PART II.

{ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH}.

{Section} 1. {Native divisions}.

83. Common teachers of the language in distinguishing words, only use two pairs of terms, viz. 實, 虛 zeh, h’ü, and 死, 活 ’sz, {w}eh. The former signifies words that have a meaning (full) and such as have not (empty). All substantives are 實字眼 {s}eh zz‘ ’nga{n}. Auxiliary words or particles receive the name of 虛字眼 h’ü zz‘ ’nga{n}. Verbs and adjectives are placed by some writers in the first of these classes, and by others in the second. Remusat, says that verbs are 實字 zeh zz‘; a native author 畢華珍 Pih {w}ó tsun treats, all words except substantives, as in the second class.

84. The other pair of terms views words as nouns, which are spoken of as 死字眼 ’si zz‘ ’nga{n}, or verbs which are 活字眼 {w}eh zz‘ ’nga{n}. The usual sense of 活 is {living}, but by an extension of meaning, it is applied to anything not fixed to its place, or liable to change in its appearance or form. Hence, verbs as dependent on circumstances of time, will, etc. are termed {moving} or {transferable} words, while substantive are said to be {fixed} or {dead}.

85. The native writer just referred to, in a recent work, 衍緖草堂筆記 ’íe{n} ’zü ’t’sau dong pih kí‘, on the parts of speech and construction of sentences, has extended these divisions, by forming the 虛字 h’ü zz‘, or words not substantives, into four classes:—

1. Adjectives 呆虛字 ngé h’ü zz‘:—

Ex. 高 kau, {high}. 多 tú, {many}. 大 {t}á‘, {great}. 低 tí, {low}. 少 ’sau, {few}. 小 ’siau, {small}.

2. Verbs 活虛字 {w}eh h’ü zz‘:—

Ex. 作 tsok, {to do}. 傳 dzé{n}, {to deliver down}.

3. 口氣語助虛字 ’k’eu k’i‘ ’nü ’dzú h’ü zz‘. Under this head he gives as examples:—

Interrogative and other finals.

焉 {í}e{n},? 乎 {ú},? 哉 tsé,? 也 ’{y}é,.

Pronouns and the sign of the possessive.

此 ’t’sz, {this}. 所 ’sú, {which}. 其 gí, {he}. 之 tsz, {of}.

Adverbs & auxiliary verbs.

甚 zun‘, {very}. 可, ’k’ó, {can}. 最 tsûe‘, „ 爲 {w}é, {be}.

4. 空活虛字 k’óng {w}eh h’ü zz‘.

Obs. The word {w}eh is apparently employed, because conjunctions like verbs connect what goes before with what follows. Similarly, in English grammar the verb is the {copula}, while a large class of conjunctions consists of such as are termed {copulative}. The word 空 is prefixed to distinguish these particles from verbs. The examples he gives are—

Conjunctions.

雖 sûe, {although}. 如 zû, {like}. 但 {t}an‘, {but}. 若 zák, {as}. 而 rh, {further}. 乃 né, {then}.

Negative and interrogative adverbs.

非 fí {it is not}. 何 {ú}, {what?} 不 peh, {not}. 豈 ’k’í, {how?}

{These examples are from the language of books. The corresponding words in the dialect will be found in their places}.

86. The frequent interchange of the parts of speech, and the rhythmical construction of sentences, have almost kept in concealment among the natives, the classification of which words naturally admit. Much attention has been given to the successive forms of the characters; the changes that have occurred in them, and the principles of their original formation have been carefully chronicled; but etymological studies have been comparatively neglected.

The rules of the Wun-cháng, or exercises in fine writing, law indeed been laid down, but they do not constitute the grammar of the language. While grammar is a science still unknown to the Chinese, it is a mark of the intelligence of our author that he has approached so nearly, as the preceding article shews to a western classification, and that he has defined with precision, all the principal parts of speech.

The division into parts of speech, and simple and compound words, gains in distinctness as we leave the books and restrict our illustrations to the language of conversation, and much more when instead of embracing the universal mandarin medium, we aim to exhibit the dialect of a single district.

For example the words 過 kú‘, 能 nung, 生 sáng, are in the books verbs or nouns according to their position, their tones remaining unchanged. In the Shánghái dialect they are all verbs, viz. to pass, can, to produce, If they stand alone; but the combinations of which they form part are often substantives. Ex. 過失 kú‘ seh, {a fault}; 能力 nung lih, {strength}; 生活 sáng {w}é{h} work. Ming, 明 which in the books is an adjective or verb, must if used as a verb in the colloquial have 白 {p}áh appended to it, otherwise it is an adjective. Thus instead of terminations invented to carry a root through two or more parts of speech, we have two roots in opposition for the same purpose. In the following pages accordingly, the terms noun; adjective, etc. will be predicated of the combined forms each as a whole, and not of its constituent words except when viewed independently.

{Section} 2. {Relation of the dialect to the written language, and to other dialects}.

87. In comparing the dialect with the language of books, it will be best to go at once to the oldest. The earliest portions of the Shú-king, {Book of History}, date from a period that must have been at least 3000 years ago if not previous to that of Moses. The occurrence of many of the commonest words now found in the colloquial {media} of China in records so ancient, is a sufficient illustration of the remarkable persistence of the language. It thus appears that many of the nouns and pronouns, adjectives and verbs, that formed the staple of conversation in the days of Yáu and Shun, are found not merely in the pages of an old world literature, but are still “familiar household words,” among the whole Chinese race. The selected examples which follow are all of constant use in the Shánghái dialect.

88. Examples of single words used in combination or singly.

Names of natural objects, animals, &c.

天 t’íen, {heaven}. 月 niöh, {moon}. 馬 ’mó, {horse}. 地 {t}i‘, {earth}. 星 sing, {stars}. 牛 nieu, {ox}. 人 niun, {man}. 山 sa{n}, {mountain}. 羊 yáng, {sheep}. 水 ’sz, {water}. 海 ’hé, {sea}. 火 ’hú, {fire}. 草 ’t’sau, {grass}.

Divisions of time.

春 t’sun, {spring}. 日 nyih, {day}. 夏 ’{h}au, {summer}. 月 niöh, {month}. 秋 t’sieu, {autumn}. 歲 sûe‘, {solar year}. 冬 tóng, {winter}. 夜 yá‘ {night}.

Meteorological terms.

風 fóng, {wind}. 雷 lé, {thunder}. 雨 ’{ü}, {rain}.

Numbers.

一 ih, {one}. 六 lóh, {six}. 二 ní‘, {two}. 七 t’sih, {seven}. 三 sa{n}, {three}. 八 pah, {eight}. 四 sz‘, {four}. 九 ’kieu, {nine}. 五 ’ng, {five}. 十 zeh, {ten}.

Cardinal points.

東 tóng, {east}. 南 né{n}, {south}. 西 sí, {west}. 北 póh, {north}.

Verbs.

定 {t}ing‘, {to fix}. 能 nung, {can}. 歸 kwé, {return home}. 有 ’{y}eu, {have}.

Adjectives.

大 {t}á‘, {great}. 希 hí, {few}. 遠 ’{y}ön, {distant}. 直 dzuk, {straight}.

Nouns.

罪 zûe, {sin}. 禮 ’lí, {ceremony}. 門 mun; {door}. 詩 sz, {poetry}.

Pronoun.

我 ’ngú, {I}.

89. Examples of nouns composed of two characters, or as they may be termed, dissyllabic forms.

百姓 pák-sing‘, {the people}. 上帝 záng‘-tí‘, {God}. 天下 t’íe{n}-’{a}u, {the world}. 鳳凰 vóng {w}ong‘ {phœnix}. 正月 tsung‘-niöh, {1st month}. 法度 fah-dú‘, {mode of government}. 聰明 ts’óng-ming, {intelligent}.

90. Examples of words used in combinations in the dialect, but not singly.

鳥 as in 窵鳥 ’tiau-niau, {birds}. 帝 as in 皇帝 {w}ong-tí‘, {emperor}. 神 as in 神明 zun-ming, {the inferior divinities}. 位 as in 地位 {t}í‘-{w}é‘, {station}. 事 as in 事體 zz‘-’t’í, {matter}. 可 as in 可以 ’k’ó-’í, {may, can}. 日 as in 日頭 nyih-deu, {the sun}. 聞 as in 新聞 sing-vun, {intelligence}. 說 as in 說書 söh-sû, {relate stories}.

91. These examples, which might if it were necessary, be extended to a much greater length, will be sufficient to exhibit how the most ancient forms of speech, the primitive words of the Chinese race, have maintained their position to the present time. In a similar way, the later classics contemporary with Hebrew literature, and the most flourishing part of the Greek, might be shewn to possess in a still greater abundance, the materials from which this and other dialects have grown into their existing form. But there are also many new words; the passage of time must witness changes, even in the language of a people so devoted to antiquity as that of China. It has been shewn that there has been variation in tones, by referring to the pronouncing Dictionaries made long since. The natives recognize great differences In modern and ancient sounds, as seen in the rhymes of the Book of Odes. Words also have changed; many expressions once common have become antiquated, and new ones have appeared. A reference ta colloquial mandarin will illustrate this statement, and bring before us another large portion of the materials of the dialect.

{Relation to colloquial Mandarin}. 92. The earliest examples of this form of Chinese, are found in works of the Sung dynasty and in the historical novels. Mencius so remarkable among the classic authors, for his picturesque imagery and the animation of his style, sometimes uses combinations, such as 朋友 {p}áng {y}eu‘, {friend}; 自己 zz‘ ’kí, {self}; seldom found in ancient books, and which may be considered as conversational.

93. The following are examples selected from the San kwoh chi 三國志, and Lieh kwoh chi 烈國志, works now five hundred years old, of new words not found in the classics, and all in common use in our dialect.

樹 zû‘, {tree}. 會 {w}é‘, {am able to}. 脚 kiáh, {roof}. 吃 k’iuh, {eat}. 船 zé{n} {boat}. 呌 kiau‘, {call a person}. 撇 p’ih, {stroke to the left}. 攏 ’lóng, {bring together}. 埃 á, {take in order}. 惹 ’zá, {provoke}. 敲 k’au, {knock}. 揪 t’sieu, {restrain by holding}. 撑 t’sáng, {pole a boat}. 瞧 dziau, {to look}. 抄 t’sau, {to copy}. 抖 ’teu, {shiver}. 喝 höh, {call to}. 拖 t’ú, {to pull}. 爬 {p}ó, {to scratch}. 勦 tsiau‘, {destroy}.

94. Of the following new pronouns, and interrogative adverbs first found in the historical novels, there is scarcely any use made in the Shánghái dialect.

甚麽 M. shen‘ ’mó? {what?} 那裡 M. ’ná ’li? {where?} 什麽 shih ’mó? {what?} 這箇 ché‘ kó‘, {this}. 怎麽 ’tsun ’mó? {how?} 他 t’á, {he}.

Obs. The Shánghái pronouns are all different from those, except the mutilated form 那裡 ’{a} ’lí? {where?} So for the most part those of Fúh-kien; which again differ entirely from those of the Canton dialect as contained in Bridgman’s Chrestomathy. Some pronouns are widely spread. Thus, ngó 我 I, exists in all these dialects. As a class however, they are among the words most liable to variation in colloquial Chinese.

95. The following examples of double words taken from the same works, will further illustrate the extent to which mandarin phraseology agrees with that of our dialect. They are all such combinations as are not found in the classics, and might be increased indefinitely.

人家 niun ká, {a man}. 低頭 tí deu, {lower the head}. 開船 k’é zén, {unmoor a boat}. 時辰 zz zun, {an hour}, i.e. {twelfth of a day}. 招架 tsau ká‘, {shield one’s-self}. (C) 幫助 pong dzú‘, {to assist}. 容易 {y}úng {í}‘, easy. 船隻 (C) ze{n} tsáh, {boats; or a boat}. 𢬵命 ’p’ing ming‘, {throw away life}. 看見 k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘, {to see}. 踅手 zeh ’seu, {maimed hand}. 利害 lí {é}‘, {dangerous, severe}. (C) 仔細 ’tsz sí‘, {minutely}. 解說 ’ká seh, {explanation}. 撞倒 dzong‘ ’tau, {push down}. 敬重 kiung‘ dzóng, {revere}. 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, {very good}. 認得 niun‘ tuh, {know a person}. 唱喏 (C) t’song‘ ’zó, {join one’s hands in respect}. 倒竪 ’tau ’zû, {set up on end}.

The characters marked (C) are those that were invented, to represent colloquial words written for the first time. The rest are old classical characters, but they are not found in these combinations.

97. On comparing the old historical novels, with mandarin colloquial tales of the present dynasty, such as the well-known 紅樓夢 {Dream of the Red Chamber}, no closer analogy with our dialect appears. The style indeed is much more diffuse, being a faithful copy of what real conversation is, and so far it is more like provincial dialects. But as to words, the auxiliary particles (in which the chief changes occur), are peculiar to mandarin, and the verbs and nouns are the same as those of earlier works.

Thus, 的 occurs constantly instead of 之 ch, which is the most common sign of the possessive in the {Three Kingdoms}. As the third personal pronoun, 那 ’ná takes the place of 其 gí The word for {said}, 曰 {y}öh, a term not used in conversation, is replaced by 說道 shwóh táú, either together or apart.

98. Having thus briefly considered the historical division that the dialect admits of, into primitive and modern words, something should be added on local terms, constituting the remainder. On examination it will be found that the words, single and compound, not in mandarin, are few. They can scarcely be many more than a hundred. In a list drawn up for the purpose by a native, of about 100, a third part consisted of verbs, another third part of particles, the rest comprised substantives, adjectives, and words imitative of sounds.

Many of these belong also to the dialects of the neighbouring cities. In the histories of Sú-cheú and Súng-kiáng, the short chapter devoted to the subject of colloquialisms, enumerates several that belong equally to Shánghái. They appear to have been copied in great part from one work into another, and the whole number recorded in each does not reach fifty. Those contained in the history of Shánghái, will be found in the following pages under the parts of speech to which they belong. In Medhurst’s Dictionary of the Fúh-kien dialect, there are classified lists of about 250 phrases peculiar to that province. Some of these however are corrupted forms of expressions used in the other parts of China.

99. The neighbouring dialect of Sú-cheú may be expected to have much in common with that of Shánghái, The system of pronunciation is in general the same, the initial consonants forming a hard and soft series, corresponding to the upper and lower tones in the southern provinces. The following are examples of phrases, the same as those of Shánghái.

那哼 ’ná háng? {how?} 弗是 veh zz‘, {it is not} 自家 zz‘ ká, {self}. 多許 tú hau‘, {very many}. 弟个 veh kú‘, {not so}. 慢點 ma{n}‘ ’tíe{n}, {little slower}. 做啥 tsú‘ sá‘? {what do you?} 個頭 kú‘ deu, {there}. 個歇 kú‘ h’ih, {at present}. 個个 kú‘ kú‘, {that}.

哉 tsé (M. 了), sign of completion. 子 ’tsz (M. 了), sign of past participle. 个 kú‘ (M. 的), sign of possessive. 勿 veh (M. 不), simple negative. 全 dsíe{n} (M. 都), {all}. 啥 sá‘ (M. 甚麽)? {what?} 好好能 ’hau ’hau nung, {well, in a good manner}. 想着之 ’siáng záh ’tsz, {having thought of}. 拉屋裡 ’la óh ’lí, {at home}. 是介 zz‘ ké‘ (S. {s}eh ké nung), {thus}.

In some words very commonly occurring, that dialect differs from Shánghái and agrees with mandarin.

This, M. 道个 ché‘ kú‘. S. 第个 {t}í‘ kú‘. He, M. 他 t’á. S. 伊 í. How? M. 怎麽樣 ’tsun ’mó yáng‘?

{Section} 3. {On the Substantive}.

100. The native grammarian already introduced to the reader defines substantives, or rather substances, thus 天地名物, 象數事理 T’íe{n} dí‘ ming veh‘ ziáng‘ sú‘ zz‘ ’{l}i, “Heaven, earth, names and things, images, numbers, facts and principles;” 凡有形有質, 有氣有聲 va{n} ’{y}eu {y}iung ’{y}eu tseh ’{y}eu k’i ’{y}eu sung, “all things that have form, material substances, breath and sound;” 一切有端可指者 ih t’sih ’{y}eu tön ’k’ó ’{t}sz ’tsé, “all things having any property that can be pointed out;” 皆謂之實字 kia {w}é‘ tsz {s}eh zz‘, “are called substantives.”

“The names of substances,” he adds, “may consist of one or several characters, which must be arranged in classes, brought under the dominion of the rhythmus, and stored in the memory for use when required.” Such nouns as express the properties of substances he calls 子字 ’tsz zz‘, “son characters,” while the names of the substances themselves are termed 毋字 ’mú zz‘, “mother characters.” Attributes he further subdivides into “universal,” 公共子字 kóng góng‘ ’tsz zz‘, and “special,” 實在子字 {s}eh zé ’tsz zz‘.

