}.

Obs. i. The difference between full appellative or other nouns, and the auxiliary nouns that define time, space, quantity, and form, is here again prominently brought to view. Duplication serves to show where the two classes of terms border on each other. Thus, 街 ká, {a street} is not repeated; the form being, such as 街路條條沒滿之一寸高血 ká lú‘ diau diau meh ’mé{n} tsz ih t’sun‘ kau h’iöh, {the streets were all covered with blood an inch high}. 衖 long‘, {a lane}, on the other hand is treated as a subdivision in space, and takes no numeral particle; e.g. 衖衖有十外家人家 lóng‘ lóng‘ {y}eu {s}eh ngá ká niun ká, {in every lane there are ten families or more}.

Obs. ii. It has been shown in the section on adverbs, that substantives of time when doubled are used in the sense {always}. This is an instance in agreement with the broader principle, that all names of subdivisions and auxiliary numeral particles are repeated, and that the repetition implies universality.

362. Adjectives are sometimes repeated before a substantive, but much more frequently when placed as predicate after it. No addition is thereby made to the sense.

做生活個人勞勞碌碌 tsú‘ sáng {w}eh kú‘ niun lau lau lóh lóh, {the workmen are tired}. 好好物事 ’hau ’hau meh zz‘, {a good article}. 小小個一圓鐵蛋 ’siau ’siau kú‘ ih {y}ön t’ih da{n}‘, {a small iron shot}. 多多百姓 tú tú pák sing‘, {very many people}. 花卉妖妖嬈嬈 hwó ’hwé yau yau zau zau, {the flowers are very beautiful}. 樹林密密層層 zû‘ ling mih mih zung zung, {the wood is crowded with trees}. 山頭玲玲瓏瓏 sa{n} deu ling ling lóng lóng, {the hill is picturesque}. 若惆惆 ’k’ú tseu tseu, {unhappy}. 聽見之書聲朗朗 t’ing kíe{n}‘ tsz sû sung long‘ long‘, {we heard the sound of reading pleasant and clear}. 眼淚汪汪 ’nga{n} lí‘ wong wong, {tears flowing abundantly}. 火星燄燄 ’hú sing {y}a{n}‘ {y}a{n}‘, {the sparks are very bright}. 十指尖尖 {s}eh ’tsz tsíe{n} tsíe{n}, {ten sharp-pointed fingers}.

363. When doubled, adjectives follow verbs they are translated as adverbs.

物事安排舒舒徐徐個 meh zz‘ ö{n} bá sû sû zí zí kú‘, {the things were placed in admirable order}. 做來潦潦草草 tsú‘ lé lau lau t’sau‘ t’sau‘, {it is done in a coarse way}.

Obs. It has been shown that repeated adjectives placed before verbs qualify them like adverbs. We have also 攏攏總總有一百 ’lóng ’lóng tsóng‘ tsóng‘ ’{y}eu ih páh, {altogether there are a hundred}. The primitive adverbs are not repeated.

364. Several relative substantives are repeated without any alteration in the sense.

叔叔 sóh sóh, {uncle}. 嫂嫂 ’sau sau‘, {sister-in-law}. 爹爹 tiá tiá, {father}. 第第 ’{t}í ’dí, {younger brother}. 姊姊 ’tsí tsí‘, {sister} (ah tsí, {idem}). 妹妹 mí‘ mí‘, {younger sister} (mé‘ mé‘). 媽媽 má má, {mother} (or ah má). 哥哥 kú kú, {elder brother} (ah kú, ib.). 弟弟 {t}í‘ dí‘, {younger brother} (hiúng dí‘).

365. When verbs are repeated, it is for rhythmical reasons, and for the sake of alliteration. In addition to the examples given in Art. 231, the following will serve to exhibit the use of these seeming tautologies.

{a}. Single verbs are repeated with or without a regimen.

要買點飯吃吃 yau‘ ’má ’tíe{n} va{n}‘ k’iuh k’iuh, {I wish to buy a little rice to eat}. 我不過澆澆花咾, 修修丫枝 ’ngú peh kú‘ kiau kiau hwó lau, sieu sieu au tsz, {I am just watering the flowers, and pruning the branches of the trees}.

{b}. In a verb group of two, the second word is often repeated.

孛相相 {p}eh siáng‘ siáng‘, {rambling for amusement}. 笑嘻嘻 siau‘ h’í h’í, {laughing}. 魚拉水裏活動動 ng ’lá ’sz ’lí {w}eh ’dóng ’dóng, {the fish are swimming actively in the water}. 遊嬉嬉咾, 勿肯用必 yeu h’í h’í lau, veh ’k’ung {y}úng‘ sing, {he rambles about amusing himself, and will not attend to anything}. 哭漓漓 k’óh lí lí, {he is weeping}.

{c}. Many groups of four contain a single repeated verb.

打敗之咾紛紛各散 ’táng bá‘ tsz lau fun fun koh sa{n}‘, {being conquered, they divided and were all scattered}. 打贏之咾歸來得意揚揚 ’tang {y}ung tsz lau kü lé tuh í‘ {y}áng {y}áng, {having conquered, he came back satisfied and elated}. 衣袂飄飄 í mé‘ p’iau p’iau, {the shirts of clothes blowing about}. 星光閃閃 sing kwong sé{n}‘ sé{n}‘, {the star-light twinkles}. 枝葉洽洽 tsz ih {y}ah {y}ah, {the branches and leaves are waving}.

{d}. Many verb groups of two are extended by the repetition of each word.

事體定定當當 zz‘ t’í {t}ing‘ ding‘ tong‘ tong‘, {the thing is brought to a settlement}. 勿必疑疑惑惑 veh pih ní ní {ó}h {ó}h, {you need not suspect}. 牙齒活活落落 ngá ’t’sz {w}eh {w}eh loh loh, {his teeth are shaking and falling out}. 走𨅓跎之咾興興夯夯 ’tseu sá dú tsz lau h’iung h’iung hong hong, {he has walked himself tired and is panting for breath}. 碗盞相碰响咾歴歴碌碌 ’wé{n} ’tsa{n} siáng báng‘ ’h’iáng lau líh líh lóh lóh, {the cups and saucers are falling together and making a noise}.

{e}. Frequently in repeated groups of four, the constituent words alternate.

打算打算也勿對景 ’táng sö{n}‘ ’táng sö{n}‘ ’{á} veh té‘ ’kiung, {with all his meditating, he cannot satisfy himself}. 留步留歩勿要送者 lieu bú‘ lieu bú‘ veh yau‘ sóng‘ ’tsé, {stay, stay, do not escort me out}. 物事好吃有味有味 meh zz‘ ’hau k’iuh ’{y}eu mí‘ ’{y}eu mí‘, {this thing is very nice, it has a fine taste}.

{f}. The verb is repeated alternately with two accusatives.

總要勞心勞力 ’tsóng yau‘ lau sing lau lih, {you must use your mind and all your efforts}. 年成好者謝天謝地 níe{n} zung ’hau ’tsé ziá‘ t’íe{n} ziá‘ dí‘, {it is a good year, and we must thank heaven and earth for it}. 爲皇爲帝 {w}é {w}ong {w}é tí‘, {to be an emperor}. 做官做府 tsú‘ kwé{n} tsú‘ ’fú, {to be a mandarin}.

366. With regard to their syntax, groups consisting of repetitions frequently form separate clauses of a sentence, but not exclusively so. They also like other groups, obey the laws of position of section 1. in relation to neighbouring words, and in their internal structure, and are construed as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs according to their particular character and use as a whole.

{a}. As adjective, whether forming a predicate or in apposition.

做一個人總要正正派派 tsu‘ ih kú‘ niun ’tsóng yau‘ tsung‘ tsung‘ p’á‘ p’á‘, {as a man, you must be correct in conduct}. 人住勒拉花花世界, 大有福氣拉 niun dzû‘ leh ’lá hwó hwó sz‘ kú‘, dú‘ ’{y}eu fok kí‘ ’lá, {man living in a beautiful world, has great happiness}.

{b}. As verb.

看看許多人跟拉 k’ö{n}‘ k’ö{n}‘ tú hau‘ niun kun ’lá, {see there is a great number of persons following}.

{c}. As verb.

逃走脱者就快快活活接到船上 {t}au ’tseu t’eh ’tsé dzieu‘ k’á‘ k’á‘ {w}eh {w}eh tsih tau‘ zé{n} long‘, {when he had escaped, they gladly received him to the boat}. 明明亮亮收受徒弟 ming ming liáng‘ liáng‘ seu ’zeu dú dí‘, {they openly received disciples}. 詳詳細細考究實骨子那能個 ziáng ziáng sí‘ sí‘ ’k’au kieu‘ zeh kweh ’tsz ná‘ nung kú‘, {carefully examine how it truly is}.

Obs. Groups of four, whether formed by repeated words or not, very commonly fall into separate clauses; e.g. 文理嘸啥好草草不工 vun ’lí {m} sá‘ ’hau, ’t’sau ’t’sau peh kóng, {it is not at all well written, but coarse and unpolished}.

{Section} 5. {Order in groups}.

367. There are various principles of arrangement in the words of a group. A group of four (1) may contain in itself an entire sentence; e.g. 懂呢勿懂 ’tóng ní veh ’tóng, {do you understand?} (2) or it may consist of verbs and their regimen, nouns and their adjectives, or other combinations of the parts of speech; e.g. 伸冤理枉 sun yö{n} ’lí ’wong, {to redress injuries}. (3) Repetition direct and alternate, forms many short phrases into longer groups, (4.) The principle of arrangement in many groups is, the order of nature, species being placed before genus, and the whole before its parts. (5.) The constituent words may be coordinate in meaning, and alike in grammatical character.

In addition to these varieties of structure, there are also mixed groups in which repetition for instance forms one part, and words combined grammatically, another; e.g. 念念不忘 nia{n}‘ nia{n}‘ peh vong, {think of constantly}.

368. Complete sentences are here placed with the other groups, because they fall into regular forms, and obey the laws of rhythm in a manner similar the fixed phrases of two, three, four or more words here referred to. Hence the predominance of short pithy sentences in common conversation.

有啥勿懂 ’{y}eu sá‘ veh ’tong, {why should I not understand?} 勿曾曉得 veh zung ’h’iau tuh, {I do not know}. 洋價大者 {y}áng ká‘ dú‘ ’tsé, {the price of the dollar is high}. 那能辦法 ná‘ nung‘ {p}a{n}‘ fah, {how should we proceed?} 要好就好 yau‘ ’hau dzieu‘ ’hau, {if you want it good, it is at once good}.

Obs. The order of the words in these phrases is regulated by the rules of Part III, section 1, and the sections on propositions.

369. Many groups have an internal syntactical arrangement, and they are so numerous, that although some examples have already been given, more will here appended. They may be divided into (a), those in which there is a repetition of the idea, and (b) where there is none.