{Combined and uncombined substantives}. 101. One of the most striking peculiarities of Chinese words, whether nouns, verbs or particles, is the strictness with which the laws of combination and order are observed. Each dialect has many words that can be used with or without an adjunct, and may be regarded as purely monosyllabic; another large class embraces such as are never used by the natives, except in apposition with some other word, and constituting for that dialect, what may be considered dissyllables. Of the former or monosyllabic kind are the following examples (s. C).

飯 va{n}‘, {cooked rice}. 貓 mau‘, {cat}. 狗 ’keu, {dog}. 雲 yün, {clouds}. 墨 muh, {ink}. 藥 {y}áh, {medicine}. 理 ’lí, {moral law}. 煤 mé, {coal}. 雪 sih, {snow}.

102. In construction, these and similar words may be observed to remain in an uncombined state. The first word in each, of the following sentences exemplifies this remark.

米糴好否 ’mi {t}ih ’hau ’vá? {have you brought rice?} 人是一樣个 niun ’zz ih {y}áng‘ kú, {I am a man as you}. 袖要大 dzien‘ yau‘ dú‘, {let the sleeve be large}.

These words may all of them be used in combination, according to some of the laws described in the succeeding paragraphs. Thus they appear in dissyllabic forms such as—

米價 ’mí ká‘, {price of rice}. 大人 {t}ú‘ niun, {father}.

103. The other class consists of those words that are never used without an adjunct. For example 衣 í {dress}, not used alone, is found among other combinations in the following.

衣裳 í zong, {clothes}. 布衣 pú‘ í, {cotton clothes}.

So also 猪 tsz, 日 zeh, 房 vong, 禮 ’lí, are found in combination only.

猪驢 tsz lú, {a pig}. 過房 ku‘ vong, {adopted child}. 江猪 kong tsz, {the river pig} (a fish). 禮物 ’lí veh, {presents}. 日食 nyih zuh, {eclipse of the sun}.

104. In construction, the adjuncts unless the rhythmus requires it, cannot be omitted.

着衣裳 tsáh í zong, {put on clothes}. 殺猜驢个 sah tsz lú kú‘, {pork butcher}. 日頭落山 nyih deu lok sa{n}, {sun is setting}. 租房子 tsú vong ’tsz, {let a house}. 送禮物 sóng‘ ’lí veh, {offer presents}.

{Combination}. 105. Substantives are formed of two or more substantives combined in various ways. If the collocation consists of species and genus, the former precedes.

柏樹 páh zû‘, {cypress}. 茶壺 dzó {ú}, {teapot}. 松樹 sóng zû‘, {pine}. 鐵蛋 t’ih da{n}‘, {iron bullet}. 酒壺 tsieu {ú}, {wine chalice}. 雞蛋 kí da{n}‘, {hen’s egg}. 牡丹花 mau‘-ta{n}‘ hwó, {moutan pœny}. 孛相船 {p}eh-siáng‘ zén {pleasure boat}. 堦沿石 ká-{í}en záh, {first door-step}. 磨刀石 mú tau záh, {grind-stone}. 紅緯帽子 {h}óng {w}é‘ mau‘-’tsz, {red tasselled hat}.

Obs. In the last five examples, the first two words constitute the species. The word 石 záh requires 頭 as its appendage, if there is no specific term prefixed. When compounds are formed, the auxiliary word is omitted. In the last case 子 tsz, the auxiliary is retained, or dropped at pleasure.

106. When the compound substantive formed by juxtaposition, consists of whole and part, or substance and accident or attribute, the former precedes.

手心 ’seu sing, {palm of the hand}. 手套 ’seu t’au‘, {gloves}. 樹根 zû‘ kun, {root of a tree}. 樹葉 zû‘ ih, {leaves of a tree}. 頭髮 {t}eu fah, {hair}. 首飾 ’seu seh, {head ornaments}.

107. When two or more substantives, cognate in meaning, or in some logical relation, are in apposition, their order depends on native usage.

親眷 t’sing kiö{n}‘, {relations}. 信息 sing‘ sih, {letters and news}. 街路 ká lu‘ {the road}. 貨色 hú‘ suh, {goods}. 榮光 {y}óng kwong, {glory}. 財帛 dzé báh, {money and silk}. 福祿壽 fóh loh zeu‘, {happiness, affluence and age}. 酒色財氣 ’tsieu suh dzé k’í‘ {wine, lust, riches and anger}.

Obs. i. The primary reason of the order in which these words are used, may have been a real or fanciful sequence of ideas, convenience of pronunciation, rhythm or caprice; but whatever it was, it is strictly preserved. Should another order be adopted, the meaning would not be conveyed. To these and other fixed combinations, found in all parts of speech, must in great part be attributed, the facility with which a language of monosyllables and tones such as the Chinese, is employed as a conversational medium.

Obs. ii. Many words found in compounds of this sort are inseparable. Thus 眷 kiö{n}‘ has no other use in the dialect, than to form these combinations. As a verb {to compassionate} its use is limited to the books.

Obs. iii. Under this head may be included antithetical substantives (Literæ oppositæ, Premare), of which there are several in common use without a particle between them. 姊妹 tsí ({elder sister}) mé‘ ({younger do.}) sisters; 禽獸 {k}iun ({birds}), seu‘ ({beasts}), {animals}; 天地 t’íe{n} dí‘, {heaven and earth}; 夫婦 fú vú‘, {husband and wife}; 山水人物 sa{n} ’sz niun veh, {mountains, water, men and things:} 銅錢銀子 {t}óng díe{n} niung ’tsz, {copper and silver money}.

Obs. iv. Phrases of this sort are not coined {ad libitum}. They are old forms, and the modern Chinese do not allow themselves to make new ones. Each dialect has its own traditional arrangement of words, as well as its particular mode of enunciating the tones, and its alphabetical variations. But there is in all the dialects, so large a majority of phrases as well as words, common to the rest of China, even in that of Fúh-kien, that the identity of the language is in no district brought into question by these differences.

108. Some of these combined forms consist of a substantive and an enclitic. Of the auxiliary words thus used 子 ’tsz, 頭 {t}eu, are the most common.

鴿子 keh ’tsz, {a pigeon}. 席子 {s}ih ’tsz, {matting}. 刮法子 {k}wah fah ’tsz, {machinery}. 罐頭 kwé{n}‘ deu, {saucepan}. 流頭 lieu den, {pulley}. 甎頭 tsé{n} deu, {bricks}. 話頭 {w}ó‘ deu, {words}. 骨耳頭 kweh- ’rh deu, {an axle}.

These enclitics are never used in the classics; they form a leading characteristic of colloquial Chinese. ’Tsz and {t}eu give individuality and definiteness to the term they qualify. Their proper meaning, {son}, {head}, is in these cases lost; they help also to fill the rhythm of the sentence, and to distinguish the words to which they are appended from other terms like them in sound. The enclitic 兒 rh, so common in the mandarin provinces, and also in the dialect of Háng-cheú, has its place supplied by 子 ’tsz. Nyih ’tsz 日子 {day} is distinguished from nyih deu 日頭 {the sun} by the enclitic.

109. To express a place where persons come and go, the words 頭 deu and 塲 dzáng are appended to substantives.

粒屑 lih sih, or sih alone, expresses {small fragments of}. 局頭 {k}ióh deu, {place of carrying on trade}. 橋頭 {k}iau deu, {landing place of a bridge}. 碼頭 ’mó deu, „ „ {of a ferry}. 賭場 ’tu dzáng, {place of gaming}. 戲場 h’í dzáng, {place of seeing plays}. 牛場 nieu dzáng, {place of tethering cattle}. 柴粒屑 zá lih sih, {small fragments of firewood}.

110. Verbs and adjectives form compound substantives, by taking after them such auxiliaries as 頭 {t}eu, 法 fah and 處 t’sû‘.

有辦頭 ’{y}eu pa{n}‘ deu, {there is a way of doing it}. 唔坐處 {m} ’zú t’sû‘, {no place to sit down}. 有啥做法 ’{y}eu sá‘ t’sû‘ fah? {is there a way of doing it?} 唔啥好處 {m} sá‘ ’hau t’sû‘, {no benefit in it}. 那能好法 ’ná nung ’hau fah? {how is it good?} 長頭 {dzáng deu}, {overplus}. 剩頭, 餘頭 dzung‘ deu, {û} deu, {remainder}. 牢實頭 lau zeh deu, {a simple, honest person}. 苦惱子 ’k’u ’nau ’tsz, {one very poor and wretched}.

111. Many of the auxiliary substantives treated of in the next section, whose office it is to stand between numerals and their nouns, often follow their substantives without a numeral. A compound is thus formed, in which the sense of the classifying particle is often preserved, {A piece of} is expressed by k’wé. {A bar of} by {t}iau.

冰塊 ping k’wé‘, {piece of ice}. 鋼條 kong diau, {steel spring}. 船隻 zé{n} tsáh, {boats}. 人頭 niun deu, {a man}. 書本 sû ’pun, {books}. 紙張 ’tsz tsáng, {sheet of paper}.

112. The words 夫 fú, 手 ’seu, 做 tsoh, 匠 ziáng‘, 司務 sz‘ vú‘, 家 ká, 人 niun, are appended to substantives to denote agents, trades and professions.

脚夫 kiák fú, {a porter}. 兇手 h’iúng ’seu, {murderer}. 本作, 木匠 mok tsoh, or móh ziáng‘, {carpenter}. 水作, 泥水匠 ’sz tsoh, or ní ’sz ziáng‘, {bricklayer}. 鞋匠司務 {h}á ziáng‘ sz‘ vú‘, {shoemaker}. 裁縫司務 dzé vóng sz‘ vú‘, {tailor}. 店家 tié{n} ká, {shop-keeper}. 船家 zé{n} ká, {boatman}. 捉魚人 tsoh {ng} niun. {fisherman}. 拾柴人 {s}ih zá niun, {wood gatherer}. 東家 tóng ({east}) ká, {master} ({who places his guests on the right}). 禮生 ’lí sáng, {director of rites}. 先生 síe{n} sáng, {teacher}.

Obs. In the longer examples, some verbs will be found which enter into composition, as those in Art. 113.

113. Verbs and adjectives are frequently compounded in the same way as substantives.

屏風 {p}ing ({to screen}) fóng ({the wind}), {a screen}. 扶手 vú ({to support}) ’seu ({the hand}), {hand-rail}. 吃局 k’iuh ({eat}) gióh ({food}), {food}. 小姐 ’siau tsiá, {young lady}. 古董 ’kú ({old}) ’tóng, {curiosities}. 夥計 ’hú ({combine}) kí‘ ({plans}), {partner in business}. 辮子 {p}íe{n}‘ ({to plait}) ’tsz, {the queue}. 黃狼 {w}ong ({yellow}) long ({wolf}), {weasel}. 抽㔸 t’seu ({to draw out}) t’í‘ ({drawer}), {a drawer}. 生梨 sáng ({raw}) lí ({pears}), {pears}. 花紅 hwó ({flower}) {ó}ng ({red}), {small apples}. 金箔 kíun boh, ({thin}) {gold-leaf}. 相好 siáng ({mutual}) hau ({good}) {intimate friends}.

114. The word 阿, merely euphonic, is joined to the names of persons, both relative and proper. Thus instead of 哥哥 kó kó, {elder brother}, we have in Shánghái 阿哥 ah (R. á.) kú also 阿爹 or 爹爹 tiá tiá, {father}. When applied to the names of children and others in humble life, either word in the proper name may annexed.

115. Some examples of foreign words used in the dialect, and of colloquial substantives, extracted from the history of Shánghái are here appended.

鴉片 á p’íe{n}‘, {opium}. 袈裟 ká só, {Buddhist priest’s robe}. Sanscrit Kashaya. 記 (C) 翼 (C) kí‘ lih, {wings}. M. ’ch pang rh. 尾杷 (C) ní‘ pó, {tail}. (尾) R. ’vi) M. i pa. 小囝 (C) ’siau nö{n}, {little boy}. 鱟 (C) heu‘, {the king-crab, rainbow}. M. kang‘, R. 虹 hung. 簷凙 (C) {y}ien doh, {icicles}. M. ping chiu‘ ’tsz. 羊乳 (C) {y}áng ’ná, {goat’s milk}. 筷 (C) k’wa{n}, {chopsticks}. M. k’wai tsz. 烟囪 (C) íe{n} t’sóng, {chimney}. M. yen ’t’ung. 爺娘 {y}á niáng, {father and mother}. M. tie niang.

Obs. Characters followed by (c) are such as are borrowed, to represent purely colloquial words.

New and colloquial words are usually written on the phonetic principle, as may be noticed in the first three examples. Natives differ much in their way of writing purely colloquial words, and being never made use of in books, it matters little what character is adopted.

116. The last way of forming compound substantives to be exemplified, is by the particle 個 kú‘, which coming after a verb and noun expresses an agent.

吃糧箇 k’iuh liáng kú, ({living on imperial rice}), {soldiers}. 撐船箇 t’sáng zé{n} kú‘, {those who work boats}. 管賬個 ’kwé{n} tsáng‘-kú‘, {account-keeper}. 賣花個 má‘ hwó kú‘, {flower-seller}. 擺渡個 ’pá dú‘ kú‘, {ferryman}.

Obs. The common word 的 tih and in books 者 ’tsé is not used in this dialect its place being supplied by 個 kú‘ as in these examples.

{Repetition}. 117. Substantives are in some cases repeated. Forms indicative of diminutiveness are such as occur in the following examples.

嘵一星星 ’nau ih sing sing, {look! there is a star}. 要一點點 yau‘ ih ’tíe{n} ’tíe{n}, {I want a very little}.

118. A few repeated forms occur, with am adjective preceding in opposition.

暗洞洞 é{n}‘ dóng dóng, {a dark place}. 亮晃晃 liáng ’kwong ’kwong, {a glimmer of light}.

Obs. Such forms of repetition are rare, except when they express plurality (v. Art. 129). In the adjective and verb, they are much more common. See also Part III. Repetition.

119. The formation of compound substantives, by the simple apposition of two or more roots, is also found in other languages. English and German contain many examples. Substantives, adjectives, and verbs all enter into these forms. E.g. hearsay (v. v.), sunset (s. v.), windfall (s. v.), footstool (s. s.), farewell (v. adv.), lebewohl (do. German), adieu (prep. s. Fr. Eng.), addio (do. Ital.), safeguard (a. s.), white-bait (a. s.), Rath-haus (s. s.), council-house (s. s.). Though many of these words are written without a break, the accent on the penultimate indicates, for those that are English, that they are compounds. In languages that have an extensive system of terminations such as Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit, when composition occurs, the constituent roots become one word, and the affix of declension, &c. in the word that precedes is usually omitted. Thus, in {αὐτάδελφος} and {αὐτόχειρ} the simple root {aut} precedes the word to which it is joined, in one case with no adjunct, and in the other with the connecting vowel {o}. In the Latin word {respublica}, {reipublicæ} we have two roots in apposition, without the process of declension being interrupted. Cases of simple juxtaposition such as this, are much rarer in the ancient languages than in the modern, where the root admits of few variations in its form.

120. In the development of a language consisting of monosyllabic roots, where nothing can be added or altered, some equivalent for terminations and compounds must be expected. This want is met in the Indian languages of America, by combining several independent roots into one word. If for these agglutinated syllables, separate characters were reserved, it would be a system resembling the Chinese. We have in the latter (1), simple apposition of roots, as exemplified in articles 105, 106, 107. Second, there is a change of certain substantives into mere particles which are appended, deprived of their primitive meaning, to large classes of words, as seen in articles 108, 109, 110. Forms of this second kind are usually expressive of simple ideas only; the others may be simple or compound. The terminations of tense and case in the classical languages came from the simple apposition of separate words. Those of the first, second, and third persons of a verb are derived for example, from the three corresponding personal pronouns. Obsolete forms preserved in the oldest writers countenance this theory. Whether the primitive speech of mankind was of this sort, may be matter of controversy, but there can be no doubt that the Chinese language has this peculiarity.

121. Variation in tone might be enumerated as a third mode of supplying the want of inflexions. Examples in the spoken language are however extremely few. In 種 tsóng‘, {to sow}, and 種子 ’tsóng ’tsz, {seed}, the tone differs. But even here the enclitic 子 is an inseparable appendage to the noun. Some other examples here follow:—

一囘 ih {w}é‘, {one time}. 囘來 {w}é lé, {come back}. 磨子 mú‘ ’tsz, {a mill}. 磨麥 mú máh, {grind wheat}. 牽繩 k’íe{n}‘ zung, {towing-rope}. 牽船 k’íe{n} zé{n}, {tow a boat}. 鐵釘 t’ih ting, {iron nail}. 釘牢 ting‘ lau, {nail fast}. 應該 yung ké, {ought}. 應許 yung‘ ’hü, {a promise}. 相幫 siáng pong, {to assist}. 宰相 tsé‘ siáng‘, {chief mandn}.

Obs. The superior comma on the right shows where the words whose tone varies should receive the quick rising tone, or Shánghái {k’u shing}.