嘴尖舌快 ’tsz tsíe{n} zeh k’wá‘, {sharp lips and tongue}. 靑天白日 t’sing t’íe{n} bah nyih, {clear sky and bright sun}. 忘恩負義 vong un veu‘ ní‘, {forget kindness}. 欺天瞞地 k’í t’íe{n} mé{n} dí‘, {deceive heaven and earth}. 東倒西歪 tóng ’tau sí hwá, {all is in disorder}. 話長話短 {w}ó‘ dzáng {w}ó‘ ’tö{n}, {very loquacious}. 搬嘴弄舌 pé{n} ’tsz lóng‘ zeh, {fond of using the tongue}. 呑飢忍餓 t’un kí ’niun ngú‘, {to endure hunger}. 人面獸心 niun míe{n}‘ seu‘ sing, {in face a man, but in heart a wild beast}. 苦口良言 ’k’ú ’k’eu líang {í}e{n}, {advice bitter but salutary}. 山珍海味 sa{n} tsun ’hé mí‘, {delicacies from the mountain and the sea}. 指東話西 ’tsz tóng {w}ó‘ sí, {advising this and then that}. 藏頭露尾 dzong deu lú‘ ’ví, {act contrary to propriety}. 喜富怕窮 ’h’í fú‘ p’ó‘ gióng, {pleased with riches but fearing poverty}. 損人利己 ’sun niun lí‘ ’kí, {rob others to enrich one’s-self}. 呼兄喊第 hú h’iúng ha{n}‘ dí‘, {to call brothers}. 或三或四 {w}oh sa{n} {w}óh sz‘, {sometimes this and sometimes that}. 引經據典 ’{y}ung kiung kü‘ ’tíe{n}, {to cite books and appeal to the classics}. 吹哥唱曲 t’sz kú t’song‘ k’ióh, {to play airs and sing songs}.

370. Passing over repetition groups, as already sufficiently illustrated, some examples will be given of those in which several words coordinate in sense are placed in proximity. In many instances such words as express relative superiority stand first.

風雲雷雨 fóng {y}ün lé ’{ü}, {wind, clouds, thunder and rain}. 雨雪霜露 ’{ü} sih song lú‘, {rain, snow, hail and dew}. 賢良方正 {h}íen liáng fong tsung‘, {the wise, good, noble and upright}. 柴米油鹽 zá ’mí {y}eu {í}e{n}, {fuel, rice, oil and salt}. 荳穀米麥 {t}eu‘ kóh ’mí máh, {beans, rice and wheat}. 始終本末 ’sz tsóng ’pun meh, {beginning and end, origin and conclusion}. 牛羊犬馬 nieu, {y}áng, ’k’iö{n}, ’mó, {cattle, sleep, dogs and horses}. 君親師友 kiün t’sing sz ’{y}eu, {king, parents, teacher and friends}. 磚瓦石灰 tsé{n} ’ngó záh hwé, {bricks, tiles and lime}. 禽獸昆蟲 {k}iun seu‘ k’wun dzóng, {birds, beasts and insects}. 瓶甏罐頭 {p}ing báng kwé{n} deu, {pitchers, pots and pans}. 耳目口鼻 ’rh móh ’k’eu bih, {ear eyes, mouth and nose}. 魚鳞蝦蟹 ng ling hö{n} ’há, {fish, crabs and shrimps}. 金銀銅錫 kiun niun dóng t’ih sih, {gold, copper, copper, iron and tin}. 解釋 ’ká seh, {explain}. 審斷 ’sun tö{n}‘, {to judge}. 離散 lí sa{n}‘, {to be scattered}. 偷竊 t’eu t’sih, {to steal}. 圓滿 {y}ö{n} ’mé{n}, {round & full}. 端方 tö{n} fong, {upright}. 紡織 ’fong tsuh, {spinning and weaving}.

Obs. On presenting these examples to a Fuh-kien literary man, it was found that half of the groups were in use in his dialect; of the remainder, more than half were partially the same with collocations familiar to him, while the rest were entirely different.

371. Species invariably precedes genus, and matter form, in groups formed of words thus related.

筆筒好插個 pih dóng ’hau t’sah kú‘, {you can stick it in the pencil holder}. 嘸沒筆帽子 {m} meh pih mau ’tsz, {there is no top-case to the pencil}. 蚊帳破個 mun tsáng, p’ú‘ kú‘, {the mosquito curtain is torn}. 扇骨綠漆個 sé{n}‘ kweh lók t’sih kú‘, {the frame of the fan is painted green}. 鐵店裏打拉個 t’ih tíe{n}‘ lí ’táng ’lá kú‘, {it was made in the blacksmith’s shop}. 石馬 {s}áh ’mó, {stone horse}. 蒲扇 {p}ú sé{n}‘, {broad-leaf fans}. 砂皮 só bí, {sand paper}. 瓦粒屑 ’ngó lih sih, {earthenware fragments}.

Obs. i. Substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part. This is sometimes the same with the proposition immediately above, {genus} being only such part of {species} as happens to belong commonly to several objects. We may fix our attention on either word in the compound indifferently, considering it as the {essence}, while the other is the {accident}. Thus, 屋基 óh kí, {foundation of a house}; 屋頂 hó ’ting, {house roof}, are parts of the appellative substantive {house}. So, if speaking of the articles into which bamboo is manufactured, the second word in 竹牌 tsóh bá, {piece of flattened bamboo}; 竹簾 tsóh líe{n}, {bamboo window-blinds}; 竹紙 tsóh ’tsz, {bamboo paper}, is in each case that which expresses {form}, while the first describes the {material}.

The latter may be viewed as accidental to the former, or if preferred, the second word may called {genus}, while the first is considered as limiting it to a particular {species}.

Obs. ii. In conformity with the principle, that the word in which the substance of the noun inheres should stand first, the auxiliary appendages 頭 deu, 子 ’tsz, 處 t’sû‘, 法 fah follow their words; e.g. 飯嘸尋處 va{n}‘ {m} zing t’sû‘, {there is no way of getting a living}; 寫法總有個 ’siá fah ’tsóng ’{y}eu kú‘, {there must be some mode of writing it}.

Obs. iii. The auxiliary substantives and numeral particles appropriated to particular nouns, when they follow their words without a numeral, exemplify the same law; e.g. 白話裏向勿要加出多許書句 {p}áh {w}ó‘ ’lí h’iáng‘ veh yau‘ ká t’seh tú hau‘ sû kü‘, {do not mingle so many book sentences in what you say}.

Obs. iv. In double substantives formed partly with a verb, the verb as giving the species stands first; e.g. 算盤 sö{n}‘ bé{n}, {counting board}; 印板 yun‘ ’pa{n}, {printing blocks}; 話柄 {w}ó ping‘, {a bon mot} (See Art. 113.).

Obs. v. Many inseparable dissyllabic substantives, in which the distinction of matter and form is not obvious in their daily use, if viewed etymologically may be noticed to have the same order; e.g. 文章 vun tsáng, {literary compositions}; 地方 {t}í‘ fong, {a place}. The word giving the matter stands in each case first.

372. If the action be gradual in a compound verb, the word first in time is first in order. The word that concludes the action comes last.

担來銷化 ta{n} lé siau hwó‘, {to take and burn}. 燈點完者 tung ’tíe{n} {w}é{n} ’tsé, {the lamp is burnt out}. 撥拉賊匪打輸 peh ’lá zuh fí‘ ’táng sû, {he was defeated by the rebels}.

Obs. i. Most of the auxiliary particles occurring in compound verbs follow the principal word; v. Art. 217, 222, but 打 ’táng, and such adverbs as help to form compound verbs precede the principal words; e.g. 打緝打緝看 ’táng t’sih ’táng t’sih k’ö{n}‘, {make inquiries}.

Obs. ii. The auxiliary verbs of {power}, forming a potential mode, precede their verbs. 勿會白話 veh {w}é‘ báh {w}ó‘, {he cannot talk}; 勿能去 veh nung k’í‘, {he cannot go}. In English, there are also auxiliaries of this kind preceding other verbs in apposition, without the sign of the infinitive intervening; e.g. {may, can}.

{Variation in Order}. 373. The components of some groups admit of more than one mode of arrangement. The following may be used in a direct or inverted order.

來往 lé ’wong, {communication}. 氣力 k’í‘ lih, {strength}. 笑談 siau‘ da{n}, {laughing and talking}. 征戰 tsung tsé{n}‘ {to fight}. 週身上下 tseu sun ’zong ’{a}u, {the whole body} (or 下上). 歡喜 hwe{n} ’h’í, {pleased}. 勿論損益 veh lun‘ ’sun yuh, {without regarding whether it be injurious or beneficial}. 小大 ’siao dú‘, {small, great}. 黑白 huh, báh, {black, white}. 南北東西 né{n} póh tóng sí, {south, north, east and west}. 靈魂 ling {w}ung, {the soul}. 彎轉 wa{n} ’tsé{n}, {to turn around}. 長短 dzáng ’tö{n}, {long and short}.

Obs. The number of groups variable in order, is comparatively extremely small. The number of cases in English, where one particular order of coordinate words is maintained, is by no means small; e.g. {long and happy reign; far and near; kings and queens}.

374. The following principles of arrangement may be distinguished in the apposition of verbs.

{a}. The auxiliaries of the future tense, and the imperative and potential moods precede their verb. 要 yau‘, 會 {w}é‘, 能 nung.

總要去 ’tsóng yau‘ k’í‘, {you must go}. 我會寫 ’ngú {w}é‘ ’siá, {I can write}. 勿能來 veh nung lé, {he cannot come}. 勿要來 veh yau‘ lé, {I do not wish to come; or do not come}. 勿會話要來 veh zung {w}ó‘ yau‘ lé, {I did not say, I should come}. 儂也要來 nóng‘ ’{á} yau‘ lé, {you must come}.

{b}. When the object of a verb is an action, it is expressed by a verb in Chinese, instead of a verbal derivative, or infinitive, or gerund form, such as would be used in languages having grammatical forms.

勿免死 veh ’míe{n} ’sí, {cannot avoid dying}. 勿想吃 veh ’siáng k’iuh, {I do not think of eating}. 勿算逃走 veh sö{n}‘ dau ’tseu, {not to be regarded as flight}. 勿敢做 veh ’ké{n} tsú‘, {he does not dare do it}. 幾時想修 ’kí zz ’siáng sieu, {when do you think of reforming}. 打算謀反 ’táng sö{n}‘ meu ’fa{n}, {to meditate a revolt}. 愛吃酒 é‘ k’iuk ’tsieu, {to be fond of drinking wine}.

{c}. The auxiliary verbs expressive of direction and motion, beginning and completion, etc. follow the principal verb.