{Gender}. 122. Gender is expressed by auxiliary words set apart for the purpose. It being thus merely an instance of adjectives and substantives in apposition, the arrangement requires the words descriptive of sex (男 né{n}, 女 ’nü), or gender (雌 t’sz, 雄 {y}ióng) to precede.

雄鷄雌鷄 {y}ióng-kí t‘sz-kí, {a cock and hen}. 一隻雄獅子 ih tsáh {y}ióng sz-tsz, {a male lion}.[1] 男人 né{n} niun, {husband}. 女囝 ’nü nö{n}, {a girl}.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. In the books {y}óng, t’sz, are restricted to birds, and 牝 {p}ing‘ and 牡 meu‘ to animals. In the colloquial of this part of China, the pair of words above are used in all cases. -----------------------------------------------------------------

123. Among the words used in the Shánghái dialect to express family relationship are the following:—

爹爹 tiá tiá, {father}. 姊夫 tsí fú, {brother-in-law}. 阿媽 ah ’má, {mother}. 孫女 sun ’nü, {grand daughter}. 阿奶 ah ’ná, {grandmother}. 外甥 ngá‘ sáng, {sister’s son}. 伯伯 páh páh, {eldest uncle}. 女壻 ’nü sih, {son-in-law}. 爺叔 {y}á sóh, {younger do}. 姑媽 kú mó, {husband’s sister}. 娘舅 niáng gieu‘, {mother’s 姑娘 kú niáng, {father’s sister}. brother}. 阿姨 ah {í}, {wife’s sister}. 丈人 dzáng‘ niun, {father-in-law}. 阿嫂 ah sau, {brother’s wife}. 阿姆 dzáng‘ {m}, {mother-in-law}. 媳婦 sing vú, {daughter-in-law}. 阿姪 ah dzeh, {brother’s son}. 外公 ngá‘ kóng, {mother’s father}. 阿姊 ah tsí, {elder sister}. 妹妹 mé‘ mé‘,{younger do}. 外婆 ngá bú, {mother’s mother}.

{Number}. 124. The form of the substantives in the singular and plural is the same. The auxiliary adjectives and adverbs used to express plurality are placed some before and some after their words. {Tsóng‘}, {tú hau‘} {’hau ’kí}, and {tá} precede their noun. {Dzén}, t{’óh}, invariably follow their words.

125. 衆 tsóng‘ precedes its noun and expresses universality.

衆百姓 tsóng‘ pák sing‘, {all the people}. 衆位阿 tsóng‘ {w}é‘ á, {all you persons}.

126. 多許 tú hau‘ and ’hau ’ki 好幾 describe {a great number or several}. Being double inseparable particles, they form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore can be separated from their words, and placed afterwards with a copula and a terminating particle.

多許物事 tú hau‘ meh zz‘, {a great many things}. 物事有多許拉 meh zz‘ ’{y}eu tú hau‘ lá, {there are very many things}. 好幾个人 ’hau ’kí kú‘ niun, {a good many men}. 人有好幾个 niun ’{y}eu ’hau ’kí ku‘, {there are several men}.

127. 多 tú, several, like tsóng‘ cannot form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore precedes its word. It is used extensively with, the specific substantive particles already alluded to. The word tu, {many}, retains its old sound ta for this use.

買之大斤者 ’má tsz tá kiun ’tsé, {have bought several catties}. 多囘 tá {w}é‘, {several times}. 多個國度 tá k個‘ kóh dú‘, or tá kóh, {several kingdoms}. 多句說話 tá kü‘ seh {w}ó‘, {many sentences}.

128. The words 全, 禿 dzé{n}, t’óh foil following their substantives, usually from the first word in the concluding member of the proposition.

米咾肉禿有 ’mí lau niók t’óh {y}eu, {there are both rice and meat}. 人全拉看戲 niun dzé{n} ’lá k’ö{n}‘ hí‘, {they are all looking at the play}.

Obs. Pronunciation places these auxiliary particles in closer union with the following word, than with their own noun. Yet the rhythmus often attracts the two members into one sentence. E.g.

男女禿有 né{n} ’nü t’oh ’{y}eu, {the men and women are all there}. 官府全好 kwé{n} ’fú dzé{n} ’hau, {the mandarins are all good}.

129. The plural is also formed by repetition.

人人來者 niun niun lé ’tsé, {the men are all come}. 國國太平 kók kók t’á‘ bing, {nations all at peace}. 世世代代 sz‘ sz‘ dé‘ dé‘, {age after age}.

{Case}. 130. The genitive or possessive case is expressed by 個 kú‘. It corresponds to 的 tih, M. 个 gé, é, Fúhkien, 個 kó‘, Canton.

伊个聲氣 í kú‘ sáng k’í‘, {his voice}. 花个蘂頭 hwó kú‘ ’nü deu, {the buds of flowers}. 人个面孔 niun kú‘ míe{n}‘ ’k’óng, {the human voice}.

Obs. When the possessive particle is omitted, a compound substantive is formed, as hwó ’nü deu, {flower buds}. Here no transposition is necessary, the predicated part standing last in both cases. English idiom placing the subject after the possessive particle, also requires the definite article to begin the sentence, “the buds of flowers.” When the constituent words are not adapted to form a compound substantive, as in the first of the examples above, the particle is always retained.

131. The objective case has no particle to mark it. It is known by position, coming after the verb. The nominative always precedes the verb.

我告訴㑚 ’ngú kau‘ sú‘ ná‘, {I tell you}. 送我一本 sóng ’ngú ih ’pun, {give me a book}. 勿要駡人 veh yau‘ mó‘ niun, {do not rail at people}. 告訴伊拉者 kau‘ sú‘ í ’lá ’tsé, {I have told him}.

132. Only the verb 話 {w}ó‘, {to say}, requires a particle to precede the objective noun. The words 替, 對, 忒, t’í‘, té‘, t’eh, may either of them be employed.

吾替㑚話 ’ngú t’í‘ ná‘ {w}ó‘, {I tell you}. 忒伊話末者 t’eh í {w}ó‘ meh ’tsé, {tell him}. 對伊話拉者 té‘ í {w}ó‘ ’lá ’tse, {have told him}.

Obs. This verb being intransitive, and standing last, leaves the substantive ungoverned, and renders a preposition necessary. So in English {say} requires {to} after it. In Latin, the noun is put in the dative without a preposition, as {dico vobis}.

133. The sign of the dative in {da mihi}, and {give it to me} is omitted. The euphonic particle ’lá 拉 is used to fill up the rhythmus.

撥我一箇 peh ’ngú ih kú‘, {give me one}. 撥飯拉我 peh va{n} ’lá ’ngú, {give me rice}. 撥飯我吃 peh va{n}‘ ’ngú k’iuh, {ditto}. 撥之我末者 peh tsz ’ngú meh ’tsé, {give it to me}. 撥拉伊拉者 peh ’lá í ’lá ’tsé, {have given it him}.

Obs. i. In English {to} is omitted or not at pleasure. Such datives as occur in {Gloria Patri, dedicated to the interests of truth, my love to you} cannot be expressed.

Obs. ii. In the example peh ’ngú ih kú‘, the dative comes next to the verb, while in the following sentence, the object precedes it. These differences of position are occasioned by the rhythmus.

134. {To a place} is expressed by 到 tau‘, usually with a verb of motion following the substantive.

到蘇州去者 tau‘ Sú-tseu k’i‘ ’tsé, {gone to Sú-cheú}. 幾時到上海 ’kí zz tau‘ Zóng‘ ’hé, {when did you come to Shánghái?} 到此地来做啥 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé tsú‘ sá? {what do you come to do?}

135. {Motion from} or {by} (ablative) is expressed by 自 zz‘, 從 zóng, 由 {y}eu or 打, ’táng. The last of these is most frequently employed.

打啥户堂來 ’táng sá‘ {ú} dong lé? {whence do you come?} 打故邊走 ’táng kú‘ píe{n} ’tseu, {go that way}. 從第搭到屋裡 dzóng dí‘ dah tau‘ óh ’lí, {from hence home}.

136. The sense of {for}, {instead of} is given by several particles, 替, 代, 代替, 忒, 爲, t’í, dé, dé t’í, t’uh and {w}é‘, are all in use.

忒我去買 t’uh ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, {go and buy for me}. 爲之我咾 {w}é‘ tsz ’ngú lau— {on my account}—. 替儂做生活 t’í‘ nóng tsú‘ sáng {w}eh, {do work instead of you}.

137. {In} and {at} (locative case) are expressed by 勒拉 leh ’lá and 拉 ’lá before, and 裏 ’lí or 裏向 ’lí h’iáng‘, after the substantives, (M. 在 tsai‘ prefixed, 裏, 内, 中, ’lí, núi‘, chóng suffixes).

勿拉屋裏 veh ’lá óh ’lí, {not at home}. 勿拉上海 veh ’lá Zóng‘ ’hé, {not at Shánghái}. 勒拉勿勒拉 leh ’lá veh leh ’lá, {at home or not?} 勿勒裏 veh leh ’lí, {not at home}. 嘴裏工夫 tsz‘ lí kúng fú, {mere words}. 心裏向 sing ’lí h’iáng, {in the mind}.

138. {With}, {of} (instrumental case) are expressed by the verb, ta{n} (also na{n} west of Shánghái), or nó, {to bring}, preceding the noun and a verb following it. (M. 將 tsiáng, 把 pa; in books, 以 ’í and by the suffix 個 kú‘, which usually takes a verb between it and the noun.

担刀來割 ta{n} tau lé kweh (köh), {cut it with a knife}. 錫做个 sih tsú‘ kú‘, {made of tin}.

139. In expressing {by} (instrumental case), the auxiliary verb peh 撥 precedes the instrumental noun, and the principal verb with or without its regimen follows (M. 彼 pei):—

撥拉爺娘責備 peh lá {y}á niáng tsah bé‘, {he was reproved by his parents}.

140. {Along with} is expressed by t’eh 忒, 替 t’í and 同 {t}óng. The governed noun is followed by ih dau 一淘 together. This appendage is sometimes omitted, when 同 is used.

忒伊一淘去 t’eh í ih dau k’í‘, {go with him}. 同我你跑 {t}óng ’ngú ’ní pau‘, {go with us}. 替我一淘去 t’í‘ ’ngú ih dau k’í‘, {go with me}. 我忒儂做朋友 ’ngú t’eh nóng tsú‘ {p}áng ’yeu, {I will be your friend}.

141. As a sign of the vocative, the suffix 呵 á is sometimes used. 老兄阿 lau h’iung á, {brother} (addressed to strangers as friendly salutation).

142. {Case particles in other languages}. Prepositions standing before the noun, and terminations making up one word with the root, are used together in the classical languages to express case; and very frequently the suffixes alone. In the modern European languages, suffixes are much less used, prepositions performing the office of case particles. In the Tartar languages, the particles called in other languages prepositions, come after their words, and are therefore called postpositions. In Manchu, the oblique cases, four in number, are formed by suffixes selected from this class of particles. When written they are joined to the noun or not at pleasure, and may all be used independently as particles. Thus it appears that the Chinese in using separate case particles, some before and some after, the nouns to which they belong, do not depart from the practice common to other races.

143. Premare’s method of illustrating one by one, the words most important in a grammatical view, by numerous examples, is here followed in regard to some commonly used nouns.

口 ’k’eu, {mouth, an opening}. It is only used in combination. 口音 ’k’eu yun, {speech}. 口才 ’k’eu dzé, {fluency}. 口是心非 ’k’eu ’zz sing fí, {plausible but not sincere}. 三叉路口 sa{n} t’só lú‘ ’k’eu, {where three roads meet}. 口頭言語 ’k’eu deu {í}e{n} ’nü, {colloquial particles}. 一口土白 ih ’k’eu ’t’ú báh, {all he says is in the dialect}. 門口 mun ’k’eu, {opening.} 海口 ’hé ’k’eu, {sea-port}. 乍浦口嘴 Dzó‘ p’ú‘ ’k’eu tsz‘, {Háng-cheú bay}. 口說無憑 ’k’eu söh {m} {bing}, {words without foundation}. 有口無心 ’{y}eu k’eu {m} sing, {speaking without thinking, mere words}. 一口咬定 ih ’k’eu ngau ding‘, {spoke decisively}.

144. 氣 k’í‘.

1. {Breath, vapour}.

透氣 t’eu k’í‘, {to breathe}. 地氣 {t}í‘ k’í‘, {climate}. 濕氣 sák k’í‘, {moisture}. 斷氣 dö{n}‘ k’í‘, {to die}.

2. {Anger}.

惹氣儂 ’zá k’í‘ nóng‘, {provoke you}. 勿要動氣 veh yau‘ dóng‘ k’í‘ {do not be angry}. 氣殺我 k’í‘ sah ’ngú, {provoke me greatly}.

3. {Manner, expression, meaning}.

陽氣來咾 {y}áng k’í‘ lé lau, {beautifully ornamented}. 神氣宛然 zun k’í‘ {w}é{n} zé{n}, {likeness to perfect}. 勿要客氣 veh yau‘ k’ák k’í‘, {do not stand on ceremony}. 大有福氣 {t}ú‘ ’{y}eu fóh k’í‘, {has great happiness}.

145. 心 sing, {heart, mind}.

心拉書上 sing ’lá sû long‘, {attend to your book}. 心裏明白個 sing ’lí ming bák kú‘, {has an intelligent mind}. 摳心挖胆 k’eu sing wah ’ta{n}, {mind set on schemes}. 當心,留心,小心 tong sing, lieu sing, ’siau sing, {pay attention}. 盡心竭力 dzing‘ sing gih lih, {do your utmost}. 兩條心思 ’liáng diau sing sz, {double-minded}. 白費心思 {p}ak fí‘ sing sz, {planning in vain}. 一心一念 ih sing ih nia{n}‘, {all intent upon}. 直心直肚腸 dzuh sing dzuh tú dzáng, {honest, sincere}. 心心主念 sing sing ’tsû nia{n}, {resolutely intent on}. 赤胆忠心 t’suk ’ta{n} tsóng sing, {faithful}.

146. 手 ’seu, {hand, an artisan}.

上手下手 zong‘ ’seu ’{a}u ’seu, {superior and inferior workmen}. 動手勿得 ’{t}óng ’seu veh tuh, {may not put hand to it}. 手忙脚亂, ’seu mong kiáh lö{n}, {confused and wrong}. 親手 t’sing ’seu, {with his own hand}. 一手難遮天下目 ih ’seu na{n} tsó t’íe{n} ’{a}u móh, {one hand cannot cover the eyes of all the world}. 白手求財 {p}ák ’seu gieu dzé, {want money without earning it}. 幫手 pong ’seu, {assistant}. 傳手 dzé{n} ’seu, {from hand to hand}.

147. 分 vun‘, {duty, divisions}.

十分裏一分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, {one tenth}. 名分, 本分 ming vun‘, ’pun vun‘, {duties}. 職分 tsuh vun‘, {an office}. 一生安分 ih sáng ö{n} vun‘, {do my duty a whole lifetime}. 分所當然 vun‘ ’sú tong zé{n}, {as in duty bound}.

148. 頭 {t}eu, {head}.

唔頭唔腦 {m} deu {m} ’nau, {without order}. 頭二百里 {t}eu ní‘ páh ’lí, {about 200 Chinese miles}. 幾許人頭 ’kí hau‘ niun deu? {how many men?} 起頭 ’k’í deu, {at the beginning}. 頭頭是道 {t}eu deu ’zz dau‘, {it is all reasonable}.

149. 眼 nga{n} {eye, a point, a small hole}.

一眼勿差 ih nga{n} veh t’só, {quite right}. 眼睛勿好 nga{n} tsing veh ’hau, {his eyes are bad}. 只得—眼 tseh tuh ih ’nga{n}, {only a very little}. 眼底無人 ’nga{n} tí {m} niun, {thinks none so good as he}.

150. 目 moh, {eye}.

頭目 {t}eu móh, {chief}. 賬目 t’sáng‘ móh, {accounts}. 眼目 ’nga{n} moh, {eyes}. 數目 sú‘ moh, {numbers}. 大關節目 {t}á‘ kwa{n} tsih móh, {important doctrine}.

151. 底 ’tí, {bottom}.

月底 niöh ’tí, {end of the month}. 年底 níe{n} ’tí, {end of the year}. 私底下 sz ’tí ’{a}u, {secretly}. 底裡 ’tí ’li, {at the bottom}. 底下挽通 ’tí ’{a}u ’wa{n} t’óng, {to inform secretly}. 底面不和 ’tí míe{n}‘ peh {ú}, {heart and looks not agreeing}. 直到底 dzuk tau‘ ’tí, {to the end}. 脚底下 kiák ’tí ’{a}u, {under the feet}.

152. The following substantives combine with the cardinal points to form nouns of place. They are arranged in the order of their frequency. 沿, 半爿, 面, 邊, 首, 頭, 方, ha{n}‘, pé{n}‘ ba{n}, míe{n}‘, píe{n}, ’seu, {t}eu, fong. One or two examples will suffice to explain this usage.

東半爿, 東面 tóng pé{n}‘ ba{n}, tóng míe{n}‘, {on the eastern side}.

The combinations with 裏 ’lí, {within}, include two other words which here appended, 向, 勢, 面, 邊, 頭, h’iáng‘, sz‘, míe{n}‘, píe{n}, {t}eu.

Thus, 裏向, 裏面, ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí míe{n}‘, inside.

Obs. Other words, such as the demonstrative pronouns, and some of the prepositions form similar combinations, as will be afterwards seen.

{Section} 4. {On numeral particles and auxiliary substantives}.

153. Under his head, are included the classifying particles, called by some writers numerals, with weights and measures, and any parts not being themselves full appellative nouns, into which substantives admit of being divided.

Obs. i The distinctive numeral particles applied to different substantives, belonging as they do themselves to that class of words, could not be placed with propriety among or after the adjectives; yet their Syntax is sufficiently unlike that of the substantive to require them to be placed apart.

Obs. ii. A comprehensive classification of substantives has been presented to philologists, by Dr. Legge in his “Letters on the rendering of the name God in Chinese,” Hongkong, 1850. Several useful terms are there introduced, partly from Nordheimer, but a place for the nouns now under discussion is not provided for except under class (4). The classes into which common or nouns not proper are there divided, are—

1. “Appellative or generic nouns, or names of species of individual existence, e.g. man, mountain, tree, house, garment.” Here shape and substance are both included, and the indefinite article can be prefixed in all cases.

2. “Material nouns, e.g. corn, gold, water.” Here matter only is embraced, while the limitation of form must be supplied by other words, as “a bushel of corn,” “a handful of gold,” “a cup of water,” “a sceptre of iron.” Nordheimer, Hebrew Grammar, vol. II. 796, invents no name for the former words in these cases, merely saying that the second limits the first in meaning. He considers them all concrete nouns.

3. “Collective nouns, or nouns which though singular in form, yet express a multitude.”

4. “Abstract nouns or names of qualities or modes of existence, abstracted from the object with which they are in combination.” Numeral particles and nouns of measure and shape must be placed here, although they are thereby associated with a multitude of mental and moral terms, with which they have little in common. Abstract nouns might form two classes distinguished as material and moral.

5. “Relative nouns, e.g. father, king.” Since the second class material nouns furnishes the matter of which the words ‘bushel,’ ‘handful’, ‘cup,’ etc. supply the form, perhaps these auxiliary words should be called formal nouns, and form a sixth class.

154. The classes (1), (2), (5) and part of (4), are embraced in the preceding section; The remainder form the subject of the present. With regard to their use, combined with the numeral, they cover the ground of the article {a}, {an} in the class, and of the auxiliary words in the second.

Thus, a mountain, 一座山 ih zú‘ sa{n}. Call a man, 告一个人來 kau‘ ih kú‘ niun lé. Two measures of rice, 二斗米 ní‘ ’teu ’mí. A cup of cold water, 一碗冷水 ih ’wé{n} ’láng ’sz.

Obs. In Hebrew no word like {of} is necessary, e.g. shébet (constr.) barzel, {a sceptre of iron}. Lat. {virga ferrea}.

155. The number and the auxiliary word are both necessary to the idiom, but the latter is sometimes used alone after the substantive, as noticed in Art. 111. Yet in this case, the same construction is admissible. Thus we have,

兩間房間 ’liáng ka{n} vong ka{n}, {two rooms}. 兩條鋼條 ’liáng diau kong diau, {two steel springs}. 三隻船隻 sa{n} tsáh zé{n} tsáh, {three boats}.

156. The distinctive numeral particles, or those employed with the appellative or generic nouns, here follow.

箇 kú‘ (keu‘), of men, fish, cash, dials, collars, and all relative terms. 顆 ’k’ú, of pearls. 根 kun (root), of candles, hairs, trees, masts, bamboos. 管 kwé{n} (pipe), of flutes, pencils. 口 ’k’eu (mouth), of coffins, men (as consumers). 科 k’ú, of plants, trees, roots, 三科樹 sa{n} k’ú zû‘, 3 {trees}. 塊 k’wé‘, of stones, bricks, dollars. 件 {k}íe{n}‘, of garments, affairs, news, things. 頭 {t}eu, of men, of cattle (when reckoned by heads). 頂 ’ting, of sedan chairs, hats, umbrellas, curtains. 朶 ’tú, of single flowers. 燈 tung, of candles, lights, 一燈火 ih tung ’hú, {a light}. 堵 ’tú, of walls, 一堵牆 ih ’tú dziáng, {a wall}. 條 {t}iau, of snakes, dragons, bridges, ropes, roads. 把 ’pó (hold in hand); of chairs, knives, fans, wine bowls. 本 ’pun (root), of books, account books, plays. 匹 p’ih, of horses (隻 is more common.) 面 míe{n}, of mirrors, brass and skin gongs. 幅 fóh, of pictures, maps. 對 fóng, of letters, 一封信 ih fóng sing‘, {a letter}. 文 vun, of cash, (個 is more common). 隻 tsáh, of birds, quadrupeds, tables, temples, hands, feet, watches, shoes, clocks, eyes, ears, vessels. 盞 ’tsa{n}, of lamps. 樁 tsong, of matters. 種 ’tsóng, of matters. 枝 tsz, of pencils, branches, stalks. 座 zú‘, of houses, mountains, pagodas. 乘 zung, of carriages. 圓 yö{n}, of dollars. 樣 {y}áng‘, of affairs, matters. 項 {h}áng‘, of things, matters. Also 星 sing, of things.

Obs. i. The office of these substantive particles is simply indicative. The reason of their application to particular words is custom only, but etymological connection is sometimes traceable as in 封 {to close up}, 頭 is applied to men only as a suffix.

Obs. ii. All generic and relative nouns are here included. They are distinguished in English from material nouns by taking the plural, and admitting {a}, {an}, before them.

Obs. iii. These words differ frequently, in their application to particular nouns, from the usage of other parts of the country. A native of Fúh-kien would laugh to hear 隻 tsáh, instead of 枝 tsz, applied to hands and feet. In mandarin 尾 vi‘, is the distinctive particle for fish instead of 箇 kú‘, which is employed in this dialect.

Obs. iv. Most of these particles are employed in mandarin. They are used sparingly in the historical novels, because the semi-colloquial, semi-literary style of those works only occasionally expands into full conversational idiom. When it does so, they are always found.

157. The next class of the auxiliary substantives are such as are significant, or retain their meaning when translated into English, giving to their substantives, which are either material nouns or are construed as such, limitations of form and quantity.

Obs. Weights and measures, names of vessels, divisions of books, etc., though belonging to the significant auxiliary particles, will be placed separately (see Art. 158–160).

間 ka{n}, {a room of} a house, ih ka{n} vong deu, {a room}. 口 ’k’eu, {mouthful of} breath, words, rice. 句 kü‘, {a sentence of} speech, ih kü seh {w}ó‘. 竿 kû{n}, {rod of} bamboo for fishing, ih kû{n} diau‘ kû{n}. 科 k’ú, pluck up {a heap of} grass, {p}ah ih k’ú ’t’sau. 塊 k’wé‘, {a piece of} land, meat, silver. 捆 ’k’wun (to roll), {a faggot of} wood. 局 {k}ióh, play {a game at} chess, tsoh ih gióh gí. 眼 ’nga{n} (eye) {holes in} nets, of nails, cash, {a little of any thing}. 担 ta{n}‘(to carry), {a load} of anything, ih ta{n}‘ meh zz‘. 點 ’tíe{n} {drop of} ink, {little of} anything. 湯 t’ong, how many {kinds of} food, ’kí t’ong va{n}‘. 墩 tun, {heap of} earth, rubbish. 檯 {t}é, {a stage of} plays, {table of} wine, food. 頭 {t}eu, bring {an end of} rope, ta{n} ih deu zung. 條 {t}iau, {long piece of} iron, wood, {string of} cash. 段 {t}ön, {piece cut off}, of wood, string, etc. 板 ’pa{n}, {half sheet of} paper. 包 pau (to wrap) {a parcel}, {bundle of} cotton, sugar. 把 ’pó, {handful of} rice, ih ’pó ’mí. 派 p’á‘, {division of} things, {kind of} men, customs. 篇 p’íe{n}‘, {a piece of} elegant composition, ih p’íe{n} vun tsáng. 片 p’íe{n}, {piece of} gold, ih p’íe{n} kiun ’tsz. 疋 p’ih, {piece of} cloth. 鋪 p’ú (to spread), {covering of} carpets, coverlids. 門 mun (touch-hole), {piece of} artillery. 紐 ’nieu, sa{n} ’nieu zung, three {skeins} of string. 方 fong (square), {a piece of} cloth, land, ih fong {t}í bí. 封 fóng, {a packet of} silver, ih fóng niung ’tsz. 手 ’seu, ih ’seu ni, {handful of} earth. 張 tsáng (to extend), {sheet of} paper. 節 tsih, {knot of} bamboo, {joint of} finger. 串 t’sé{n}, {string of} flowers, cash, beads. 餐 t’sö{n}, {meal of} rice. 軸 dzóh (rollers), map {on rollers}, ih gióh {w}ó‘, {a picture}. 席 dzih (mat), {party at} dinner. 扇 sé{n}‘, open {one leaf of} the door, ih sé{n}‘ mun, k’é k’é. 重 zóng, {layers of} books, dress. 層 zung, {story of} pagodas, {steps of} ladders. 陣 dzun‘, {gust of} wind, {shower of} rain. 葉 ih, {leaf of} grass, flowers, ih ih ’t’sau, {a blade of grass}. 圓 {y}ön, {small cake of} meat, medicine. 粒 lih, {seed of} corn.

Obs. i. Words expressing {kind of}, {sort of} such as 種樣星 tsóng {y}ang‘ sing, have been placed with those particles that are simply indicative, because they are applied to nouns complete in their form and organization, e.g. 伊種人 í ’tsóng niun, {that sort of man}; 第星 事體 {t}í‘ sing zz‘ ’t’i, {this sort of thing}. Having a significance of their own, they should also be mentioned here.

Obs. ii. Material nouns often in English become generic, assuming the plural termination, and when singular the indefinite article, e.g. earth, stone, etc. In Chinese, if we wish to speak of {a} stone, the affix 頭 must be used, and 塊 prefixed. Some words need only the auxiliary prefix, e.g. 一塊煤 ih k’wé‘ mé, {a piece of coal}.

Obs. iii. Some auxiliaries as 塊 are found both in the significant and simply indicative class; a circumstance which suggests that all the particles in the former table had a meaning of their own originally, though now in some instances not to be traced.

Obs. iv. A few verbs are found among these words, viz. 把, 捆, 担, 包, 張, 鋪; they are here to be construed as substantives. In English, verbs construed as nouns are very numerous, e.g. {hold, handle, touch, walk, roll}.

Obs. v. The examples given in the table, are sufficient to shew that for this class of nouns English usage is similar, except that the particle {of} must be inserted. It is different with the words of the former table, for which there is no equivalent idiom in English. These two kinds of auxiliaries should therefore be keep distinct.

158. The definite subdivisions of material nouns will now be noticed. It is not only the numeral particles and the other auxiliaries, as registered in the two preceding articles, that intervene between numbers and their substantives. Many nouns are divisible into several parts, which have appropriate names and may be used as the words of the preceding table. The most useful names of divisions are here given, and first those of books and characters.

Divisions of books.

句 kü‘, {sentence}. 節 tsih, {verse}. 大 {t}á‘, {column}. 行 {h}ong, {column}. 張 tsáng, {leaf}. 頁 {y}ih, {a leaf}. 章 tsáng, {section}. 首 ’seu, {ode}. 篇 p’ie{n}, {chapter}. 本 ’pun, {volume}. 都 {p}ú‘, {a whole work}.

Strokes of characters.

點 ’{t}íe{n} ㇔ 劃 {w}áh ㇐ 𥪡 ’zû ㇑ 剔 t’iuh ㇂ 撇 p’ih ㇒ 捺 nah ㇏ 挑 t’iau ㇀ 拂 fah ㇓ 圏 k’iö{n}, small circle. 〇

Obs. These words do not take any numeral particle. Thus in giving directions to a scholar to write the character 受 ’zeu, a teacher would say 一撇, 三黯, 帽下又字 ih p’ih, sa{n} tíe{n}, mau‘, ’{a}u ’tí {y}eu‘, zz‘. The eight strokes given above are all contained in the character 永. Information on this subject is given in Dr. Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy and other works.

159. The most common names of vessels of capacity are the following.

碗 wé{n}, {bowl}. 盤 pé{n}, {tray}. 盞 tsa{n}, {ib}. 桶 ’tóng, {bucket}. 盆 {p}un, {a plate}. 匣 {h}ah, {casket}. 缸 kong, {large jar}. 箱 siáng, {chest}. 㼦 {p}áng‘, {pitcher}. 籃 la{n}, {basket}. 瓶 {p}ing, {bottle, jar}. 簍 ’lieu, {small hamper}.

Obs. These words are used as the auxiliary particles of that which is contained in them. But if they are construed as independent substantives they all take 隻 as their distinctive particle. Thus we find, 一隻碗, 一碗茶, ih tsáh wé{n}, {a cup}; ih wé{n} dzó‘, {a cup of tea}.

160. Of definite measures, the following are in common use. Land and Long Measure.

畝 meu, 240 {square} pú‘}. 站 dza{n}‘, 90 {’lí}. 里 ’lí, 360 {p}ú‘. 步 {p}ú‘, {five feet}. 丈 záng‘, {ten feet}. 尺 t’sáh, {foot} (14 Eng. in. taylor’s ft., 10⅞in. carpenter’s ft.) 寸 t’sun‘, {tenth of a foot}. 分 fun, {tenth of a t’sun‘}.

Dry Measure.

石 {s}áh, 10 {teu}. 斗 ’teu, 10 {sung}. 升 sung, {a pint}. 合 keh, {tenth of a pint}. 抄 t’sau, 100{th of keh}.

Weights.

担 ta{n}‘, {pecul}. 斤 kiun, {catty}. 兩 ’liáng, {tael}. 錢 dzíe{n}, {mace}. 角 koh, 10 {cents}. 分 fun, 1 {cent}. 毫 {h}áu, {tenth of fun}. 釐 lí, {tenth of hau}.

Measures of time.

代 dé‘, {generation}. 世 sz‘, {ib}. 年 níe{n}, {year}. 歲 sûe‘, {ib}. 日 nyih, {day}. 點 ’tíe{n}, {hour} (with 鐘). 刻 k’uh, ¼ {hour}. 分 fun, {minute}. 杪 miau, {second}. 歇 h’ih, {instant}.

Obs. 時 zz, hour, and 月 niöh, month, are here omitted, because they usually take 箇 before them. This must be to distinguish them from words similar in sound, or from their own other senses.

161. Collective auxiliary nouns varying through all the forms of plurality, from {a pair} to {a multitude}, here follow:—

句 kü‘, {sentence of} words. 聯 líe{n}, {pair of} corresponding sentences of poetry. 雙 song, {pair} of shoes. 對 té‘, {opposite pair of} candles, geese, ih dé‘ kí, {pair of fowls}. 股 ’kú, 2 or 3 {in trade}; sa{n} ’ku k’é, {divide between three}. 排 {p}á, {a pile or raft of} timber, {row of} trees. 隊 {t}é‘, {a rank of} soldiers, ih dé ping. 帖 t’ih, {parcel of ten} pencils, ih t’ih pih. 刀 tau, 100 {sheets of} paper, ih tau ’tsz. 炷 tsû, {bundle of} incense, ih tsû h’iáng. 套 t’au‘, {coverful of} books, ih t’au‘, sû. 串 t’sé{n} {chain of} 1,000 cash. 羣 {k}iün, {flock of} birds, beasts, ih giün ’tiau. 副 fú‘, {suit of} clothes, ih fú‘ í zong. 行 {h}ong, {rows of} birds flying, trees.

162. From the list here given, it appears that there are at least 130 of these imperfect substantives, almost all in common use. They admit of a fourfold division.

I. Of the first kind, whose office is simply indicative of appellative nouns, or distinctive to some extent of classes, there are upwards of 30. A few examples are appended.

一口棺材 ih ’k’eu kwé{n} zé, {a coffin}. 造一條橋 ’zau ih diau giau, {build a bridge}. 殺一隻雞 sah ih tsáh kí, {kill a fowl}. 一枝大筆 ih tsz dú‘ pih, {a large pencil}.

Obs. i. At first sight, these words look like a capricious superfluity of articles, arising merely from a fondness for multiplying words. They appear appropriate in a language, where there is so much arbitrary classification, and so little exhibition of the power of generalizing by means of deep and comprehensive principles. Here are thirty words made use of, where one would be sufficient. It should however be remembered, that when used as adverbs there is great clearness given to the conception they express, and that they diminish the confusion that arises from similarities of sound.