買進來 ’má tsing‘ lé, {to buy in}. 抱進抱出 ’{p}au tsing‘ ’{p}au t’seh, {to carry in and out in one’s arms}.

{d}. Priority in time often determines the order of verbs.

我去送 ’ngú k’í‘ sóng‘, {I will go and present it}. 要來相幫 yau‘ lé siáng pong, {you must come and assist}. 勸化世界上人 k’iö{n}‘ hwó‘ sz‘ ká‘ long‘ niung, {to exhort and convert mankind}. 打殺別人 ’táng sah bih niun, {to beat persons to death}.

{e}. Coordinate verbs.

保護𩻴寡孤獨 ’pau {ú}‘ kwa{n} kwó kú dóh, {to protect and save widows, orphans, and those who have no relatives}.

{Section} 6. {Simple Propositions}.

375. The simplest sentence is that in which there is a single word, forming the subject (主 ’tsû), and another the predicate (賓 ping). The subject always precedes.

馬來 ’mó lé, {a horse comes}. 天熱 t’íe{n} nyih, {the weather is hot}.

Obs. i. Occasionally the predicate precedes, 出會 t’seh {w}é‘, {the procession is out}; 落水 lok ’sz, {the tide is falling}. These forms may also be explained as impersonal verbs with an accusative.

Obs. ii. An adjective forms of itself a complete predicate, and usually has no copula to connect it with the preceding nominative. 桃子熟者 {t}au ’tsz zók ’tsé, {the peaches are ripe}.

376. The simple proposition in its full form has also a copula.

是吾作主 ’zz ngú tsok ’tsû, {I act for myself}. 海裏個水是深個 ’hé ’lí kú‘ ’sz ’zz sun kú‘, {the water of the sea is deep}. 天來得熱 t’íe{n} lé tuh nyih, {the weather is hot}.

Obs. When the predicate is a verb, the copula may be always considered as included in it. It is when the predicate is an adjective that a vacuum becomes obvious to a foreign ear.

377. The subject may consist of a substantive, or a substantive group, a pronoun, a verb or a verb group, or adverbs of place and time, construed as nouns.

日頭勿出來 nyih deu veh t’seh lé, {the sun does not come out}. 菴堂寺院秃有燒香 é{n} dong zz‘ {y}ö{n}‘ t’oh ’{y}eu ’sau h’iáng, {in all convents and monasteries there is incense burning}. 第個是好點個 {t}í‘ kú‘ ’zz ’hau ’tíe{n} kú‘, {this is better}. 買是勿能 ’má ’zz veh nung, {to buy is impossible}. 挑咾扛勿會個 t’iau lau kong veh {w}é‘ kú‘, {to act as porter alone or with others, is what I cannot do}. 此地有雪 ’t’sz dí‘ ’{y}eu sih, {it snows here}. 明朝初六 ming tsau t’sú lóh, {to-morrow is the sixth}.

Obs. i. Sometimes the subject is understood; e.g. 總要立定主意 ’tsóng yau‘ lih ding‘ ’tsû í‘, ({you}) {must be resolute}.

Obs. ii. Adjectives also sometimes form a predicate. 好有好報, ’hau ’{y}eu ’hau pau‘, {goodness has a good reward}; 善咾惡總要辨出來 ’zé{n} lau oh ’tsóng yau‘ bíe{n}‘ t’seh lé, {virtue and vice must be distinguished}.

Obs. iii. Any word that qualifies a noun may be removed from its place in apposition, and become a predicate. Thus, 第座房子是拉個 {t}í‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz ’zz ’lá kú‘, {this house is the right one}, may become, 是第座房子 ’zz dí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz, {it is this one}; 兩條橋有, ’liáng diau giau ’{y}eu, {there are two bridges}, or 橋有兩條 {k}iau ’{y}eu ’liáng diau, {of bridge there are two}.

378. When the copula is used, it takes the forms of 是 ’zz, 得 tuh, 來得 lé tuh, and 來 lé before adjective predicates, while 做 tsu‘, and in some groups 爲 {w}é‘ and 作 tsoh precede substantives.

道理是勿差個 ’{t}au ’lí ’zz veh t’só kú‘, {the doctrine, is right}. 心裏來得笨 sing ’lí lé tuh {p}un‘, {in mind he is stupid}. 我勿做兵 ’ngú veh tsú‘ ping, {I am not a soldier}. 我勿為官 ’ngú veh {w}é kwé{n} ’fú, {I am not a mandarin}. 寫來好看 ’siá lé ’hau k’ö{n}‘, {it is well written}. 寫得勿好 ’siá tuh veh ’hau, {it is written badly}.

Obs. Educated men appear to avoid the use of 來 lé, as a substitute for 得, but it is extremely common among the lower classes.

379. In the predicate are found, a substantive, adjective, verb, or adverb, or a group of either.

比我大個是阿哥 ’pí ’ngú dú‘ kú‘ ’zz á kú, {he who is older than I is called elder brother}. 赦免小過失好個 só‘ ’míe{n} ’siau kú‘ seh ’hau kú‘, {to forgive little faults readily is good}. 戲咾戲法咾啥勿看 h’í‘ lau h’í‘ fah lau sá‘ veh k’ö{n}‘, {plays, jugglery and such things, I do not go to see}. 價錢最大個是珍珠八寶 ká‘ díe{n} tsúe‘ dú‘ kú‘ ’zz tsun tsû pah ’pau, {things of the highest price are pearls and the eight precious stones}.

Obs. The final expletives are usually appended to the predicate. 說話 好個 seh {w}ó‘ ’hau kú‘, {your words are good}.

380. In very many sentences, the predicate is a transitive verb with an object, which in its simplest form is a substantive, monosyllabic or consisting of a group.

做好事就是周濟窮人 tsú‘ ’hau zz‘ dzieu‘ ’zz tseu tsí‘ gióng niun, {charity consists in giving to the poor}. 伊勿能辦事體 í veh nung {p}a{n}‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {he cannot transact business}. 有銅錢個人要吃燕窩咾魚翅, ’{y}eu dóng díe{n} kú‘ niun yau‘ k’iuh íe{n}‘ {ú} lau ng t’sz‘, {those who are rich eat birds’ nests and sharks’ fins}.

381. Great variety is introduced into sentences, without the addition of separate clauses, by applying qualifying words and groups to the parts just enumerated. Extension by the apposition of words, alike or contrasted in meaning, and in the same parts of speech, is also very common. The subject is extended:—

{a}. By prefixing an adjective.

聖人出世 sung‘ niun t’seh sz‘, {a wise man was born}. 窮苦個人多 {k}ióng ’k’ú kú‘ niun tú, {poor men are very many}. 好老個讀書人少 ’hau ’lau kú‘ {t}ók sû niun ’sau, {really good scholars are rare}.

{b}. By apposition of substantives with or without kú‘, whether in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute.

鄕下人告荒去者 h’iáng ’{a}u niun kau‘ hwong k’í‘ ’tsé, {the country people are gone to announce that there is a famine} (or 哭荒). 上輩個好處要講拉子孫聽 ’záng pé‘ kú‘ ’hau t’sû‘ yau‘ ’kong ’lá ’tsz sun t’ing, {the goodness of their forefathers, you should tell to their descendants}.

{c}. By a transitive infinitive with its objective case.

吃牛肉眞正罪過 k’iuh nieu nióh tsun tsung‘ ’zé kú‘, {to eat beef is an unquestionable sin}.

{d}. By the addition of nouns or verbs governed by case particles.

屋裏向嘸沒人 óh ’lí h’iáng‘ {m} meh niun, {there is no one at home}. 勒拉睏個辰光有賊偷之去者 leh ’lá k’wun‘ kú‘ zun kwong ’{y}eu zuh t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, {at the time of sleeping, thieves came and stole it}.

Obs. The so-called genitive with 個 kú‘, included under (b) as an instance of apposition. It is the attributive genitive, or possessive case of western grammars. The genitive sense is given by the relative position of the words, and not by the connecting particle kú‘ often omitted.

{e}. By prefixing numbers and numeral particles to substantives.

兩個女人投井者 ’liáng kú‘ ’nü niun deu ’tsing ’tsé, {two women have thrown themselves into wells}. 三隻廟燒毀完者 sa{n} tsáh miau‘ sau ’hwé {w}é{n} ’tsé, {three temples have been burnt to ashes}.

{f}. By prefixing demonstrative, possessive and other adjective pronouns to substantives.

是㑚個房屋勿穩足個 ’zz ná‘ kú‘ vong óh veh ’wun tsóh kú‘, {your house is not safe}. 第部牛車了脱者 {t}í‘ ’bú‘ nieu t’só ’liau t’eh ’tsé, {this chain pump is broken}. 各人個脾氣各樣個 koh niun kú‘ bí‘ k’í‘ koh {y}áng‘ kú‘, {each man has his own disposition}.

{g}. By prefixing adverbs of place or time with the sign of the possessive, or with no intervening particle. It might also be said, that these adverbs are here all treated as substantives.

此地個水清個 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ ’sz t’sing kú‘, {the water of this place is clear}. 蕩搭個人掉皮個 {t}ong tah kú‘ niun {t}iau‘ bí‘ kú‘, {the men of this place are not honest}. 間壁房子火灼 kah pih vong ’tsz ’hú dzáh, {the house next door is on fire}. 什蓋能個謠言拉城裏 {s}eh ké‘ nung kú‘ {y}au {í}e{n} ’lá zung ’lí, {there is a report of that sort in the city}. 現在個百姓勿比古時間 {í}e{n} ’zé kú‘ pák sing‘ veh ’pí ’kú zz ka{n}, {people of the present time are not to be compared to those of antiquity}.

382. Several of these adjuncts may concur in forming a subject.

外國梳頭個規矩又是一樣者 ngá‘ kóh sz deu kú‘ kwé ’kü {í}‘ ’zz ih {y}áng‘ ’tsé, {the foreign method of dressing the hair is different}. 孝順父母恭敬祖宗原是一樣個道理 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, kúng kiung‘ ’tsú tsóng, niön ’zz ih {y}áng‘ kú‘ ’{t}au ’lí, {filial regard to parents and reverencing ancestors are the same thing}.

383. The predicate is extended in a similar manner. It may assume the following forms.

{а}. Substantive with its adjective.

是其勿是正派人 ’zz gí veh ’zz tsung‘ p’á‘ niun, {he is not a man of good morals}. 一日到夜做正經事體 ih nyih tau‘ {y}á‘ tsú‘ tsung‘ kiung zz‘ ’t’í, {all day long he does what is lawful and right}.

{b}. Substantives in apposition, in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute, with or without 個 kú‘.