Obs. ii. When an adjective is used, it comes between the particle and the noun, as in the last example. This is also true of the other particles that are the subject of this chapter.

II. Of the significant particles, or those that are applied to material nouns, and define quantity and form, apart from number, there are about 40. E.g.

一張紙頭 ih tsáng ’tsz deu, {a sheet of paper}. 二十担泥 ní‘ seh ta{n}‘ ní, {twenty loads of earth}. 九層塔 ’kieu zung t’áh, {pagoda of nine stories}.

Obs. i. When they become parts of compound appellative nouns, one of the distinctive particles precedes.

一个面孔 ih ku‘ míe{n}‘ ’k’óng, {one face}. 一隻節頭 ih tsáh tsih deu, {one finger}.

Obs. ii. 點, 眼, tíe{n}, nga{n}, are applied to any material noun in the sense of {a little of}. Ih 一 precedes them.

III. The subdivisions or definite parts of material nouns, form the most numerous class of the auxiliary substantives. Upwards of 50 are here collected. They take no particle after the number preceding, and must therefore be classed as imperfect substantives. Thus the construction in the following examples is similar.

(III.) 一斤花 ih kiun hwó, {pound of cotton}. (II.) 一包花 ih pau hwó, {bundle of cotton}. (II.) 一粒米 ih lih ’mí, {a grain of rice}. (III.) 一斗米 ih ’teu ’mí, {a peck of rice}.

IV. Collectives compose the remaining, and smallest class of qualifying particles applied to substantives. The use of words in the four classes of particles may be seen in the following examples.

一隻羊 ih tsáh {y}áng, {a sheep}. 一塊羊肉 ih k’wé {y}áng nióh, {a piece of mutton}. 一斤羊肉 ih kiun {y}áng nióh, {catty of mutton}. 一羣羊 ih giün {y}áng, {flock of sheep}.

163. Another small class of auxiliary substantives, consists of those that are used with verbs, expressing like our word {times}, the number of times the action has been performed. They are 次, 烫, 囘, 轉, 記; their use will be understood by examples.

來過兩次 lé kú‘ ’liáng t’sz‘, {I have come twice}. 去之一烫 k’í‘ tsz ih t’ong, {having gone once}. 要讀兩囘 yau‘ dóh ’liáng {w}é‘, {you must read it twice}. 走兩轉就定 ’tseu ’liáng ’tsé{n} dzieu‘ ding‘, {after going round twice he stops}. 打三十記 ’táng sa{n} seh kí‘, {received 30 blows}.

{Section} 5. {On the Adjective}. 呆 虛 字.

164. The native writer before alluded to says, the office of adjectives is “to describe the attributes and appearance of things.” “In apposition with nouns, they express their qualities,” (與實字相加, 以形容實字如何樣.) “Some adjectives consist of two words which are inseparable. Thus, repetition of the initial, the rhyme, and the whole character, frequently occurs.” (有兩字折不開者, 如雙聲, 疊韻, 疊字等類.) “There are not more than a few tens of characters that are adjectives.”

{Antithesis}. 165. In substantives, the principle of combination came prominently to view, and it will be found to belong though not so extensively, to the other parts of speech. That of antithesis belongs especially to adjectives. Most of the single-worded adjectives in daily use will illustrate this.

輕重 k’iung, ’dzóng, {light}, {heavy}. 大小 {t}ú‘, ’siau, {great}, {little}. 多少 tú ’sau, {many}, {few}. 長短 dzáng, ’tö{n}, {long}, {short}. 厚薄 ’{h}eu, {p}óh, {thick}, {thin}. 闊狹 k’weh, {h}ah, {broad}, {narrow}. 高低 kau, tí, {high}, {low}. 深淺 sun, ’t’síe{n}, {deep}, {shallow}. 冷暖 ’{l}áng, ’nö{n}, {cold}, {warm}. 清濁 t’sing, dzóh, {clear}, {muddy}. 快慢 k’wá‘, ma{n}‘, {quick}, {slow}. 好孬 (C) ’hau, k’ieu, {good}, {bad} (k’ieu = 歹 ’té). 淡濃 {t}a{n}‘, nióng, {pale}, {deep}. 早晚 ’tsau, a{n}‘, {early}, {late}. 硬軟 ngáng‘, ’niön, {hard}, {soft}. 曲直 k’ióh, dzuh, {crooked}, {straight}. 正斜 tsung‘, {s}iá, {right}, {bent}. 壯瘦 tsong‘, seu‘, {fat}, {lean}. 生熟 sáng, zóh, {ripe}, {unripe}. 鬆緊 só{n}g, kiun, {loose}, {tight}. 粗細 t’sú, sí‘, {coarse}, {fine}. 新舊 sing, ’{k}ieu, {new}, {old}. 稀綳 (C) h’í, ’máng, {few}, {crowded} (máng = 密 mih). 貴强 (C) kü‘, giáng, {dear}, {cheap} (giáng = 賤 dzíe{n}). 眞假 tsun, ’ká, {true}, {false}. 亮暗 liáng‘, e{n}‘, {light}, {dark}.

Obs. i. Those words only that are marked (C) are not used in literary compositions. There is no class of words more extensively spread through all Chinese, spoken and written, than the majority of these adjectives.

Obs. ii. Antithetical substantives of one character each, are rare in the colloquial. See 107. Obs. iii.

Obs. iii. In Premare’s list of antithetical characters, more than fifty of 117 are adjectives. Many also of those that belong to other parts of speech, have the antithesis less strongly marked.

Obs. iv. Many abstract substantives are formed by the union of these antithetical adjectives, in the order in which they stand above; e.g. {how long}? ’kí hau‘ dzáng ’dö{n}? {to say nothing about speed}, veh ’kong k’wá ma{n}‘ v. Syntax. Part III. §2.

166. Sometimes in the antithesis, one member is a single, and the other a double form.

佳 {k}iá, {capable}. 唔用 {m} {y}úng‘, {useless}. 亂 lö{n}‘, {disturbed}. 太平 t’a‘ bing, {peaceful}.

167. Other words having no obvious antithesis form it by assuming the sign of the negative.

勿像我能 veh ziáng‘ ’ngú nung, {not like me}. 勿肯做 veh ’k’ung tsú‘, {not willing to do it}. 勿便當 veh bíe{n}‘ tong‘, {not convenient}.

Obs. The negative here just corresponds to our English prefix {un}, e.g. {unlike}, {unwilling}.

{Combination}. 168. Many adjectives are formed by the apposition in a fixed order, of two adjectives, and in these compounds many book words occur.

淸爽 t’sing ’song, {clear}. 忠厚 tsóng ’{e}u, {faithful}. 懶惰 la{n} dú‘, {lazy}. 謙虛 k’íe{n} h’ü, {humble}. 乾淨 kû{n} zing‘, {clean}. 煩難 va{n} na{n}, {difficult}. 聰明 t’sóng ming, {clever}. 須少 sü ’sau, {few}. 毛草 mau ’t’sau, {rough}. 許多 ’hü tú, {many}. 冷靜 ’láng ’zing, {solitary}. 新鮮 sing síe{n}, {new}. 粗疎 t’sú sú, {coarse}. 呆笨 ngé bun‘, {stupid} 窮苦 {k}ióng ’kú, {poor}. 兇狠 h’iúng ’hun, {fierce}.

Obs. The antithesis that occurs in examples of this sort is sufficiently indicated by the sense.

169. In addition to compounds such as those already given, formed by two adjectives, substantives and verbs make part of many.

小器 ’siau ({small}) k’í‘, ({vessel}), {parsimonious}. 雪白 sih báh, {snow-white}. 厚道 ’{h}eu ({thick}) dau‘ ({doctrine}), {liberal}. 大量 {t}û‘ (great) liáng‘, ({capacity}), generous. 刻薄 k’uh ({to cut}) bóh ({thin}), {exacting}. 認眞 niung‘ tsun, {diligent}. 拗强 au‘ ({to bend}) giáng, {unyielding}. 完全 {w}é{n} ({finish}) zíe{n}, {complete} (R. dzíe{n}.) 氣悶 k’í‘({anger}) mun‘ ({sad}), {secretly sad}. 高興 kau ({wish}) h’iung‘ ({ready for}), {willing}. 難過 na{n} ({hard}) ku‘ ({to pass}), {painful, sad}. 胆大 ’ta{n} ({liver}) dú‘ ({great}), {bold}. 出客 t’seh ({outside}) k’áh, ({visitor}), {handsome}. 好笑 ’hau ({good}) siau‘ ({laugh}), {ridiculous}.

Obs. There are also triple forms, in which other parts of speech enter, e.g. 壁立直, pih lih dzuh, {straight as a wall}; 的溜圓 tih lieu‘ {y}ö{n}, {very round}. In these examples, the adjective which stands last is qualified by the preceding words.

170. Some adjectives of two words are exclusively local in their use, and present no etymology in their characters, being written phonetically. They are always inseparable.

𨅓跎 sá dú, {tired}. 豪燥 {a}u sau‘, {active, sharp}. 齷齪 ok t’soh, {dirty}. 㾑𤺥 keh dah, {blind to reason}. 囫圇 {w}eh lun, {entire}. 𨰵𨐃 h’iá tsá, {skillful}. 葛列 köh lih, {clean}. 玲瓏 ling lóng, {intelligent}. M.

171. Combinations of three are also numerous, in which the first word contains the principal meaning. The second is repeated, and as will be seen in the examples, sometimes conveys only sound. The phonetic formation of the characters will usually serve to indicate this.

瞎搭搭 P. hah tah tah, {irregular}. 硬𨅘𨅘 P. ngáng‘ báng báng, {hard and stiff}. 軟滋滋 ’niö{n} tsz tsz, {soft}. 滑澾澾 P. {w}ah t’ah t’ah, {slippery}. 閙嚷嚷 ’nau záng záng, {noisy, humming}. 毛萋萋 mau ts’í ts’í, {rough}. 暖筒筒 P. ’nö{n} dóng dóng, {warm}. 直條條 dzuh diau diau, {straight}. 矮矬矬 ’{á} t’sú t’sú, {dwarfish}. 短悠悠 ’tö{n} {y}eu {y}eu, „ 白雪雪 {p}ak sih sih, {snow-white}. 黑搨搨 P. huk t’ah t’ah, {black}.

Obs. i. In examples not marked P. the repeated word has an independent sense, in agreement with that of the leading word, and is so used in the books.

Obs. ii. These phonetic appendages, destitute of any significance of their own, are interesting to the comparative etymologist as corresponding to adjectival terminations in other languages.

172. Combined forms of four words, often consisting of adjectives and either substantives or verbs, and still more frequently of double adjectives repeated are, such as follow.

正大光明 tsung‘ dá‘ kwong ming, {upright and wise}. 寬弘大量 k’wé{n} {ó}ng dú‘ lián{g}‘, {generous}. 井井有條 ’tsing ’tsing ’{y}eu diau, {very regular}. 希奇古怪 h’i gi ’kú kwá‘, {extraordinary}. 長長遠遠 dzáng dzáng ’{y}ön ’{y}ön {long in time}. 高高低低 kau kau tí tí, {irregular in height}. 忙忙碌碌 mong mong lóh lóh, {busy}. 胆胆大大 ’ta{n} ’ta{n} dú‘ dú‘, {boldy}.

Obs. The monosyllabic adjectives are not repeated. These double forms when repeated, are also correctly translated as adverbs in almost all cases. It will be seen in subsequent sections, that repetition is used most extensively among verbs and adverbs.

173. The place of the adjective is before its noun if they go into combination, but with the substantive verb as copula or an equivalent, it may become a supplementary member of the sentence.

好人 ’hau niun, {good man}. 人是好個 niun ’zz ’hau kú‘, {the man is good}. 白糖 {p}áh dong, {white sugar}. 清水 t’sing ’sz, {clear water}. 快馬 k’wá‘ ’mó, {swift horse}. 冷飯 ’láng va{n}‘, {cold rice}. 舊書 {k}ieu‘ sû, {old books}. 馬倒勿快 ’mó ’tau veh k’wa‘, {yet the horse goes slowly}. 水淸是清個 ’sz t’sing ’zz t’sing ku‘, {the water is clear}.

174. Substantives become adjectives to other substantives, if placed before them in combination.

洋刀 yáng tau, {foreign knife}. 石路 zah lú‘, {stone road}. 牛奶 nieu ’ná, {buffalo milk}. 海船 ’hé zé{n}, {sea junk}.

Obs. Compounds of this kind have come under notice before, Art. 106. Thus it appears that cases occur which prevent the accurate defining of the parts of speech. For the words standing first in these examples, while they may well be claimed as adjectives, according to the grammar of the classical languages, are unquestionably substantives when alone. As roots they are substantives. It is by position that they are changed into adjectives. For corresponding examples in English, see Art. 119.

175. Verbs with the particle 個 or 拉個, become adjectives to the following noun.

種拉个稻 tsóng‘ ’lá kú‘ ’dau, {the sown rice}. 死个人多 ’sí kú‘ niun tú, {those that die are many}. 愛拉个囝 é‘ ’lá kú‘ ’siau nö{n}, {a dear child}. 活个物事 {w}eh kú‘ meh zz‘ {living thing}.

Obs. i. In examples like the second of these, the sense is also complete without the noun as ’sí kú‘ tú. We have in English {a darkened} room, {a beloved} child. Participles are here construed as adjectives, a usage similar to the Chinese.

Obs. ii. Some verbs enter into combination as adjectives, without the intervention of any particle. 死人 ’sí niun, {dead man}; 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, {filial son}; 孝女 h’iau‘ ’nü, {filial daughter}.

176. A few adjectives are also employed as transitive verbs. The second and fourth of the following sentences are examples. In the 1st and 3rd, the same words are adjectives.

喜歡得極 ’h’í hwé{n} tuh giuh, {exceedingly glad}. 牛喜歡水 nieu ’h’í hwé{n} ’sz, {buffaloes are fond of water}. 快快活活 k’a‘ k’a‘ {w}eh {w}eh, {very glad}. 伊總快活儂 í tsóng k’a‘ {w}eh nóng‘, {he will certainly be pleased with you}.

{Comparison of adjectives}. 177. The comparative is expressed in several ways, as by—

{a}. 再 tsé‘, {again}, which precedes the adjective it qualifies.

勿能再少 veh nung tsé‘ ’sau, {I cannot say less}. 再大無沒 tsé‘ dú‘ {m} méh, {there are none larger}. 再强有否 tsé‘ giáng ’{y}eu ’vá? {have you any cheaper?}

{b}. 點 ’tíe{n}, {a little}, follows the word that it qualifies.

第本書好點 {t}í‘ ’pun sû ’hau ’tíe{n}, {this book is better}. 快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíe{n} ’tseu, {walk a little faster}. 多點末者 tú ’tíe{n} meh ’tsé, say {a little more}.

{c}. 一眼 ih ’nga{n}, {a little}, is similar in use to the last.

倒好一眼 ’tau ’hau ih ’nga{n}, {this is however something better}. 高大一眼 kau dú‘ ih ’nga{n}, {let it be better and more}.

{d}. 還 {w}a{n} {still}, {further}; this word combined with 要 yau‘, {to want}, makes the adjective that follows comparative.

還要好 {w}a{n} yau‘ ’hau, {I want better yet}. 工力還要細 kúng fú {w}a{n} yau‘ sí‘, {I want the work finer}.

{e}. 比 ’pí, {compare}; this word makes the adjective that follows comparative. When 比 is in the negative form, the adjective may be omitted.

上海勿比蘇州 Zong‘ ’hé veh ’pí Sú tseu, {Shanghai cannot be compared to Sú-cheú}. 比我還好 ’pí ’ngú {w}a{n} ’hau, {he is better than I}. 比我好 ’pí ’ngú ’hau, {do}. 勿算比我好 veh sû{n} ’pí ’ngú ’hau, {he is not to be thought better than I}.

{f}. 更 kung‘, better. Sometimes 加 ká, {to add}, follows it.

勿去更好 veh k’í‘ kung‘ hau, {not to go would be better}. 更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, {still more wrong}. 更加無用 kung‘ ká {m} {y}úng‘, {much more useless}.

{g}. 越 {y}öh repeated. The use of this particle repeated is to place the two members of a sentence in strong antithesis; sometimes 發 fah, {to express} follows it.

越多越好 {y}öh tú {y}öh ’hau, {the more the better}. 越發窮越發要生病 {y}öh fah gióng {y}öh fah yau‘ sáng bing‘, {the poorer men are, the more liable they are to sickness}. 越發明白末越發要喜歡 {y}öh fah ming báh meh, {y}öh fah yau‘ ’h’í hwé{n}, {the more you understand it, the better you will be pleased with it}.

{h}. 又 í‘, {again}, is a very common form. 比 ’pí, often commences the sentence.

第个人又好 {t}í‘ kú‘ niun {í}‘ ’hau, {this man is better}. 落雨又多 loh ’{ü} {í}‘ tú, {it rains still more}.

{i}. 又加 {í}‘ ká, {still more} is often preceded by 比 ’pí.

比我又加明白 ’pí ’ngú {í}‘ ká ming báh, {he is still more intelligent than I}.

{k}. 加, 添, 放大 ká or tíe{n} {add} or fong‘ dú‘, {increase}.

加伊個膽量 ká í kú‘ ’ta{n} liáng‘, {grew more courageous}. 今朝風加大 kiun tsau fóng ká dú‘, {the wind is higher to-day}. 鞋子要放大 {h}á ’tsz yau‘ fong‘ dú‘, {make the shoes larger}. 銅錢要添點 {t}óng díe{n} yau‘ t’íe{n} ’tíe{n}, {you must give more money}.

{l}. The comparison is intensified by adding 得多 tuh tú after the adjective.

昨日好得多者 zoh nyih ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, {yesterday he was much better.} 第根竹頭比伊根長学得多 {t}í‘ kun tsóh-deu ’pí í kun dzang tuh tú, {this bamboo is much larger than that}. 第二隻鷄重得多 {t}í‘ ní‘ tsáh kí dzóng‘ tuh tú, {the second fowl is much heavier}.

{m}. Beside the formation of the comparative by particles, it is expressed by the positive standing first, when the difference of the compared objects is mentioned.

高六寸 kau lók t’sun‘, {taller by six inches}.

Obs. i. The verb 比 is however in examples of this last kind, understood as going before, and is often expressed, as in 第隻船此伊隻闊 二尺 {t}i‘ tsáh zé{n} ’pí í tsáh k’weh ní‘ ts’ah, {this boat is two feet wider than that}. 我娘個病比前日子好得多者 ’ngú niáng kú‘ bing‘ ’pí zie{n} nyih ’tsz ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, {my mother is much better than the day before yesterday}.

Obs. ii. Three kinds of auxiliary words appear in the examples given.

1. Substantive particles which follow the adjective they qualify, and imply a slight variation only. This variation may be increase or diminution, according to the sense of the adjective compared.

2. Verbs. Of these, the verb 比 {compare} is in constant use. It is found with other particles, or without any particle, and retains its syntax as a verb, unaffected by its use as an auxiliary in the comparison of adjectives. The other verbs employed express addition. Their opposites are used in a similar manner; e.g. 減少 ’ka{n} ’sau, 減脫 ’ka{n} t’eh, {subtract}.

3. Conjunctions and adverbs form the remainder of the particles employed in comparison. They imply a {difference} without specifying whether it be greater or less, so that they correspond more nearly to the English suffix {er} than to the particle {more}. The repeated form 越, 越 just answers to the particle {the}, in “the sooner the better.” Such English forms as this are usually regarded as elliptical, and in explaining them, words supposed to be omitted are supplied. In the corresponding Chinese phrases, there is no ground for the hypothesis of an ellipsis.

178. The subjoined auxiliary particles supply the place of a superlative. The first three are placed before the adjective they qualify. The rest follow their word.

{a}. 頂 ’ting, {highest, top}.

天狼心頂亮 t’íen long sing ’ting liáng‘, {Sirius is a very bright star}. 頂强者 ’ting giáng ’tsé, {at the lowest price}. 伊个人頂明白 í kú‘ niun ’ting ming báh, {that man is very intelligent}. 頂大頂多, ’ting dú‘, ’ting tú, {very great, very many}.

{b}. 最 tsûe‘, {exceedingly, the most}.

老虎最利害 ’lau ’hú ’tsûe‘ lí‘ {é}‘, {the tiger is very fierce}. 窵鳥當中鳳凰最好看 ’tiau ’niau tong tsóng, vóng {w}ong‘ tsûe‘ ’hau k’ö{n}‘, {among birds, the phoenix is the most beautiful}. 天地當中人最玲瓏 t’íe{n} dí‘ tong tsóng, niun tsûe‘ ling lóng, {of all things in heaven and earth, man is the most intelligent}.

{c}. 極, {k}iuh, {extremely}; this particle is used before or after the adjective which it qualifies.

聰明得極 t’sóng ming tuh giuh, {extremely intelligent}. 極深奧 {k}iuh sun au‘, {extremely profound}. 有文理得極 ’{y}eu vun ’lí tuh giuh, {very beautifully written}. 斯文得極 sz vun tuh giuh, {extremely polite and elegant}.

{d}. 野 ’yá, {wild, great}; this word requires one of the auxiliary verbs 來 or 得 verbs before it.

黃浦裡險得野 {W}ong-p’ú‘ ’lí ’híe{n} tuh ’{y}a, the Hwang-p’u is very dangerous. 天高來野拉 t’íe{n} kau le ’{y}á ’lá, {heaven is very high}.

{e}. 死 ’sí, {to die}; this word takes the auxiliary verb 來 between it and its adjective.

米行情貴來死 ’mí {h}ong zing kü‘ lé ’sí, {the price of rice is very high}. 年勢好來死 níe{n} sz‘ ’hau lé ’sí, {it is a very good year}. 今朝風大來死 kiun tsau fóng dú‘ lé ’sí, {to-day the wind is very high}.

{f}. 嘸做 {m} tsú‘, {there is nothing that can be done}; this form of expression also requires 來 lé.

風大來嘸做 fóng dú‘ lé {m} tsú, {the wind is very high}. 日頭旺來嘸做 nyih deu {y}ong‘ lé {m} tsú‘, {the sun is very bright}. 學問深來嘸做 {h}oh vun‘ sun lé {m} tsú‘, {his learning is very profound}.

{g}. 煞 sah, {very}. lit. {a twinkling}. (Premare has this particle, though it is certainly rare in mandarin. Many prefer 殺 [1]sah, {kill}).

强盜靈多煞 {k}iáng dau‘ tú sah, {the robbers are very many}. 勿輕煞 veh k’iung sah, {not very light}.

{h}. 頭一 {t}eu ih, {the first in importance}.

頭一要緊 {t}eu ih yau‘ ’kiun, {the most important}. 敬父母頭一 kiung‘ ’vú ’mú deu ih, {filial piety is most important}.

{i}. 了勿得 ’liau veh tuh, {remarkably}, {exceedingly}.

好來了勿得 ’hau lé ’liau veh tuh, {exceedingly good}.

{j}. 了反勿得 ’liau fan veh tuh, ib.

重來了反勿得 ’dzóng lé ’liau fa{n} veh tuh, {extremely heavy}.

{k}. 話勿得 {w}ó‘ veh tuh, or 話勿來 {w}ó‘ veh lé, {very}, {unspeakable}. 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, {endlessly}.

大來話勿得 {t}ú‘ lé {w}ó‘ veh tuh. {unspeakably great}. 話勿來個苦惱 {w}ó‘ veh lé kú‘ k’ú ’nau, {unspeakably wretched}.

{l}. 得利害 tuh lí‘ {é}‘, {severe}, {dangerous}.

重得利害 ’dzóng tuh lí‘ {é}‘, {exceedingly heavy}.

Obs. i. Among the words admitted here are many forms of expression equivalent to our qualifying adverbs {very}, {extremely}, etc. In actual usage no distinct line is kept between the adjectival and adverbial sense; e.g. 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, may mean {best}, or {very good}. It seemed therefore preferable to give in one view, the more common forms for framing an absolute or modified superlative. Most of these particles are also used to qualify verbs, as will be shown. They are therefore true adverbs.

Obs. ii. Here may be distinguished four modes of forming the superlative.

1. By particles appropriated to this use 是, 頂, 極, tsûe‘, ’ting, {k}iuh. The two former stand before the adjective, the third is found both before and after its word.

2. The ordinal 頭一 {t}eu ih, in mandarin 第一 {t}í ih, {the first}, also places the adjective it precedes in the superlative.

3. Auxiliary verbal particles 得, 來, tuh, lé, with the appendages 野, 極, 利害, ’{y}á, {k}iuh and lí‘ {é}, to the former, and 野, 死, 唔, 做, ’yá, ’sí, and {m} tsú‘, to the latter, form a third class.

4. The forms 了勿得, ’liau veh tuh or ’liau fa{n} veh tuh, {wonderful}, {very}, 話勿得 {w}ó‘ veh tuh (lé), {unspeakable}, and 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, {endlessly}, when appended to an adjective with 來 intervening, also convey a superlative sense.

Obs. iii. The verb 完 {w}én, {finish} is also applied to adjectives with the same force as the preceding intensitive particles. 畫來像完者 {w}ó‘ lé ziáng‘ {w}én ’tsé, {painted extremely like}; 容貌黃完 {y}óng mau‘ {w}ong {w}én, {countenance very sallow}.

Obs. iv. Extreme excellence is also predicated of an adjective by the phrases 十分 {s}eh fun, {ten parts} and 十二分 {s}eh ni‘ fun, {twelve parts}; 物事十分好 meh zz‘ zeh fun ’hau, {the thing is thoroughly good}.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. That 殺 sah is the word seems probable because ’si, {die}, a word like it in meaning is much used in a similar manner. -----------------------------------------------------------------

179. Ordinal numbers are often expressed by the cardinal numbers, when on rhythmical grounds, there is no empty place in the sentence for a particle.

今朝念一 kiun tsau nia{n}‘ ih, {to-day is the 21st of the month}. 咸豐二年 {y}a{n} fóng ní‘ níe{n}, {the 2nd year of Hien-fúng}.

Obs. In regard to the cardinal numbers (for which see page 61), a few examples only need to be added 五十三 ’ng zeh sa{n}, {fifty three}; 九 十二 ’kieu zeh ní‘, {ninety two}. From a hundred to a hundred and ten, 零 ling is inserted, 一百零四 ih páh ling sz‘, {a hundred and four}. Instead of saying 一百三十 ih páh sa{n} seh, it is more frequent to omit 十 seh. Thus, ih páh sa{n}, {a hundred and thirty}, and so for other numbers. The omission of 一 ih, {one}, sometimes occurs 百八 pák pah, {a hundred and eighty}; {one thousand four hundred} is 千四 t’sie{n} sz‘; fourteen thousand is 萬四 ma{n}‘ sz‘.

180. Days of the month take 初 t’sú before them as a numeral particle, but it is omitted when the number consists of two characters. Ordinal numbers are regularly formed by prefixing 第 {t}í‘ to the cardinal numbers.

正月初一 tsung‘ niöh t’sú ih, {the 1st day of the 1st month}. 明朝初幾 ming tsau t’sú ’kí, {what day of the month is to-morrow}. 後日初一者 ’{h}eu nyih t’sú ih ’tsé, {the day after to-morrow is the first}. 考歇第一百名 ’k’au h’ih {t}í‘ ih páh ming, {he has passed the examination as the one hundredth}. 第三十本 {t}í‘ sa{n} seh ’pun, {the thirtieth volume}. 是儂第幾個兒子 ’zz nóng‘ {t}í‘ ’kí kú‘ ní ’tsz? {which son are you?} 排行第幾 {p}á {h}ong dí‘ ’kí? {which are you in order}.

Obs. First is translated 頭一 {t}eu ih.

181. The numeral of multiplication is expressed by means of 倍 {p}é‘, {times}; 要加倍 yau‘ ká bé‘, {make it twice as large}; 加長四倍 ká dzáng sz‘ bé‘, {make it four times as long}.

182. Distributive numbers are formed by the addition of 個 kú‘, or any other auxiliary substantive particles.

一个一个 ih ku‘ ih ku‘, {one by me or one after another}. 兩个兩个 ’liáng kú‘ ’liáng kú‘, {two and two}. 一行一行 ih {h}ong ih {h}ong, {row by row}. 一條一條 ih diau ih diau, {in successive lengths}.

183. Indefinite numbers are expressed 百 páh, 100; 千 t’síe{n}, 1,000; 萬 ma{n}‘, 10,000, with or without 論 lun.

論千論萬 lun t’síe{n} lun ma{n}‘, {thousands and myriads}. 萬百樣物事 va{n}‘ pah {y}áng‘ meh zz‘, {all things}. 論千來者 lun t’síen lé ’tsé, {many thousands are come}. 文武百官 vun ’vú pák kwé{n}, {all officers civil and military}. 會醫百病 {w}é í páh bing‘, {can cure all diseases}. 百花生日 pák hwó sáng nyih, {the flowers’ birth-day}. 萬國九州 va{n}‘ kóh ’kieu tseu, {all countries}.

184. Numbers enter into many common phrases.

三心兩意 sa{n} sing ’liáng í‘, {vacillating in opinion}. 三轉九囘頭 sa{n} ’tsen ’kieu {w}é deu, {constantly turning back}. 七橫八豎 t’sih {w}áng pah ’zû, {lying in all directions}. 三伸四縮 sa{n} sun sz‘ soh, {timidly advancing and retreating}. 瞎七瞎八 hah t’sih hah pah, {all in confusion}.

Obs. Though not commonly occurring in English and other languages, examples similar to these are not wanting; e.g. {at sixes and sevens}.

185. Examples of some adjectives, extensive in their use and varied in their meaning, are here appended.

一 ih, {one, whole, immediately upon}. 獨一無二 {t}óh ih vú rh‘, {there is only one}. 一切說話 ih t’sih seh {w}ó‘, {all he said}. 一統天下 ih ’t’óng t’íe{n} ’{a}u, {the whole empire}. 一言旣出 ih {í}e{n} kí‘ t’seh, {the words have been said}. 一定不易 ih ding‘ peh {y}uh, {certainly unchangeable}. 一念囘頭 ih nia{n}‘ {w}é deu, {sincerely repent}. 一居一動 ih kü ih ’dóng, {all he does}. 一動就打 ih ’dóng dzieu‘ ’táng, {at the least thing, he fights}. 一走就跌 ih ’tseu dzieu‘ {t}ih, {the moment he begins to walk, he falls}.

186. 全 dzie{n}, {complete, all}.

勿完全 veh {w}é{n} dzíe{n}, {not complete}. 人全拉上 niun zé{n} ’lá long‘, {they are all there}. 全關着 zé{n} kwa{n} zah, —{they are all connected with}—

187. 大 {t}á‘, {great, very}.

國度是大個 kóh dú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, {it is a large kingdom}. 要大呢小 yau‘ dú‘ {n}í ’siau, {will you have it large or small?} 勿大煞個 veh dú‘ sah kú‘, {it is not very large}. 大人小囝 {t}ú‘ niun ’siau nö{n}, {parents and children}. 大勿喜歡 {t}ú‘ veh ’h’í hwé{n}, {much displeased}. 勿大哩好 veh dá‘ ’lí ’hau, {not very good}. 勿大哩吃個 veh dá‘ ’lí k’iuh kú‘, {seldom eat it}.

188. 好 ’hau, {good, well, that I may, it may}.

禿是勿好 t’óh ’zz veh ’hau, {all are bad}. 頂勿好 ’ting veh ’hau, {worst of all}. 恰好 hah ’hau, {fortunately, just at the time}. 勿好意思 veh ’hau í‘ sz‘, {ashamed}. 好拉否 ’hau ’lá ’vá, {are you well?} 醫勿否 í veh ’hau, {he cannot be cured}. 勿能好 veh nung ’hau, {I cannot recover}. 好去囘頭 ’hau k’í‘ {w}é deu, {that I may go and inform him}. 好做個 ’hau tsú‘ kú‘, {it may be done}.

189. 靈 ling, {efficacious, intelligent}.

勿靈個 veh ling kú‘, {powerless, inefficacious}. 唔沒靈處 {m} meh ling t’sú‘, {having no efficacy}. 靈性勿拉心裏 ling sing‘ veh ’lá sing ’lí, {always forgetting}. 魂靈勿拉身上 {w}ung ling veh ’lá sun long‘, {ib}.

190. 快 k’wá‘, {fast}, (adv.) {near, soon, lively}.

快快搖 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ {y}au, {row quickly}. 夜快者 {y}á‘ k’wá‘ ’tsé, {it will soon be night}. 死快者 ’sí k’wá‘ ’tsé, {he is dying}. 快活, 快樂 k’wá‘ weh, or k’wá‘ loh, {glad}. 爽爽快快 ’song ’song k’wá‘ k’wá‘, {well in health}.

{Section} 6. {On the Pronoun}.

191. The pronouns are regarded by the Chinese as part of the auxiliary particles that with nouns and verbs make up sentences, and they have not proceeded to separate them from the rest of that numerous family by a peculiar denomination.

They are chiefly single words, but frequently admit of the dissyllabic form. Other pronouns, or particles having no meaning of their own (e.g. 是, 個), are prefixed or affixed to give them this form. The details will be found below.

Among the many simple and compound forms used as pronouns, the following may be distinguished as properly and originally such for this dialect.