伊話個勿是上海話 í {w}ó‘ kú‘ veh ’zz ’zong ’hé {w}ó‘, {what he speaks is not the dialect of Shánghái}. 八月裏開個有桂花 pah niöh ’lí k’é kú‘ ’{y}eu kwé‘ hwó, {among the flowers that blossom in the eighth month is the olea fragrans}.

{c}. Verbs in apposition. Any verbs in English connected by {and}, {to} and {of} are translated by two corresponding verbs in apposition.

我要走前去做 ’ngú yau‘ ’tseu zíe{n} k’í‘ tsú‘, {I wish to go forward and do it}. 我勿想考 ’ngú veh ’siáng ’k’au, {I do not think of being examined}. 我勿來打儂 ’ngú veh lé ’táng nóng‘, {I do not come to beat you}.

{d}. Verb with an object.

別人恨伊拉 {p}ih niun {h}ung‘ í ’lá, {men hated him}. 脚勿踏斜路 kiáh veh tah ziá lú‘, {his foot does not tread the path of evil}. 早夜用功 ’tsau {y}á‘ {y}úng‘ kóng, {morning and night, he applies himself to study}. 雲裏向看相殺 {y}ün ’lí h’iáng‘ k’ö{n}‘ siáng sah, {to take a bird’s-eye view of a battle} (相殺 is construed as a noun).

{e}. Verbs, nouns or adverbs of place and time in construction with 拉 or 在.

東家勿拉屋裏 túng ká veh ’lá óh ’lí, {the master is not at home}. 百姓勒拉掛墓 pák sing‘ leh ’lá kwó‘ {m}‘, {the people are hanging} (paper) {on the tombs}.

{f}. Adjective pronouns, and numbers with the particles appropriated to the substantives contained in the subject.

銀子有一百兩 niung ’tsz ’{y}eu ih páh ’liáng, {of silver, there are a hundred taels}. 第把雨傘是吾個 {t}í‘ pó ’{ü} sa{n}‘ ’zz ngú kú‘, {this umbrella is mine}.

{g}. The verb is qualified by the various kinds of adverbs, either preceding it in apposition, or following it with 得 tuh, or 來 lé, as subordinate copula.

件件事體禿是做得正經個 {k}íe{n} gíe{n} zz‘ ’t’í t’óh ’zz tsú‘ tuh tsung‘ kiung kú‘, {everything is done as propriety requires}. 菩薩一定曉得 {p}ú sah ih ding‘ ’h’iau tuh, {the gods will certainly know it}.

{h}. The cause, manner, instrument, place or time of the action are expressed by nouns preceding the verb.

黃衣裳是皇帝送個 {w}ong í zong ’zz {w}ong tí‘ sóng‘ kú‘, {yellow dresses are given by the emperor}. 團扇是蘇州做個 {t}ön se{n}‘ ’zz Sú-tseu tsú‘ kú‘, {round (silk) fans are made at Sú-cheú}. 人個過犯全是神道查察個 niun kú‘ kú‘ va{n} dzé{n} ’zz zun dau‘ dzó t’sah kú‘, {men’s sins are all watched and noted by the spiritual powers}. 人全是一個祖宗傳下來 niun dzé{n} ’zz ih kú‘ ’tsú tsóng zé{n} ’{a}u lé, {men are all descended from one ancestor}. 我下半晝轉來個 ’ngú ’au pé{n}‘ tseu‘ ’tse{n} lé kú‘, {I will return in the afternoon}. 地皮是牛犂個 {t}í‘ bí ’zz nieu lí kú‘, {the ground is ploughed by oxen}. 從小到大是爺娘照應 dzóng ’siau tau‘ dú‘ ’zz {y}á niáng tsau‘ yung‘, {from childhood till they are grown they are watched over by their parents}.

Obs. The number of prepositions omitted in examples similar to these is very great. Few of them are so essential that they may not be rejected. The remarkable conciseness of written and spoken Chinese is due very much to the omission of prepositions in the manner here illustrated. For that conciseness, there is however in many cases full compensation, in the wordiness or richness, whichever term be preferred, of the groups.

{j}. The same circumstances of cause manner, etc. are also expressed with case particles attached to the noun.

張舉人到蘇去者 Tsáng ’kü niun tau‘ Sú-tseu k’í‘ ’tsé, {the Master of Arts named Cháng, is gone to Sú-cheú}. 第個砲架子替吳道台做個 {t}í‘ kú‘ p’au‘ ká‘ ’tsz t’í‘ {W}ú ’dau dé tsú‘ kú‘, {this cannon-carriage is made for Wú the Taú-tái}.

{k}. Adjective with a qualifying adverb.

是㑚飄流個人忒多 ’zz ná‘ p’iau lieu kú‘ niun t’uk tú, {you wandering people are too many}. 打官司要速訊定當 ’táng kwé{n} sz yau‘ sók sin‘ ding‘ tong‘, {lawsuits should be quickly decided}.

384. The predicate is further enlarged by a combination of the above forms of arrangement, by simple apposition as coordinates, or according to the laws of position already detailed.

生活要做到夜 sáng {w}eh yau‘ tsú‘ tau‘ {y}á‘, {work must be done till evening}. 我白費脱之許多手脚 ’ngú {p}ák fí‘ t’eh tsz ’h’ü tú ’seu kiáh, {I do have gone through a great deal of labour to no purpose}. 賭銅錢勿曉得敗脫之幾千幾萬個人家 ’tú dóng díe{n} veh ’h’iau tuh bá‘ t’eh tsz ’kí t’síe{n} ’kí ma{n}‘ kú‘ niun ká, {gaming has ruined I do not know how many thousands and myriads of men}. 我看見伊出來 ’ngú (subj.) k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ í t’seh lé, {I saw him come out}.

385. The copula by a little extension of the meaning of the terms, may be considered as embracing the emphatic adverbs, and the verb forms for affirmation and negation. In conformity with this, the substantive verb 是 is constantly used in the sense of {yes}, and with the negative particle (勿是), {no}. The adverbs of emphasis precede the copula.

新眞正來得硬 sing tsun tsung‘ lé tuh ngáng‘, {his heart is certainly hard}. 一定是牢實 ih ding‘ ’zz lau zeh, {he is certainly trustworthy}. 總是花頭花腦 ’tsóng ’zz hwó deu hwó ’nau, {it is surely false}. 昨日來個就是我 zóh nyih lé kú‘ dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, {he who came yesterday was I myself}.

Obs. The verb {to have} 有 ’{y}eu (with its opposite 嘸沒 {m} meh) describes existence, as in French the verb {avoir}. The adverbs of emphasis precede it, as they do the other substantive verb; e.g. 一點嘸沒啥 ih ’tíe{n} {m} meh sá, or {m} sá‘, {there is nothing the matter}; 第個道理實在有 {t}í‘ kú‘ ’{t}au ’lí zeh zé‘ ’{y}eu, {there certainly is this doctrine}.

386. When there is a negative particle, the adverb of emphasis precedes it.

一眼勿疑心 ih ’nga{n} veh ní sing, {not at all incredulous}. 伊並勿是要騙打㑚 í {p}ing‘ veh ’zz yau‘ p’íe{n}‘ ’táng ná‘, {he surely does not attempt to deceive you}. 樹木倒勿曾發靑 zû‘ móh ’tau veh zung fah t’sing, {the trees have still not yet opened their buds}.

Obs. When the necessity is denied, the negative precedes the adverb expressity; e.g. 勿必要去 veh pih yau‘ k’i‘, {you are not obliged to go}.

387. There are several verbs, not having a full transitive power, that are often to be taken as little more than an extension of the copula. They are such as, 呌 kiau‘, 做 tsú‘, 爲 {w}é, 作 tsoh.

第個勿呌公道 {t}í‘ kú‘ veh kiau‘ kúng ’dau, {that is not (or cannot be called) just} (or veh kúng ’dau), (or veh sö{n}‘ kúng ’dau, {cannot be considered as just}). 我做用人 ’ngú tsú‘ {y}úng‘ niun, {I am a servant}. 謀反爲大事體 meu ’fa{n} {w}é dú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {rebellion is a great matter}. 女人勿好作主張 ’nü niun veh ’hau tsok ’tsû tsáng, {women should not be rulers}.

Obs. The equivalents of these words, in languages having forms of declension, usually take the nominative case after them.

388. The correlative pronouns and sometimes adjectives, are placed like the emphatic adverbs before the copula, the substantives they represent being the subject.

人秃是劃一個 niun t’óh ’zz {w}áh ih kú‘, {the men are all honest}. 惡事體一切全要甩脫個 og zz‘ ’t’í ih t’sih dzé{n} yau‘ hwah t’eh kú‘, {bad actions are all to be abandoned}. 字目大有用頭 zz‘ móh {t}ú‘ ’{y}eu {y}úng‘ deu, {great is the use of the written character}.

389. The most remarkable use of the copula is in the potential verb groups, where 得 tuh and 勿 veh stand between two verbs; e.g. 打勿贏 ’táng veh {y}ung, {fighting he does not conquer}; 話得出 {w}ó‘ tuh t’seh, {speaking can express it}; 走得轉 ’tseu tuk ’tsé{n}, {walking you can turn back}.

Obs. i. In colloquial use, these words mean {he cannot conquer, it can be described in words, he can turn back}. If viewed alone as separate sentences, the first verb is the subject, and the second the predicate. So when the last word in these groups is an adjective, it may be regarded as predicate to the verb which stands first. This is particularly obvious where the potential force of 得 tuh and 勿 veh are wanting, 推板勿多 t’é pa{n} veh tú, {there is no great difference}; 寫得 快 ’siá tuh k’wá‘, {he writes fast}. Where the potential force exists in these phrases; e.g. 吹勿响 t’sz veh ’h’iáng, {it cannot be sounded} (of a flute); 豎勿直 ’zû veh dzuh, {it cannot be set upright}; 改勿正 ’ke veh tsung‘, {it cannot be corrected}; though the relation of subject and predicate is less manifest, it is perhaps the best explanation.

Obs. ii. When adjectives occupy both the first and last places, there is no potential force, and the second adjective becomes comparative 高得多 kau tuh tú, {it is much higher}.

Obs. iii. Wherever the potential force is wanting, 來 lé is used convertibly with 得 tuh; i.e. 寫來快 ’siá lé k’wá‘, {he writes fast}. Of the two 得 is most used by the educated.

390. The subject and predicate are still further lengthened by expletives. 末 meh belongs to the former, and 個, 拉, 哩, 者 kú‘, ’lá, ’lí, ’tsé to the latter.

Obs. Educated natives used these words much less frequently than the common people, except when they modify the verb in time, or as in the case of 末, give a conditional sense. The predicate if an adjective has time given to it by these particles, just as if it were a verb.

{Section} 7. {Subordinate Sentences}.

391. Sentences illustrative of verbs of knowing, saying and wishing, etc. taking the initiatory particle {that} in English, usually follow the proposition or verb they explain.

不過聽見儂欵待讀書人 pih kú‘ t’ing kíe{n}‘ nóng‘ k’wé{n} dé‘ {t}ók sû niun, {I have merely heard that you treat with generosity literary men}. 伊話勿能來 í {w}ó‘ veh nung lé, {he said he could not come}. 我曉得伊難過日脚 ’ngú‘ ’h’iau tuh í na{n} ku‘ nyih kiáh, {I know that he lived on with difficulty}. 我勿相信第隻船將要翻脫 ’ngú veh siáng sing‘ {t}í‘ tsáh zé{n} tsiáng yau‘ ’fa{n} t’eh, {I do not believe this boat is going to overturn}.

Obs. i. The clause introduced with {that} is often placed first. 官府嘸没銀子是人人曉得個 kwé{n} ’fú {m} meh niung ’tsz ’zz niun niun ’h’iau tuh kú‘, {that the mandarins have no money is known by every one}; 要進城話拉 yau‘ tsing‘ zung {w}ó‘ ’lá, {he said that he wished to go into the city}. The educated usually place the verb 話 {w}ó‘ first.

Obs. ii. In Latin the construction of the explanatory clause, is that of the accusative and infinitive.

392. Clauses expressing the object of an act, usually follow the sentence that contain the act.

領伊到學堂讀書 ’ling í tau‘ {h}oh dong {t}óh sû, {take him to school, that he may learn to read}. 請和尙拜懺 ’t’sing {ú} zong‘ pá‘ tsa{n}, {invite Buddhist priests to perform a service}. 呌畵工來畵小照 kiau‘ {w}ó‘ kong lé {w}ó‘ ’siau tsau‘, {call a painter to draw a likeness}. 講鄕約勸士農工商做本分꜄ ’kong h’iáng {y}ah k’iö{n}‘ ’zz nóng‘ kóng song tsú‘ ’pun vun‘, {read the sacred edict (country regulations), to induce the reading, agricultural, artisan, mid mercantile classes to perform their duties}.

Obs. In English, the subordinate clause is introduced often by the final {that}, as the previous examples are by the explanatory {that}.

393. The final {that} or {to} is often expressed by the auxiliary verbs 要 yau‘, and 呌 kau‘.

橫勸豎勸呌伊學好 {w}áng k’iö{n}‘ ’zû k’iö{n}‘ kau‘ í {h}oh ’hau, {use all kinds of exhortations to make him improve}. 關窵拉籠裏要伊呌個 kwa{n} ’tiau ’lá ’lóng ’lí yau‘ í kiau kú‘, {shut birds in cages that they may sing}.

Obs. In examples such as those of the present, and the previous article, the clauses may be inverted. 要捉魚咾出去登拉更舍裏 yau‘ tsoh ng lau t’seh k’í‘ tung ’lá káng só‘ lí, {in order to catch fish, he goes out to stay in the watch-hut}. 咾 lau must be appended to the clause expressing the object of the action.

394. The final {that} being often omitted, or expressed by verbs, the way is open to form one sentence out of the two component clauses, so as to improve the general rhythmical effect. This is done in such common sentences as the following.

送勒儂看 sóng‘ ’lá nóng k’ö{n}‘, {I present it to you to look at}. 講勒㑚聽 ’kóng ’lá ná‘ t’ing, {I speak that you may hear}. 話撥㑚聽 {w}ó‘ peh ná‘ t’ing, {ib}. 撥飯伊吃 peh va{n}‘ í k’iuh, {give him rice to eat}. 斟酌起來看 tsun tsáh ’k’í lé k’ö{n}‘, {deliberate upon it and see}.

Obs. These examples differ from those of those of the next article, only in being obviously pronounced as one sentence.

395. The clause expressing the object of the verb is often a single verb repeated or not. (In Latin, often the supine).

捨點物事拉我吃吃 só‘ ’tíe{n} meh zz‘ ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’iuh, {give me something to eat}. 要到店裏去買 yau‘ tau‘ tíe{n}‘ ’lí k’í‘ ’má, {go to the shop and buy it}.

396. The clause containing the action frequently consists of a substantive, or substantive group, with any of the auxiliary verbs of causing, or instrumentality, and the verb of motion 來, or 去 concluding the clause.

呌瞎子來拜斗 kau‘ hah ’tsz lé pá‘ ’teu, {call a blind man to worship the north star}. 担衣裳來晾 ta{n} í zong lé long‘, {take the clothes and hang them out to dry}. 挪石灰漿來刷壁 nó záh hwé tsiáng lé seh pih, {bring lime to white-wash the wall.} 担馬來騎到海灘去 ta{n} ’mó lé gí tau‘ ’hé t’a{n} k’í‘, {bring a horse and ride to the sea shore}. 担棕來絞繩 ta{n} tsóng lé kau zung, {bring tsóng wood bark to make ropes}. 担茄瓢舀水 ta{n} {k}á biau {y}au ’sz, {bring a cocoa-nut shell to lade water}.

Obs. The object of any transitive verb may be made to precede its verb by prefixing some one of these auxiliary verbs and appending 來 lé 去 k’í‘.

397. Substantive groups of many words are inserted between the instrumental verb, and the verb of motion.

担合天底下個事體來講究明白 ta{n} {h}eh t’íe{n} ’tí ’{a}u kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í lé ’kong kíeu‘ ming báh, {he takes the affairs of the whole world and explains them clearly}. 担各家人家個姓咾名頭寫拉人丁冊上 ta{n} kok ká niun ká kú‘ sing‘ lau ming deu ’siá ’lá niun ting t’sáh long‘, {take the names and surnames of every householder and write them in the register}.

398. A relative clause precedes its word as an adjective, and is connected with it by the particle 個 kú‘.

做慣拉個生活勿吃力個 tsú‘ kwa{n}‘ ’lá kú‘ sáng {w}eh veh k’iuh lih kú‘, {work to which one is accustomed does not fatigue}. 行方便個人家子孫要多者 {h}áng fong bíe{n}‘ kú‘ niun ká ’tsz sun yau‘ tú ’tsé, {he who gives alms will have many descendants}. 圍困拉個城頭有四五六個 {w}é k’wun‘ ’lá kú‘ dzung deu ’{y}eu sz‘ ’{n}g lók kú‘, {of besieged cities there are five or six}.

Obs. The relative or adjective clause standing thus in apposition with a noun, may be considered as forming with it the subject of the sentence, i.e. the {logical} subject as distinguished from the {grammatical}, which consists of the substantive only.

399. Circumstances of cause, manner, instrumentality, etc. precede in the same way, the words to which they belong.

皇帝送個翎毛咾蟒袍總要看重個 {w}ong tí‘ sóng‘ kú, ling mau lau ’mong bau ’tsóng yau‘ k’ö{n}‘ ’dzóng kú‘, {peacock’s feathers and embroidered tunics presented by the emperor are sure to be highly valued}. 祖宗傳下來個派頭勿好改換 ’tsú tsóng dzé{n} ’{a}u lé kú‘ p’á‘ deu, veh ’hau ’ké {w}é{n}‘, {customs delivered down by ancestors should not be changed}. 聖人賢人講個道理莫非三綱五常 sung‘ niun {h}íe{n} niun ’kong kú‘ ’dau ’lí móh fí sa{n} kong ’{ú} dzáng, {the doctrine taught by sages and learned men is all on the three relations and five constant virtues}. 山上泉眼出個水淸個 sa{n} long‘ dzíe{n} ’nga{n} t’seh kú‘ ’sz, t’sing kú‘, {water that comes from mountain springs is clear}. 石頭造拉個房子堅牢個 záh deu ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz kíe{n} lau kú‘, {houses built of stone are strong}.

Obs. Many such sentences admit of the clauses being inverted. Thus, 天定拉個數目人勿曉得 may also be read, niun veh ’h’iau tuh t’íe{n} ding‘ ’lá kú‘ sú‘ máh, {man does not know the times decreed by heaven}.

400. There are some auxiliary verbs, and preposition forms employed to introduce the subject, which then appears in the form of a subordinate sentence.

話到死過以後個事體難講 {w}ó‘ tau‘ ’sí kú‘ ’í {h}eu‘ kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í na{n} ’kong, {in reference to what happens after death, it is difficult discussion}. 造到發大財是勿能個 ’zau tau‘ fah dú‘ ’dzé ’zz veh nung kú‘, {as to getting rich, I cannot}. 講到登基坐江山勿見得實蓋能造化 ’kong tau‘ tung kí ’zû kong sa{n} veh kíe{n}‘ tuh zeh ké‘ nung ’zau hwó‘, {but as to ascending the throne, and taking his seat on the rivers and mountains, it is not likely he will be so fortunate}.

Obs. These words are not indispensable to the introduction of a subject as a subordinate clause; e.g. 大是大個 {t}ú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, {as to size it is large}.

401. Similar to these is the construction of the verb forms prefixed to interrogative pronouns which thereby become relatives.

隨便那裏一樣事體要做差個 zûe bíe{n}‘ ’{á} ’lí ih {y}áng‘ zz‘ ’t’í, yau‘ tsú t’só kú‘, {whatever thing it be, he will do it wrong}. 勿論啥官總要得賄個 veh lun‘ sá kwé{n} ’tsóng yau‘ tuh ’hwé kú‘, {mandarins of all offices whatsoever will take bribes}. 勿拘幾許兵卒總會戰敗 veh kü ’kí hó‘ ping tseh, ’tsóng {w}é‘ tsé{n}‘ bá‘, {however many soldiers there be, we are sure to conquer}.

402. Subordinate clauses expressive of time and place, are placed before the principal clauses.

住拉啥地方勿肯話 dzû‘ ’lá sá‘ {t}í‘ fong, veh ’k’ung {w}ó, {he is unwilling to say where he lives}. 清明節氣幾時黃曆上有 t’sing ming tsih k’í‘ ’kí zz, {w}ong lih long‘ ’{y}eu, {the time at which the Tsing-ming solar period occurs, is recorded in the calendar}. 到明朝我又到伊壗頭去 tau‘ ming tsau ’ngú {í}‘ tau‘ í ha{n}‘ deu k’í‘, {on the next day I went to him again}.

403. The subject consisting of a verb and substantive, often takes the form of a subordinate introductory clause.

待別人要用禮貌 {t}é‘ bih niun yau‘ yung‘ ’lí mau‘, {in treating others, a man should be polite}. 存心要存得好 dzun sing yau‘ dzun tuh ’hau, {in keeping the heart, a man should keep it well}.