1. Personal, 我, 儂, 其, 伊, 㑚, 你, ’ngú, nóng‘, gí, í, ná‘, ’ní, {I, thou, he, you}. 2. Reflexive, 自 zz‘, in combination. 3. Demonstrative, 第, 伊, 個, {t}í‘, í, kú‘, {this, that}; also 彼此 pé ’t’sz, occasionally used. 4. Interrogative, 啥, 幾 sá‘, ’kí, {what? how many?} inseparable, and 何 {h}ú, {what?} 那 ’ná (pron. ’á), {which?} inseparable. 5. Relative. There is no separable relative pronoun, its place being supplied by 個 kú‘, 所 ’sú is inseparable, and very limited in its use. 6. Possessives. None. Their place is supplied by 個 kú‘, following the personal pronoun. 7. Distributives. 各, 每, 逐, koh, ’mé, dzóh, {each}, {every}. 8. Reciprocal. None. The borrowed form 大家 is the substitute. 9. Indefinite. 某, 啥, 幾, 多, ’meu, sá‘, ’kí, tá, {some, several}. 10. Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 禿, 全, 別, t’oh, dzé{n}, bih, {all, other}, separable and 凡 va{n}, inseparable.

{Personal pronouns}. 192. The first personal pronoun in the singular is ’ngú, 我 {I}; the second, 儂 nóng‘ or 那 ná‘, thou; the third, 伊 í or 其 {k}í, {he}.

我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, {I am now going}. 呌儂就來 kau‘ nóng‘ dzieu‘ lé, {I told you to come at once}. 撥拉伊者 peh ’lá í ’tsé, {I have given it him}. 其撥拉我 {k}í peh ’lá ’ngú, {he gave me}.

In the plural 你 ’ní or 我你 ’ngú ’ní, express {we}; 那 ná or 儂那 nóng‘ ná‘, {you}; and 伊 í, {they}.

我你兩个 ’ngú ’ní ’liáng kú‘, {we two}. 那多許人 ná‘ tú hau‘ niun, {all you men}.

When the pronoun consists of one word only, the vacant place is often filled up by 是 ’zz.

是我 ’zz ’ngú, {I}. 是伊是其 ’zz í ’zz gí, {he}. 是那衆人 ’zz ná‘ tsóng‘ niun, {all you men}.

Obs. i. The personal pronoun is often omitted, as 拾蓋看起來 {s}eh ké k’ö{n}‘ ’k’í lé, {thus you see}; 勿來末總勿好 veh lé meh tsóng veh hau, {if you do not come it will be unfortunate}.

Obs. ii. The impersonal pronoun in English {it}, is not expressed, as 落雨者 loh ’{ú} ’tsé, {it is raining}.

Obs. iii. In mandarin 我, 你, 他, ’ngó, ’ní, t’á, {I, thou, he}, all form their plural by taking 們 mun, as a suffix.

Obs. iv. Sometimes 我 ’ngú, may stand for the third person {he}, This occurs, when two persons in relation to each other are the subject of conversation. The nominative is then considered as {I}, and the third person, {he}. Thus, 兄弟曉得呵哥勿喜歡我, h’iúng dí‘ ’hiau tuh á kú veh ’h’í hwé{n} ’ngú, {the younger brother knows that the elder is displeased with him}. This is not the case when no confusion of persons is likely to happen; e.g. 眼睛𥆝之伊個男人 ’nga{n} tsing sú tsz í kú‘ né{n} niun, {she looked on her husband}.

193. The idea of self is expressed by 自家 zz‘ ká, for all persons, generally preceded by the appropriate pronoun.

伊自家話 í zz‘ ká {w}o‘, {he himself said}. 儂自家要去個 nóng‘ zz‘ ká yau‘ k’í‘ kú‘, {you must go yourself}.

Obs. i. In mandarin 自己 tsz‘ ’ki; Fúh-kien, 家己 ká ’kí.

Obs. ii. The pronoun 自 zz‘, {self}, though not used out of combination, occurs in several fixed phrases. 自殺自 zz‘ sah zz‘, {to kill one’s-self}; 自害自 zz‘ {h}é‘ zz‘, {to injure one’s-self}, These concise forms are more agreeable and impressive to the native ear, than the equivalent long forms 自家殺脫自家 zz‘ ká sah t’eh zz‘ ká; 自家害脫自家 zz‘ ká {h}é‘ t’eh zz‘ ká.

{Demonstratives}, 194. The demonstrative pronouns are 第個 {t}í‘ kú‘, {this}, and 個個 kú‘ kú‘ or 伊個 í kú‘, {that}.

第个事體 {t}í‘ ku‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {this matter}. 故个物事 kú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘ {that thing}. 伊个小囝 í kú‘ ’siau nö{n}, {that boy}. 伊歇辰光 í h’ih zun kwong, at that time.

Obs. i. When these words combine with any of the auxiliary substantives to form demonstrative adverbs, the particle 個 kú‘ is omitted.

第頭好包 {t}í‘ deu ’hau pau‘, {here it is good walking}. 故搭去住 kú‘ tah k’í‘ dzû‘, {go and live there}. 伊塊人少 í k’wé‘ niun ’sau, {the people there are few}.

Obs. ii. Some of the mandarin demonstratives 那此彼 ’ná, t’sz, pé, {that}, {this}, {that}, though not belonging to our dialect in their monosyllabic form are found in some combinations. 那裏 ’{á} ’lí, {where?} 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, {here}; 彼此 pé ’t’sz, {that and this}. Facts of this sort illustrate the necessity for distinguishing between words of one or more syllables, and between roots in apposition, as separable and inseparable.

{Interrogatives}. 195. The interrogative forms are 啥 sá‘, {what?} 那裏 ’{á} ’lí, {where? and which?} and 幾 ’kí, {what? which?} also ’kí hó‘ (hau‘), {how many}.

啥人拷門 sá‘ niun k‘au mun, {who knocks at the door?} 啥物事 sá‘ meh zz‘, {what is the matter}. 儂要啥事體 nóng‘ yau‘ sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {what do you want?} 啥所去 sa‘ sü k’í‘, {where are you going?} 爲啥實盖能 {w}e‘ sá‘ {s}eh ké‘ nung, {why do you do so?} 到那裏去 tau‘ ’{á} ’lí k’í‘, {where are you going}. 那裏堂 ’{á} ’lí dong, {where?} 那裏个戶堂 ’{á} ’lí kú‘ {ú} dong, {which place?} 那裏个人 ’{á} ’lí kú‘ niun, {which man?} 那裏條路 ’{á} ’lí diau lú‘, {which road?} 幾時 ’kí zz, {what time?} 幾時辰 sa‘ zz zun, {what time?} 幾點鐘 ’ki ’tíe{n} tsóng, {what it is o’clock?} 幾許銅錢 ’kí hó‘ (hau‘) dóng díe{n}, {how many cash?} 轎夫幾家頭 {k}iau‘ fú ’kí ká deu, {how many chair-bearers?}

Obs. i. In the compound forms here exhibited, 裏 may be taken to indicate {place}; 許 hó‘ is a meaningless particle used to complete the rhythmus.

Obs. ii. The interrogative of the books 何 {h}ú, {what?} is found in combinations, such as 沒奈何 meh né‘ {h}ú, {there is nothing I can do}. But it is not used alone.

{Relative pronouns}. 196. The regular relative pronoun 所 ’só, is only used in combination with 以 ’í in the sense {therefore}, and with ’dzé, 所在 as a noun substantive, {house}.

新所在 sin sû ’dzé, {a new house}. 所以要預備 ’só ’í yau‘ {ü}‘ bé‘, {therefore you must prepare}.

The place of the relative particle 所, used in books and in some dialects, is supplied by the particles 拉 個 ’lá kú‘, or 個 alone, coming after the verb.

買拉个米就擔來撥拉窮人 ’má ’la ku‘ mí dzieu‘ ta{n} lé peh ’lá gióng niun, {bring the rice you have bought at once, and give it to the poor}. M. ’só ’mái tih ’mí. 網咾機檻咾坑坎咾禿是捉禽獸個 ’mong lau kí ’k’a{n} lau k’áng ’k’é{n} lau, t’óh ’zz tsoh giun seu‘ kú‘, {nets, traps and covered pits, are all for catching animals}. M. chúh k’in sheu‘ tih. 儂造拉個房子 nóng ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz, {the house which you have built}. M. ’ní ’só kæ‘ tih fáng ’tsz. 皇帝賞個俸祿 {w}ong tí‘ ’song kú‘ fóng lóh, {the emoluments which are conferred by the emperor}.

{Possessive pronouns}. 197. The possessive pronouns are expressed by the personal pronouns, with the auxiliary particle 個 kú‘.

我個兒子 ’ngú kú‘ ní ’tsz, {my son}. 儂个宗祖 nóng‘ kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, {your ancestors}. 第塊地皮是㑚个 {t}í k’wé dí‘ bí ’zz ná‘ kú‘, {this piece of land is yours}.

Obs. i. In mandarin, 的 tih. The southern Fúh-kien dialect, besides having two distinct plural forms for the personal pronouns 恁 ’lin, {you}, 咱 ’lán, {we} has also separate possessive forms for all the three persons 恁 ’lin, {your}; 阮 ’gwan, {mine}, 咱 ’lán, {ours}; 因 in, {their, his}. The intervening particle 個 is thus rendered unnecessary for that dialect. It is however often inserted. When these forms ’gwán, ’lin, in, are compared with the personal pronouns 我 你 伊 ’gwá, ’li or ’leu, í, the termination N looks extremely like an appendage to the root in each case.

Obs. ii. After the personal pronouns, when a preposition of motion precedes, a substantive of place is required; e.g. 到我喊頭來 tau‘ ’ngú ha{n}‘ deu lé, {come to me}. This is generally true in all instances, where place is left to be understood in English. 㑚塲好個狗 ná‘ dzáng hau‘ kú‘ ’keu, {one of your dogs}. It will be seen that the pronouns in these examples are possessive, though in the former, the corresponding English word is a personal pronoun.

{Distributive pronouns}. 198. The words corresponding to our distributive pronouns, each, every, etc. are the following 每逐各 ’mé, dzóh, k’oh.

每 ’mé, {each}.

每人撥一塊 ’mé niun peh ih k’wé‘, {give one piece to each}. 每家兩个人 ’mé ká ’liáng kú‘ niun, {in each family there are two}.

逐 dzóh, {each in succession}.

逐一个殺一干 dzóh ih kú‘ sah ih kû{n}, {let each person kill one}. 逐日出門一囘 dzóh nyih t’seh mun ih {w}é‘, {go out once day}. 逐樣菜拔脫一科 dzóh {y}áng t’sé‘ bah t’eh ih k’ú, {of each kind of vegetable, pull up one plant}. 逐科花採一朶 dzóh k’ú hwó ’t’sé ih ’tú, {of each plant pluck one flower}.

各 koh, {each, every}.

各樣書買一部 koh {y}áng‘ sû ’má ih bú‘, {buy a book of every sort}. 各樣顔色要 koh {y}áng‘ ’ngán suh yau‘, {I want every kind of colour}. 各人良心勿差 koh niun liáng sing veh t’só, {men’s consciences tell them what is right}. 各管各 koh ’kwé{n} koh, {each attends to his own affairs}. 各處風俗不同 koh t’sû‘ fóng zóh peh dóng, {different places have different customs}.

Obs. i. Like the Greek {pas}, {all} or {each}, 各 koh is also an adjective {all}; e.g. 各處 koh t’sû‘, {all places}.

Obs. ii. 每 mé, means {always}, in such phrases as 每要望望儂 ’mé yau‘ mong‘ mong‘ nóng‘, {I wish constantly to come and see you}; 每每 ’mé ’mé, {always}.

{Reciprocal pronouns}. 199. Phrases such as {one another} are expressed by 大家 {t}á‘ ká and 家家 ká ká, {mutually}; or by 相 siáng, {together}, in combination.

總要家家相帮 ’tsóng yau‘ ká ká siáng pong, {you ought to help one another}. 我忒儂相遇 ’ngú t’eh nóng‘ siáng nü‘, {you and I meet}. 大家吃茶 {t}á‘ ká k’iuh dzó, {take tea together}.

{Indefinite pronouns}. 200. The word {some} in {some one}, {something}, is expressed either by 某 ’meu, or by the verb 有 ’{y}eu, {have}. {Anything} is expressed by sá‘, usually with 有 ’{y}eu preceding; in the negative, 唔 {m} takes the place of ’{y}eu.

某處某人 ’meu t’sû ’meu niun, {a certain man of certain place}. 某書某人做個 ’meu sû ’meu niun tsú‘ kú‘, {such a book written by such a person}. 有人來話 ’{y}eu niun lé {w}ó‘, {some one came and said}. 有是有個 ’{y}eu ’zz ’{y}eu kú‘, {there is some}. 唔啥事體 {m} sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {it is nothing}. 有啥信息否 ’{y}eu sá‘ sing‘ sih ’vá, {is there any news}.

201. {Several} is expressed by ’kí kú‘, 好幾個 hau‘ ’kí kú‘, 大 tá, and the borrowed form 多許 tú hau‘; 幾許 ’kí hó‘[1] is also used.

來之幾個人 lé tsz ’kí kú‘ niun, {several men have some}. 好幾囘數 hau‘ ’kí {w}é‘ sú‘, {several times}. 大日勿來 tá nyih veh lé, {it is long since you come}. 唔啥幾許 {m} sá ’kí hô‘, {not many}.

Obs. The Greek {tis} is either interrogative {who?} (Lat. {quis?}) or indifinite {some one}, (Lat. {aliquis}.) In the same way, 幾 ’kí is sometimes {how many?} and at other times {several}. In the latter sense however, 好 is usually prefixed. So also sá‘ means either {what?} or {any thing}.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Compare use of 幾許 in the following verses 花枝出建章 “Flowers grow in the Kien-chang palace” 風管發昭陽 “The sound of pipes issues from the palace of Chau-yang,” 借問承恩者 “I beg to ask in regard to those who receive favour” 雙蛾幾許長 “How long are their eyebrows?” These words are put in the mouth of a secondary wife of the emperor Han wú-ti when jealous of imperial favour extended to some inferior court women. The last line means “are their eyebrows so much longer than mine?”. -----------------------------------------------------------------

{Correlatives or adjective pronouns}. 202. The pronouns used as signs of the plural, as already illustrated in the section on substantives are 禿 全 t’óh, dzé{n}, {all} or {both}, and 總 ’tsóng, {all}. {None} and {neither} are also expressed by t’óh, and dzé{n} with a negative.

兩個人禿去者 ’liáng kú‘ niun t’óh k’í‘ ’tsé, {the two men are both gone}. 全勿是 dzé{n} veh ’zz, {it is neither of them}. 全是笨個 dzé{n} ’zz bun‘ kú‘, {they are all stupid}. 對否禿對個 té‘ ’vá, t’óh té‘ kú‘, {are they right? they are all right}.

{Any one you please, whoever, whatever}, are expressed by several borrowed phrases.

a. 大凡 {t}á‘ va{n}, {generally speaking, whoever}.

大凡人做好個就有好報 {t}á‘ va{n} niun tsú‘ ’hau kú‘, dzieu‘ ’{y}eu ’hau pau‘, {whoever does well, will be at once rewarded}.

Obs. 凡 va{n} and sá‘ are the only true pronouns among these forms.

b. 勿拘 veh kü, {does not matter what}.

勿拘多少 veh kü tú ’sau, {however many}. 勿拘早晚 veh kü ’tsau a{n}‘, {however early or late}. 行事勿拘那能總勿局 {h}áng zz‘ veh kü ’ná nung ’tsóng veh gióh, {whatever he does it is never right}.

c. 隨便 dzûe bíe{n}, {as you please, whatever}.

隨便啥辰光 dzûe bíe{n}‘ sá‘ zun kwong, {at whatever time}. 隨便啥人肯个 dzûe bíe{n}‘ sá‘ niun ’k’ung kú‘, {any one would be willing to do it}.

d. 勿論 veh lun‘, {whatever}.

勿論啥日脚 veh lun‘ sá‘ nyih kiáh, {on whatever day}. 勿論幾時儂要就有 veh lun‘ ’kí zz, nóng‘ yau‘ dzieu‘ ’{y}eu, {at whatever time, when you want it, you have it at once}.

e. sá‘ {whatever}.

想啥話啥, ’siáng sá‘ {w}ó‘ sá‘, {whatever he thinks, he says}.

Obs. i. Buttman, Greek Grammar, section 78, says “Correlatives are words in connection with each other, of which one contains a certain question, and the corresponding one expresses the simplest relation which answers that question.” Thus, the question 啥人 sá‘ niun, {who?} may be answered by 第個人 {t}í‘ kú‘ niun, {this man}; 隨便啥人, dzûe bíe{n}‘ sa‘ niun, {any one whatever}; 唔啥人 {m} sá‘ niun, {no one}; 多 許人 tú hau‘ niun, {many men}. So also, 那裏隻船 ’{á} lí tsáh zé{n}, {which boat?} may be answered by 第隻 {t}í‘ tsáh, {this one}; 勿論那裏隻 veh lun‘ ’{á} lí tsáh, {any one whatever}; 禿勿是 t’óh veh ’zz, {it is neither}; 不過第搭幾隻船裏 peh kú‘ {t}í‘ dah ’kí tsáh zé{n} ’lí, {it must be one of those that are here}; 是別隻船 ’zz bih tsáh zé{n}, {it it another}; 忒前頭一樣個船 t’eh zíen deu ih {y}áng‘ kú‘ zé{n}, {the same boat as before}. Several of these questions are answered by particles already presented under other denominations. The remainder not finding a place readily under any one class, are collected under the name of correlatives.