404. Many subordinate circumstantial clauses are introduced by verbs and precede the principal proposition.

落大雨個辰光去者 loh dú‘ ’{ü} kú‘ zun kwong k’í‘ ’tsé, {while it was raining heavily he went}. 照之我個想頭要換朝代者 tsau‘ tsz ’ngú kú‘ ’siáng deu, yau‘ {w}én‘ dzau dé‘ ’tsé, {according to my idea, the dynasty needs to be changed}. (or, {will be}, &c.,). 照之古聖王個話頭一心一德 tsau‘ tsz ’kú sung‘ wong kú‘ {w}ó‘ deu ih sing ih tuh, {according to the words of the ancient king, “one in heart and one in virtue.”} 讀之七年書咾考之秀才 {t}ók tsz t’sih níe{n} sû lau ’kau tsz sieu‘ zé, {having studied seven years, he took his degree of Bachelor}. 囂之書開來咾讀之兩張者 h’iau tsz sû k’é lé lau {t}ók tsz ’liáng tsáng ’tsé, {having opened the book, he read two sections}. 得勝之多囘咾末脚死拉戰塲上 tuh sung‘ tsz tá {w}é lau meh kiáh ’sí ’lá tsé{n}‘ dzáng long‘, {after gaining many victories, he died at last on the field of battle}.

Obs. i. Sometimes the verb of the subordinate clause is when preceded by the negative particle, put at the end; e.g. 兵丁勿算武官死有五十干 ping ting veh sö{n}‘, ’vú kwé{n} ’sí ’{y}eu {ng} seh kû{n}, {without counting the common soldiers, fifty military mandarins died}.

Obs. ii. Circumstantial subordinate propositions often come between the subject and predicate, 貪官已經受之姓張箇銀子就拿姓李箇放拉監牢裏 t’é{n} kwé{n} ’í kiung ’zeu tsz sing‘ Tsáng kú‘ niung ’tsz dzieu‘ nó sing‘ ’Lí kú‘ fong‘ ’lá ka{n} lau ’lí, {the avaricious mandarin having received money from Mr. Cháng, will take Mr. Li and put him in prison}; 好人做之將官總勿瞎殺一個人 ’hau niun tsú‘ tsz tsiáng‘ kwé{n} ’tsóng veh hah sah ih kú‘ niun, {the good man on becoming a general, will not kill a single man without reason}.

405. Many subordinate clauses are causal, and are connected with the principal sentence by the particle 咾 lau, or they are inserted in the principal clause with 因爲 yung {w}é‘ to introduce them.

做事體勿勸謹咾勿成功者 tsú‘ zz‘ ’t’í veh giun ’kiun lau veh zung kóng ’tsé, {not being diligent in performing his duty, he did not succeed}. 家當敗完之咾做之窮人者 ká tong‘ bá‘ {w}é{n} tsz lau tsú‘ tsz giong niun ’tsé, {he wasted all his property and became poor}. 打傷之人咾帶之枷者 ’táng song tsz niun lau tá‘ tsz ká ’tsé, {for beating and wounding a man, he was condemned to wear the cangue}. 衣裳摜拉石頭上碎完者 í zong gwá{n}‘ ’lá záh deu long sé‘ {w}é{n} ’tsé, {the clothes from being beaten on stones are torn to pieces}. 總督嘸奈何咾服毒者 tsóng‘ tóh {m} ’né {ú} lau vóg dók ’tsé, {the viceroy having no alternative, poisoned himself}. 上司參之伊咾革脱之官者, ’zong sz t’sé{n} tsz í lau kák t’eh tsz kwé{n} ’tsé, {his superior having reported him as culpable, he was discharged}. 勿要因為事體多咾勿盡心 veh yau‘ yung {w}é‘ zz‘ ’t’í tú lau‘ veh zing‘ sing, {do not on the ground of having so much to do, pay no attention}.

Obs. Conjunctions may be prefixed to the introductory clause. 因爲三 代前頭題過第個名字勿可再題 yung {w}é‘ sa{n} dé‘ zíe{n} deu {t}í kú‘ {t}í‘ kú‘ ming zz‘ veh ’k’ó tsé‘ dí, {because three generations ago this name was used, it could not be employed again}.

406. Conditional introductory clauses are formed by means of particles, or they are understood to be conditional from their position, or from the nature of the sentence.

{a}. Examples of conditional clauses without particles.

勿敎訓個兒子伊總要入下流 veh kiau‘ h’iün‘ kú‘ ní ’tsz í ’tsóng yau‘ zeh ’{a}u lieu, {if you do not teach your son, he will certainly fall to the lowest grade of character}. 勿呑金原要受皇帝個埋怨咾殺脱 veh tung kiun niö{n} yau‘ ’zeu {w}ong tí‘ kú‘ má yö{n}‘ lau sah t’eh, {if he does not take gold and commit suicide, he must suffer the emperor’s displeasure and be put to death}.

{b}. Examples with 末 meh, at the end of the conditional clause.

家裏窮末勿要怨恨爺娘勿發財 ká ’lí gióng meh veh yau‘ {y}ön‘ {h}ung‘ {y}á niáng veh fah dzé, {if you belong to a poor family, you should not be discontented that your parents are not rich}. 發財發福末勿要怠慢脫時落運個人 fah dzé fah fóh meh veh yau‘ {t}é‘ ma{n}‘ t’eh zz loh {y}ün‘ kú‘ niun, {if you grow rich, do not treat superciliously those who are unfortunate}. 兒子話勿來末來巴勿得要伊會話 ní ’tsz {w}ó‘ veh lé meh, pó veh tuh yau‘ í {w}é‘ {w}ó‘, {if their son cannot speak, they wish much that he should be able}. 要做好官末, 只要念頭動, 舌頭動, 筆頭動, 造出多許善事體 yau‘ tsú‘ ’hau kwé{n} meh, tseh yau‘ nía{n} deu ’{t}óng, zeh deu ’{t}óng, pih deu ’{t}óng, ’zau t’seh tú hau‘ ’zé{n} zz‘ ’t’í, {if you want to be a good magistrate, you have only to move your thoughts, tongue and pen, and you can do much good}.

{c}. Examples of the conditional clause as a case supposed, introduced by conditional conjunctions.

若使考過秀才要伊去鄕試 zák sz‘ ’k’au kú‘ sieu‘ zé yau‘ í k’í‘ h’iáng sz‘, {if he has taken his Bachelor’s degree, they wish him to go to the examination for that of Master}. 若使勿高興讀書千方百計騙伊到學堂去 zák sz‘ veh kau hiung‘ dók sû, t’síe{n} fong pák kí‘ p’íe{n}‘ í tau‘ {h}oh dong k’í‘, {if he is unwilling to learn to read, they use a thousand arts to trick him into going to school}. 若然勿聽好說話必定敗家蕩產 záh zé{n} veh t’ing ’hau seh {w}ó‘ pih ding‘ bá‘ ká dong‘ ’t’sa{n}, {if you are unwilling to listen to good advice, you will certainly ruin your family and lose your property}. 倘有婚喪喜慶應該請伊吃酒 ’t’ong ’{y}eu hwun song ’h’í k’iung‘, yung ké ’t’sing í k’iuk ’tsieu, {if there be marriages, funerals and rejoicing days, you ought to invite them to a feast}.

{d}. Examples of the conditional clause as a fact introduced by 旣然 kí‘ zé{n}, or 末 meh.

旣然望雨落勿要惹厭日頭 kí‘ zé{n} mong‘ ’{ü} loh, veh yau‘ ’zá {í}e{n}‘ nyih deu, {if you long for rain, still you should not murmur at sun-shine}. 旣然嘸末勿要昨日話有 kí‘ zé{n} {m} meh veh yau‘ zóh nyih {w}ó‘ ’{y}eu, {there being none, you need not have said yesterday that there was any}. 旣然要末再去買末者 kí‘ zé{n} yau‘ meh tsé‘ kí‘ ’má meh ’tsé, {since you want it, go again and buy it}.

{e}. Examples of conditional clauses introduced into the midst of the principal clause.

但是娘子雖然聰明勿好撥伊辦外頭個事務 {t}an‘ ’zz niáng ’tsz sûe zé{n} t’sóng ming veh ’hau peh í {p}a{n}‘ ngá‘ deu kú‘ zz‘ vú‘, {but your wife, although she be clever, you should not allow to act in matters beyond her sphere}.

Obs. Several illustrations have occurred in the preceding pages of the fact that the laws of position often render particles superfluous. Thus, in adverbial phrases of succession, {and}, {by}, etc. are omitted in 一個一個 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ {one by one}; 一日大一日 ih nyih dú‘ ih nyih, {greater and greater every day}. So, prepositions are usually omitted in subordinate clauses of cause, manner, agent, etc. because they precede their subject and are readily understood. The omission of the conjunction, for the same reason does not affect conditional clauses (a).

407. If the verb and adjective groups with 得, 勿, 來 are rightly considered as originally forming independent propositions, including in themselves a subject and its predicate, they must be regarded in many instances as subordinate clauses.

{a}. One of these groups may form an adjective clause, or a predicate to a subject.

做勿來個事體多 tsú‘ veh lé kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í tú, {things that cannot be done are many}. 禮體好得極 ’lí ’t’í ’hau tuh giuh, {the system of observances is excellent}.

{b}. A group may form the explanatory clause to the verb of a preceding sentence.

勿好話弄勿來 veh ’hau {w}ó‘ lóng‘ veh lé, {you must not say that you cannot do it}.

408. There are some fragmentary clauses placed at the end of a proposition that need especial notice.

{a}. 罷 {p}á‘ {to end}, or {then there is no more to be said}.

小銅錢換之末就罷哉 ’siau dóng díe{n} {w}é{n}‘ tsz meh dzieu‘ bá‘ ’tsé, {as to the small cash, you have but to change them, that is all}. 身邊勿帶就罷 sun píe{n} veh tá‘ dzieu‘ bá‘, {if you have none, that is enough}. 現在話明白就是哉 {h}íe{n}‘ ’dzé {w}ó‘ ming báh dzieu‘ ’zz ’tsé, {you have now made it all clear, and that is enough}. 勿肯末罷哉 veh ’k’ung meh bá‘ ’tsé, {if you will not, there is an end of it}.

{b}. Several adverbial clauses used with adverbs of similarity.

皇帝如同父母一般 {w}ong tí‘ zû dóng ’vú ’mú ih pé{n}, {the emperor is just like one’s parents}. 兄第忒我一樣 h’iúng dí‘ t’eh ’ngú ih {y}áng‘, {my brother is just as I am}. 恰像我能 hah ziáng‘ ’ngú nung, {like me}.

{c}. Some words with the negative.

苦惱勿堪, ’k’ú ’nau veh k’é{n}, {intolerably wretched}. 路上爛來勿堪 lú‘ long‘ la{n}‘ lé veh k’é{n}, {the road is exceedingly dirty}.

{d}. After substantives needing to be spoken of in the dual number 兩個 ’liáng kú‘, or 兩個字 liáng kú‘ zz‘ are appended; the former is applied to living agents, and the latter to {characters} as representatives of abstract nouns.

吾你弟兄兩個勿好爭論 ngú ’ní dí‘ h’iung ’liáng kú‘ veh ’hau tsáng lun‘, {we are brothers and ought not to quarrel}. 善咾惡兩個字本來對面個 ’zé{n} lau oh ’liáng kú‘ zz‘ ’pun lé té‘ míe{n}‘ kú‘, {virtue and vice are originally opposite terms}.

{e}. Prepositions of motion take after the nouns they govern, the fragments 兩 ’liáng, 一淘 ih dau, separately or together.

我忒儂出外兩日咾再來 ’ngú t’eh nóng‘ t’seh ngá‘ ’liáng nyih lau tsé‘ lé, {you and I will go out for two days and return}. 伊忒我一淘牽兩隻牛睏拉水裏 í t’eh ’ngú ih dau k’íe{n} ’liáng tsáh nieu k’wun‘ ’lá ’sz ’lí, {he and I together led two oxen to lie down in the water} (or 一氣).

Obs. These are perhaps fragments of propositions, of which only the predicate remains.

{Section} 8. {Coordinate Sentences}.

409. In further illustration of the connection of groups and propositions, it may be observed, that coordinate sentences often occur in juxtaposition without any particle.

{a}. There may be several subjects to one predicate.

文武百官鄕紳士庶禿出求雨 vun ’vú puh kwé{n}, h’iáng sun ’zz sû‘ t’ók t’seh lé gieu ’{ü}, {the civil and military mandarins, the gentry and common people are all come out to pray for rain}. 按察司布政司撫臺各省有個 ö{n}‘ t’sah sz‘, pú‘ tsung‘ sz‘, ’fú dé, kok ’sáng ’{y}eu kú‘, {a judge, treasurer and lieutenant-governor belong to each province}.

{b}. There may be several predicates to one subject, or several explanatory clauses to one proposition.

多請朋友勿兔浪用錢財廢事失業 tú ’t’sing {p}áng ’{y}eu veh ’míe{n} long‘ {y}úng‘ zíe{n} zé fí‘ zz‘ seh nyih, {if you invite friends much, you will not avoid wasting money and expending property}. 風水兩個字池湖末水龍氣末風 fóng ’sz ’liáng kú‘ zz‘, dzz {ú} meh ’sz, lóng k’í‘ meh fóng, {in the phrase wind and water, the pond represents the water, and the winding path} ({dragon vapour}) {the wind}. 松江提督手下有前營後營左營右營中營一府裏五營 Súng kong dí toh ’seu ’{a}u ’{y}eu dzíe{n} {y}ung ’{h}eu {y}ung tsú‘ {y}ung {y}eu‘ {y}ung tsóng {y}ung ih ’fú ’lí ’{ng} {y}ung, {the general at Súng-kiáng as under him, the front, hind, left, right and central divisions, in all five for the whole prefecture}.

410. The connective 咾 lau is very frequently introduced between groups; and the constituents of any group of coordinate words may be broken up into separate subjects, or predicates or objects by the insertion of this particle.

墳墓週圍種個樹木咾築個籬笆 vun mú‘ tseu {w}é tsóng‘ kú‘ zú‘ móh lau tsók kú‘ lí pó, {round the grave are planted trees, and a hurdle hedge is erected}. 一家裏向有爺咾娘咾小囝咾差囝咾丫頭 ih ká ’lí h’iáng ’{y}eu {y}á lau niáng lau ’siau nö{n} lau t’sá nö{n} lau au deu, {in one family there are the father and mother, children, men and women servants}. 知縣要管個一縣裏個漕白犯法咾咾詞訟咾騐屍個事體 tsz {y}ö{n}‘ yau‘ ’kwé{n} kú‘ ih {y}ö{n}‘ ’lí kú‘ zau báh ’va{n} fah lau lau zz zóng‘ lau níe{n}‘ sz kú‘ zz‘ t’i‘, {the city magistrate presides over the revenue, crimes, lawsuits and inquests of his district}. 關稅咾兵丁咾啥是道臺管拉個 kwa{n} súe‘ lau ping ting lau sá‘ ’zz ’{t}au dé ’kwé{n} ’lá kú‘, {the customs and army matters are superintended by the Intendent of Circuit}.

Obs. It has been shewn in section 7, that 咾 lau also frequently terminates causal subordinate sentences.

411. When there are two coordinate ideas to be expressed connectedly, as with {both}—{and}—而且, 也 and 又 are employed.

又是長又是闊 {í}‘ ’zz dzáng, {í}‘ ’zz k’weh, {it is both long and broad}. 也要加長也要加闊 ’{á} yau‘ ká dzáng, ’{á} yau‘ ká k’weh, {you must make it both longer and broader}.

Obs. i. {Even} as an initiatory particle is expressed by 就是. 就是生意淸也勿要甩脱工夫 dzieu‘ ’zz sáng í‘ tsing ’{á} veh yau‘ hwah t’eh kúng fú, {even if trade is slack, you must not waste time}.

Obs. ii. 也 is also used when no sentence precedes, as in 外國米也有否 ngá‘ kóh ’mí ’{á} ’{y}eu ’vá, {is there rice in foreign countries?}

Obs. iii. When the clauses are negative, the negative particle is inserted after the conjunction, 也勿會開口也勿會動身 ’{á} veh {w}é‘ k’é ’k’eu, ’{á} veh {w}é‘ ’dóng sun, {he can neither speak nor move}.

412. When two objects are compared, they stand as coordinate clauses with the verb 比 ’pí between them, and the attribute of comparison at the end.

生果子勿此熟果子甜個 sáng ’kú ’tsz veh ’pí zóh ’kú ’tsz díe{n} kú‘, {unripe fruit cannot be compared to ripe fruit in sweetness}. 做生意勿此念書個好 tsú‘ sáng í‘ veh ’pí nia{n}‘ sû kú‘ ’hau, {to engage in trade is not so good as studying books}. 儂比之我年紀大 nóng‘ ’pí tsz ’ngú níe{n} ’kí dú‘, {you are older than I}.

Obs. i. 又 {í}‘ is sometimes prefixed to the attribute; e.g. 伊比我又好 í ’pi ngú‘ {í}‘ hau, {he is still better than I}.

Obs. ii. 又 {í}‘ with the negative is thus seen to have the force of a separative particle, while in the examples of the preceding article it is clearly connective ({both—and—}) in one case, and separative in the other ({neither—nor—}).

413. Propositions introduced by the adversative particles {only}, {but}, {yet}, etc. (v. Art. 310), form another class of coordinate sentences.

小道理聖人賢人勿屑為但是平常人全要曉得個 ’siau ’dau ’lí sung‘ niun {h}íen niun veh sih {w}é {t}a{n}‘ ’zz bing dzáng niun zé{n} yau‘ ’h’iau tuh kú‘, {small matters are not attended to by the wise and learned, but ordinary people must know them}. 好人該當親近個倒要遠開伊 ’hau niun ké tong t’sing ’giun kú‘ ’tau yau‘ {y}ö{n} k’é í, {you ought to attach yourself to good men, but on the contrary you avoid them}. 爺娘個棺材勿可以常停拉家裏恐防火燒 {y}á niáng kú‘ kwé{n} zé‘ veh ’k’ó ’í dzáng ö{n} ’lá ká ’lí ’k’óng bong ’hú sau, {your parents coffins must not be long retained in the house, lest a fire should break out}.

414. Illative and causal sentences form another class of coordinate sentences.

故此嘸沒出頭個日子 kú‘ ’t’sz {m} meh t’seh deu kú‘ nyih ’tsz, {therefore there is no day of escape}. 半個身體三個時辰浸拉水裏所以怪勿得有點勿自在 pé{n}‘ kú‘ sun ’t’í sa{n} kú‘ zz zun tsing ’lá ’sz ’lí ’sú ’í kwá‘ veh tuh ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} veh zz‘ ’zé, {his body was up to the waist in water for 6 hours, and therefore it is not to be wondered at that he feels a little uncomfortable}.

415. In causal sentences, the causal conjunctions are used, or the word for “cause” at the end of the sentence; sometimes both are employed.

勿能得勝兵丁勿好個緣故 veh nung tuk sung‘, ping ting veh ’hau ku‘ yö{n} kú‘, {he cannot conquer, because the soldiers are bad}. 文理爲哈勿好因爲讀書少 vun ’lí {w}é‘ sá‘ veh ’hau yung {w}é‘ dók sû ’sau, {why is his style of writing bad? because he has read but little}.

Obs. The answer to a question requiring “because,” is very often ended with 咾 lau, which then takes that sense. But this is an irregular colloquialism, since {lau} as connective conjunction ought to be followed by another clause. 船吹壞脫哉風大咾 zé{n} t’sz {w}á‘ t’eh ’tsé fóng dú‘ lau, {the boat was broken to pieces, the wind being high}.

416. Conjunctions forming pairs of sentences, have already been partially illustrated in Arts, 322–330. It may in addition be observed, that short phrases sometimes take the place of conjunctions.

{a}. Thus for, {not only—even—}, we have 勿要話 veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ and 就是 dzieu‘ zz in the supplemental sentence.

勿要話爺娘敎訓伊勿轉, 勿要話親友勸戒伊勿轉, 就是菩薩也點化伊勿轉 veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ {y}á niáng kiau‘ h’iün‘ í veh ’tsé{n}, veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ t’sing ’{y}eu k’iö{n}‘ ká‘ í veh ’tsé{n}, dzieu‘ ’zz {p}ú sah ’{á} ’tíe{n} hwó‘ í veh ’tsé{n}, {do not say that his parents were unable to influence him by instruction, and his friends by exhortations; supernatural beings even could not reclaim him by their warnings}.

{b}. English initiatory phrases, such as {I suppose that}, {probably}, are represented by 只怕, 恐怕 tseh p’ó‘, ’k’ung p’ó‘, or by 我想 ’ngú ’siáng, {it appears to me that}.

打殺之雄窵雌窵獨干子躱拉恐怕要氣殺 ’táng sah tsz {y}ióng ’tiau t’sz ’tiau {t}ók kû{n} ’tsz ’tú ’lá ’k’úng p’ó‘ yau‘ k’í‘ sah, {if the male bird were killed, the female from being solitary, would probably die of grief}.

Obs. i. {On the one side—on the other side—}are represented by the common substantive for {side} with—ih {one} in both clauses. The preposition and article are rejected as unnecessary, cf. Art. 328.

Obs. ii. Although is sometimes expressed by a verb, in the sense {let it be that}, 憑儂地獄拉前面, 伊也勿肯囘心改念 bing nóng‘ {t}í‘ niók ’lá zie{n} míe{n}‘, í ’{á} veh ’k’ung {w}é sing ’ké nía{n}‘, {granting you that hell were in sights, he would still be unwilling to repent}. 隨儂 sûe nóng‘, 但憑儂 ’{t}a{n} bing nóng‘, are also used in the same sense.

417. Comparisons are introduced by several compounds of 如 zû, and some fragmentary sentences, as 比方, ’pí fong, {for example}.

病好爺娘十分快活猶如尋着之寶貝一般 {p}ing‘ ’hau ’{y}á niáng zeh fun k’á‘ {w}eh {y}eu zû zing zák tsz ’pau pé‘ ih pé{n}, {when they recover from sickness, the parents are delighted just as if they had found a treasure}. 如同樹木個根 zû dóng zû‘ móh kú kun, {it is like the root of a tree}. 假如見之꜂長輩勿要忽畧伊 ’kiá zû kíe{n}‘ tsz ’tsáng pé‘ veh yau‘ hweh liáh í, {suppose that you see your elders, you must not treat them disrespectfully}. 比如担別人家個祖宗認做自家個祖宗有第個道理否 ’pí zú ta{n} bih niun ká kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, niun tsú‘ zz‘ ká kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, ’{y}eu {t}í‘ kú‘ ’{t}au ’lí ’vá, {if for example you take the ancestors of others, and recognize them as your own, could this be right?}

{Section} 9. {On Antithesis}.

418. Of antithesis there are three kinds; (a) that of words in the formation of groups; (b) that which gives an interrogative force by the juxtaposition of positive and negative clauses, (c) That of sentences contrasted in sound or sense.

Obs. The first of these should be placed with the sections on groups, but the other kinds (b) and (c) are naturally discussed after propositions, and therefore they are all placed together here.

419. Substantives that are opposite in sense, when they combine into groups are treated just as other coordinate words.

晝夜 tseu‘ {y}a‘, {day and night}. 山海 sa{n} ’hé, {land} (hills) {and sea}.

420. Adjectives and verbs when they form antithetic groups often lose their proper character as attributives, and become substantives.

斬絞流徒 ’tsan kau lieu dú, {beheading, strangling and banishment}. 酸甜苦鹹 sû{n} díe{n} ’k’ú han, {sour, sweet, bitter, salt}. 第條路多少遠近 {t}í‘ diau lú‘ tú ’sau ’{y}ön ’giun, {how far is it by this road?}

421. Antithesis in the formation of interrogatives has an important grammatical use. Thus, a verb with or without its object expressed successively in the affirmative and negative form, asks a question.

去過勿曾去過 k’í kú‘ veh zung k’í‘ kú‘, {have you gone or not?}

Obs. The subject is prefixed and is not repeated; e.g. 遭蹋字紙㑚 想罪過勿罪過 tsau t’ah zz‘ ’tsz ná‘ ’siáng zé‘ kú‘ veh zé‘ kú‘, {do you think the misuse of written-paper is a sin or not?}

422. Among instances of the antithesis of propositions, many consist simply of a tautology of ideas by introducing opposite qualities or actions with the negative particle.

有銅錢就做, 嘸沒銅錢勿要做 ’{y}eu dóng díe{n} dzieu‘ tsú‘, {m} meh dóng díe{n} veh yau‘ tsú‘, {if you have money do it, if not you need not do it}. 各人要心平勿要做怨恨 koh niun yau‘ sing bing veh yau‘ tsú‘ yö{n}‘ {h}ung‘, {every one ought to be contented, and not dissatisfied}.

Obs. This figure of speech would in many of its examples be intolerable in English, but the brevity and rhythmical structure of Chinese sentences make it agreeable. It gives an air of simplicity to conversation, and allows the speaker time to prepare his next idea, without forcing his thinking faculties to a too rapid productiveness. The same advantage is obtained by the use of a long group, where in English, one or two of its constituent words would be sufficient.

423. Of antithetical propositions some of the most ornamental are those that consist of the words of a common group lengthened into clauses.

上有天理下合人情 ’záng ’{y}eu t’íe{n} ’lí, ’{h}au {h}eh niun zing, {it coincides with the law of heaven on one hand, and the natural sentiments of mankind on the other}. 先有風後有雨 síe{n} ’{y}eu fóng ’{h}eu ’{y}eu ’{ü}, {wind comes first and rain after}. 明醫家會救人, 笨醫家會殺人 ming í ká {w}é‘ kieu‘ niun, {p}un‘ í ká {w}é‘ sah niun, {a good physician can cure men, while an incompetent one can kill them}. 遠水救勿得近火 ’{y}ön ’sz kieu‘ veh tuh ’giun ’hú, {distant water cannot save from a fire that is near}. 前世無讐今世無寃 zíe{n} sz‘ vú zeu kiun sz‘ vú yö{n}, {if in a former life you were the enemy of no one, you will have no enemy in this}. 東耳𦕰進西耳𦕰出 tóng ’ní ’tú tsing‘ sí ’ní ’tú t’seh, {enter by the left ear and disappear by the right}. 推勿轉頭挬勿轉腦 t’é veh ’tsé{n} deu peh veh ’tsé{n} ’nau, {he cannot be brought to change for the better}.

Obs. This is a principal means of decorating the 文章 vun tsáng, the literary compositions on which the educated class expend so much time and effort. With the classics before them, and ten or twenty thousand words at command, there is a wide field for variety. In addition to the care required in the general structure of the essay, that all its parts may be conformed to rule, the separate sentences must be framed in obedience to the laws of grouping and antithesis, so that there may be no infringement of the order of the words, as they stand in the ancient books.

424. Another class of antithetical propositions consists of such as correspond word for word with each other in structure and relative meaning. Many proverbs are of this kind.

債有生寃有頭 tsá‘ ’{y}eu ’tsû {y}ön ’{yeu} deu, {to every debt there is a creditor, and to every enemy a foe}.

Obs. Prémare has a large collection of such proverbs, to which the reader is referred.

{Section} 10. {On Rhythmus}.

425. Chinese sentences spoken or written are symmetrically arranged. The same rhythmus that pleases and aids the reader, in such works as the Historical Novels exists in a less elaborated form in the colloquial medium of daily life. In the style of a fluent Chinese speaker, clauses of four words each, will be found to occur more frequently than of any other length. This measure may be called for the Shánghái dialect the Double Iambus, the accent being on the last syllable of a group of two words; e.g. 財主人家有喪事要請和尚道士做做攻德 ze-tsú-niun-ká ’{y}eu song zz‘ yau‘ ’t’sing {h}ú-zong‘-’{t}au-’zz tsú‘-tsú‘ kúng-tuh, {rich men at a funeral will invite Buddhist and Taúist priests, to perform a religious service}. Here there are 3 groups of four.

Obs. i. Chinese colloquial syntax might be divided into two heads, treating of grammatical (or syntactical), and prosodial (or rhythmical) relations respectively. Under the former might be placed, government, propositions, and a part of the system of groups. Under the latter would be properly found repetition, antithesis, and the remainder of the system of grouping. The latter might be called prosody, but that word is more properly applied to the laws of poetry. In the present work it has been thought more convenient to mix these divisions under a common heading.

Obs. ii. Words in the fourth tone are just as important in the groups as other words, unless they happen to be enclitics; e.g. 大關節目 {t}á‘ kwa{n} tsih móh, {the general object}. The last two words have no less emphasis of voice than the former, and 目 móh is distinctly accented.

Obs. iii. In dialects where the accent is on the penultimate syllable, the four-word measure might be called a Double Trochee. These classical names of feet are not strictly applicable, descriptive as they are of the long and short syllables of poetry. They are here used for want of better terms, just as is done by writers on English versification, to express the pronunciation of words as accented or not accented. At Súng-kiáng the fú city to which Shánghái belongs, the accent changes to the penultimate.

Obs. iv. In 讀起來看 {read}, and {t}ók ’k’í lé k’ö{n}‘, {read it and try}, the accent is on the first and last words of both these sentences, the middle words being enclitic.

426. The three-word foot may be called, if it consists of two unaccented, and one accented syllable, an {anapaest}; e.g. 壁立直 pih lih dzuh, {exactly straight}; 敲敲鼓 k’au k’au ’kú, {to beat a drum}; 梁惠王 liáng {w}é‘ {w}ong, {a king in Mencius}. If the accent is on the first word of three, the foot might be called a {dactyl}; e.g. 做末者 tsú‘ meh ’tsé, {do it}. Instances of such dactyls are rare and are chiefly confined to sentences containing enclitics, which reject the accent. In some cases, the accent is on the middle word as in 放颻子 fong‘ yau‘ ’tsz, {to fly a kite}; 子 ’tsz as an enclitic throws back the accent on the preceding word.

427. The number two occurs in innumerable combination, which may be called iambs; i.e. 上山 ’zong sa{n}, {ascend a hill}.

428. Common recognized groups numbering more than four coordinate words are not very numerous. They may be readily resolved into smaller feet of two, three, or four words, by attending to the {cæsura}, which will be always found in them; e.g. 喜怒哀懼愛惡欲 ’h’í nú‘ é gü‘ é‘ ú‘ {y}óh, {joy, anger, grief, fear, love, hatred, desire}. That mark of division occurs after the fourth word for groups of seven, and after the second for groups of five; others may be divided into groups of two or three words each.

Obs. i. The cæsura of seven word and five word versification in good poetry, and in street ballads, is generally after the fourth and second words, but variations occur according to the taste of the writer, and the exigencies of composition.

Obs. ii. By marking the cæsura, groups of four words may be divided into smaller divisions of two, and those of three words into parts of one and two words. Thus the secondary accent heard in the first part of the group, and referred to in the sections on tones may be accounted for, as properly belonging to the smaller groups, or single word, to which it is affixed.

Obs. iii. The accent here spoken of is, that which is understood by the word in English and French, viz. that emphasis which is predominantly on the penultimate or antepenultimate in the former, and on the last syllable in the latter language. It is one simply of position, and is so far independent of tones on the one hand, and of the quantity of vowels as long or short, on the other. English versification is entirely regulated by the accent of position, and not by the consideration of vowels and syllables being long and short. Thus in the line “our voices keep tune, and our oars keep time,” the quantity of “keep,” and “our” is long, yet they stand as short syllables. Chinese poetry is like that of England in possessing rhymes, and instead of a rhythmus of long and short vowel quantities, such as formed the framework of Greek and Latin versification, it has one of even and uneven tones.

Obs. iv. In some groups of four, the accent is on the first and fourth words; e.g. 鄕下百姓 h’iáng ’{a}u pák sing‘, {country people}. But it is most frequently on the 2nd and 4th, e.g. 富貴貧賤 fú‘ kwé‘ bing dzíe{n}‘, {rich and poor}; 去邪歸正 k’í‘ ziá kwé tsung‘, {to abandon vice and reform}. When it passes to the first or third, it is because the word on which it should be is an enclitic or has a weak tone. Cf.