Obs. ii. The corresponding forms in Latin. {Omnis, neuter, nullus, alter, alius}, are classed with adjectives; Zempt calls them {pronominalia}. Buttman says, that the line between the corresponding words in Greek, as adjectives and as pronouns, cannot be clearly drawn. Marshman says, the Sanscrit grammarians call all these words pronouns. If they can stand without a substantive, they should be called pronouns, otherwise they are adjectives.

Obs. iii. 總 ’tsóng, {all}, is found only in the compounded forms, 共總 {k}óng‘ ’tsóng, 攏總 ’lóng ’tsóng {in all}; 攏總个百性 ’lóng ’tsóng kú‘ pák sing‘, {all the people}. The substantive must accompany 衆 ’tsóng‘, as in 衆弟兄 tsóng‘ ’ti h’iúng, {all the brothers}, and therefore, it must be considered an adjective. 衆 is not found compounded.

Obs. iv. {All} is also expressed by repetition of the substantive, 處處有個 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’{y}eu ku‘, {every-where they are to be had}. v. Art, 129. Another mode is by phrases, such as 一共 ih góng‘, 一切 ih t’sih, {the whole}.

Obs. v. Another translation of {all} is by 大凡 {t}a‘ va{n}. Va{n} is used in the sense of {all} in books, but in the dialect of Shánghái is only met with in this form.

203. {Other different}, are expressed by {p}ih 別 or by 勿同 veh dóng, or by 兩樣 ’liáng {y}áng‘, {not the same}, or by the particle 又 proceeding the substantive verb or by 另 ling‘. {The same} is ih {y}áng‘ 一樣, or 相同 siáng dóng.

要呌別人 yau‘ kau‘ bih niun, {call another man}. 總是別樣 ’tsóng ’zz bih {y}áng‘, {is certainly different}. 到別塲化去 tau‘ bih dzáng hau‘ k’í, {go elsewhere}. 別個國度 bih kú‘ kóh dú, {another nation}. 道理勿同個 ’{t}au ’lí veh dóng kú‘, {different in principle}. 話頭兩樣個 {w}ó‘ deu ’liáng {y}áng‘ kú, {what he says is different}. 勿一樣個 veh ih {y}áng‘ kú‘, {not the same}. 又是一個 {í}‘ ’zz ih kú‘, {that is another}. 另呌一個 ling‘ kiau‘ ih kú‘, {call another}. 一樣個否 ih {y}áng‘ kú‘ ’vá, {is it the same?} 相同個 siáng dóng kú‘, {the same}.

{Words used as pronouns}. 204. The use of some other words in combinations, where they occur instead of the pronouns will now be illustrated.

{a}. 本 ’pun; {belonging to this place}, as demonstrative pronoun.

本地人 ’pun dí‘ niun, {people of this place}. 本地話 ’pun dí‘ {w}ó‘, {dialect of this place}. 本廟是和尙管個 ’pun miau‘ ’zz {ú} zong‘ kwé{n} kú‘, {this temple to which I belong, is superintended by Buddhist priests}. 本國個規矩 ’pun kóh kú‘ kwé ’kü, {custom of this country}.

{b}. 今 kiun, {now, the present}. As demonstrative pronoun, {this} in reference to time.

今朝今日 kiun tsau, kiun nyih, {to-day}. 今月今年 kiun niöh, kiun níe{n}, {this month, this year}.

{c}. 親 t’sing, {one’s own}, as reflexive pronoun {self}; 親身 t’sing sun, {himself}; 親口 t’sing ’k’eu, {his own mouth}.

{d}. 多少 tú ’sau, {how many?} as an interrogative pronoun.

多少年総 tú ’sau níe{n} ’kí, {how many years old}.

205. The adjectives that follow, are used to avoid the personal pronouns. Those that describe the speaker are depreciatory in their meaning, while if others are addressed, the adjectives employed are respectful.

尊 tsun, {honoured}, 貴 kwé‘, {ib}. 高 kau, {high}, combine with 姓 sing, {family name}, 國 kóh, {kingdom, etc}.

尊姓 tsun sing‘, 貴姓 kwé‘ sing‘, 高姓 kau sing‘, {your name?} 尊庚 tsun káng, 貴庚 kwé‘ káng, 高壽 kau zeu‘, {your age?} 尊處 tsun t’sû‘, 貴處 kwé‘ t’su‘, {where do you live?} 尊府 tsun ’fu, 貴府 kwé‘ ’fu, {where is your residence?}

Obs. i. 府 ’fú, also forms part of the combination 府上 ’fú long‘, {residence}; e.g. 府上那裏 ’fú long‘ ’{a} ’lí, {where do you reside?}

Obs. ii. 貴國 kwé‘ kóh ask {of what honoured country are you?} 貴地 kwé‘ dí‘, {what is your place of residence?} 高徒 kau dú is translated {your scholar}; 尊駕 tsun ká‘ and 相公 siáng‘ kóng, are used in place of {you}, among those who are not in an inferior social position.

206. 令 ling, {honoured, good}, applied to persons, enters into many combinations, where it represents the possessive {your}.

令尊 ling tsun, {your father}. 令堂 ling dong, {your mother}. 令兄 ling h’iung, {yr. eld. bro}. 令姪 ling dzeh, {your nephew}. 令弟 ling dí‘ {yr. younger bro}. 令郎 ling long, {your son}. 令夫人 ling fú zun, {your wife}. 令高徒 ling kau dú, {your scholars}.

207. 老 ’lau and 大 {t}á‘ are found in similar combinations.

老(大）爺 ’lau ({t}ú‘) {y}á, {sir}. 大人 {t}á‘ zun, {ib}. 老(大）兄 ’lau ({t}á‘) h’iúng, {elder brother}. 老(大）哥 ’lau ({t}á‘) kú, {ib}.

Obs. i.老 ’lau is also prefixed to 先生 síe{n} sáng and 夫子 fú ’tsz, addressed to teachers, and to 相公 síang‘ kong, addressed by servants to masters. The form of address to priests, is 老師太 ’lau sz t’á‘, and to instructors 老師 ’lau sz.

Obs. ii. Some other terms are employed in a similar way, instead of the pronouns of the second person; 台 t’é, {honoured} with 甫 ’fú or 篆 dzé{n}‘, {what it your honoured name?} In the plural are found 衆位 tsóng‘ {w}é‘ or 列位 lih {w}é‘, {all you gentlemen!}

208. Self depreciatory phrases employed instead of pronouns of the first person are equally numerous. 寒 {h}ö{n}, {cold}; 敝 {p}í, {spoilt, inferior}; 賤 dzíe{n}, {poor, cheap}, form such groups, as—

寒門(家) {h}ö{n} mun (ka), {my house}. 寒荆 {h}ö{n} kiung, {my wife}, (kiung is {thorn}.) 敝處(地)(鄕) {p}í t’sû‘ (dí‘) (h’iáng), {my abode}. 敝(賤)姓 {p}í (dzíe{n}) sing‘, {my family name}. 賤名 dzíe{n} ming, {my proper name}. 賤内 dzíe{n} né‘ {my wife}.

Obs. One’s wife is also denominated 拙荆 tseh kiung, {stupid thorn}.

209. The antithesis of 令 ling, is usually 舍 só‘, {a cottage}. Among the groups into which it enters, are—

舍弟 só‘ dí‘, {my brother}. 舍姪 só‘ dzeh, {my nephew}. 舍下 só‘ ’{a}u, {my house}. 舍親 só‘ t’sing, {my relations}.

210. Many groups take 小 ’siau, {small}, 家 ká, {family}, both being regarded as sufficiently depreciatory to represent the pronoun {my}.

小兒 ’siau rh, {my boy} or {my son}. 小犬 ’siau k’iön, {small dog}. 小徒 ’siau dú, {your mother}. 小孫 ’siau sun, {grandchild}. 小弟 ’siau dí‘, {I}. 小女 ’siau ’nü, {my daughter}. 家兄 ká h’iúng, {my brother}. 家母 ká ’mú, {my mother}. 家父 ká ’vú, {my father}. 家叔 ká sóh, {my uncle}.

Obs. i. These words form a principal part of the complimentary style of speech, or 客氣個說話 k’áh k’í‘ kú‘ seh wó‘. In the every day colloquial of the lower class, i.e. the majority of the people, they are little used. {Thou} and {I}, {thine} and {mine} are prefixed.

Obs. ii. While these words are given as substitutes for the pronouns, it should be remembered that the tendencies of the language are against the introduction of the pronouns, whether there be a substitute or not. Thus instead of asking, “Is your eye better?” The Chinese say 眼睛好點否 ’nga{n} tsing ’hau ’tíe{n} ’vá, {eye better, eh?} So, for “what is your name?” 姓啥 sing‘ sá‘, {name, what?} While the pronoun is thus entirely omitted, room is left for the speaker to introduce whatever terms of adulation or humility he may think fit. Those of the former kind are for convenience taken to mean {you} and {your}, while their opposites are {I} and {mine}.

Obs. iii. Many other phrases of the same kind are used in letters, but as they do not occur in conversation they are here omitted. Many of them are collected in Gutzlaff’s “Notices of Chinese Grammar.”

{Section}. 7. {On the verb}, 活虛字.

211. Pih Hwa-tsun says, “One use of verbs is to connect the parts of proposition” 活虛字之用, 一以聯綴上下, “Thus if it be said, books instruct mankind,” 如云文傳世 (lit. writings delivered down to mankind); “the word books is the subject, mankind the predicate, and instruct the copula.” 文爲主字, 世爲賓字, 而以傳字, 聯綴上下也. “Another use is to express actions.” 一以寫出人事. “Thus if it be said, write a book, or correct an essay,” 如云作文評文之類. “write and correct are both actions;” 作字,評字,皆人事也. “for both these uses, verbs are indispensable.” “Verbs are very numerous; of those in constant use, there are about two thousand.” “There are also verbs of two inseparable characters; e.g. 婆娑 {p}ú sú, {move confusedly}, and 盤桓 {p}é{n} {w}é{n}, {to linger}.”

Where our author speaks of 2,000 verbs, he means from among the single characters commonly used in writing. Many of these are, in colloquial dialects, expressed only in a dissyllabic form; thus, 慕 mú‘, {to desire}, is only used in common conversation in such compounded forms, as 愛慕 é‘ mú‘, {to love}. The number of inseparable compounds is thus rendered greater in the colloquial than in the written style. With regard to monosyllabic verbs, there are many in the books which are not in the colloquial, and vice versâ. For examples of verbs found in written colloquial mandarin, v. page 63.

Verbs will be treated (1.) according to their modes of grouping; (2.) according to their most general nature, as transitive, intransitive, or substantive (voice); (3.) according to the particular modes in which their sense may be conveyed (moods); (4.) according to time (tenses).

(1.) {Grouping of verbs}.

{Simple and compound verbs}. 212. Examples of verbs of one word have been already given. A few more will be sufficient here.

放 fong‘, {let go}. 鑽 tsû{n}, {to bore}. 切 t’sih, {cut in pieces}. 修 sieu, {to prune}. 刋 t’síe{n}, {cut away}. 鑤 {p}au‘, {to plane}. 剸 tsa{n}, {chop small}. 搭 tah, {pitch tents}. 砟 tsoh, {to reap}. 拆 t’sáh, {pull down}. 挖 wah, {scoop out}. 撞 dzong‘, {meet}.

213. Many combinations of two words consist of verbs similar in meaning, but with no reason except custom for the order in which they are employed.

埋葬 má tsong‘, {to bury}. 哀憐 é líe{n}, {to pity}. 遮瞞 tsó mé{n}, {conceal}. 禱告 ’tau kau‘, {to pray}. 咒罵 tseu‘ mó‘, {revile}. 保庇 ’pau pí‘, {protect}. 調換 tiau {w}é{n}, {exchange}. 指點 ’tsz tíe{n}, {point to}. 加添 ká t’íe{n}, {add}. 煩勞 va{n} lau, {importune}. 話壞 {w}ó‘ {w}á‘, {calumniate}. 稱讚 t’sung tsa{n}‘, {to praise}.

Obs. i. The tautology existing in examples of this sort is no objection whatever to their use. Thus, 埋 má and 葬 tsong‘, may be used separately or together, as the speaker pleases. There is an advantage to the foreigner in using the compounded forms, because a mispronunciation of the tone of a single word is nearly compensated by the repetition of the idea. So also for natives speaking different dialects.

Obs. ii. The principle of antithesis may be noticed in some of these dissyllabic combinations; e.g. 往來 ’wong lé, {go and come}; 買賣 ’má má‘, {buy and sell}.

214. In many instances the first verb governs the second, as a verb does a substantive.

惹笑 ’zá siau‘, {cause to laugh}. 怕打 p’ó ’táng, {fear being beaten}. 怕死 p’ó ’sí, {fear dying}. 開講 k’é ’kong, {begin speaking}.

Obs. In these examples, were the language one that admitted grammatical forms, the second verb in each case would become either a substantive, or an infinitive, (i.e. they would be always substantives, infinitives as destitute of time, person and number, being not true verbs). In reality 笑, 打 siau‘, ’táng, etc. are according to the principles of classical grammar, neither verbs nor substantives, not being able to take the necessary changes of form. They are bare roots, and their grammatical sense is determined by position. Verb however, is the most convenient denomination for them, because when taken alone, they are necessarily translated as verbs.

215. In some of these dissyllabic forms, the first verb qualifies the second; as in other languages, participles and adverbs qualify verbs.

歸去 kü k’í‘, {return home} (lit. {return go}). 跑來 {p}au lé, {come running}, (lit. {run come}). 殺來 sah lé, {come fighting}. 抄寫 t’sau ’siá, {to copy in writing} (lit. {copy write}).

Obs. i. The verb of more general meaning 去 k’í‘, {go}, is limited by that which precedes, 歸 kü, to the sense of returning home. If the idiom be compared with the English phrase {go back}, 歸 kü is the adverb placed before instead of after its verb. In 轉來 ’tsé{n} lé, {come back}; the verb ’tsé{n} is also best translated in English, as an adverb {back}.

Obs. ii. Substantives sometimes by ellipsis stand for verbs, as qualifying the following verb. 馬來呢轎子來 ’mó ({horse}) lé ní, giau‘ ’tsz ({sedan}) lé, {did you ride or come in a chair?}

216. The order of the words in many of these phrases, may also properly be referred to priority and sequence in time. That is, two actions are successively expressed.

打敗 t’áng bá‘, {fight and be defeated}. 敲開 k’au ({to beat}) k’é ({to open}), {to knock open}. 咬破 ’ngau p’u‘, {break by biting}. 請坐 ’t’sing ’zú, {please sit down}. 寫完 ’siá {w}é{n} {finish writing}. 做停 tsú‘ ding, {finish making}. 吊死 tiau‘ ’sí, {die by strangling}.

Obs. The English verb {open}, which is an adjective, verb, or adverb, like the Chinese, has evidently nothing to indicate to which part of speech it belongs, but position. It is on the principle of position, that in such phrases as {an open door}, {knock open a door}, and {to open a door}, the word is referred to its proper place in the parts of speech. There is this difference; (1) that in k’au k’é 敲開, the latter word is still a verb, while in the corresponding English example, it becomes a true adverb; (2) the Chinese word cannot be used as an adjective. The qualifying notion contained in the adjective, is expressed as a separate proposition; e.g. {for an open door}, 門開拉 mun k’é ’lá, {the door is open}.

217. In verbs of two syllables, many auxiliary words occur, which have nearly or quite lost their primary meaning as independent verbs. In the following examples, it will be observed, that these enclitics or proclitics, as they may be termed, often add nothing to the meaning of the principal verb. They are 得 tuh, 脫 t’eh, 打 ’táng, 見 kíe{n}‘, 着 záh, 住 dzû‘.

{a}. 得 tuh, {get, may}.

聽得 t’ing tuh, {hear}. 曉得 ’hiau tuh, {know}. 記得 kí‘ tuh, {remember}. 認得 niung‘ tuh, {be acquainted}.

Obs. This term, though here it has no meaning, will be seen to be a very important word among the mood particles, as giving a permissive sense to the principal verb. Such is its most common signification is such phrases as 做得 tsú‘ tuh, {it may be done}.

{b}. 脫 t’eh, {let go, escape, remove out of the way}.

去脫 k’í‘ t’eh, {remove}. 除脫 dzû t’eh, {to remove}. 滅脫 mih t’eh, {destroy}. 放脫 fong‘ t’eh, {let go}. 漏脫 leu t’eh, {to leak}. 走脫 ’tseu t’eh, {escape}. 踢脫 t’ih (or t’iuh) t’eh, {kick away}. 卸脫 {s}iá t’eh, {flow away}. 斷脫 dö{n}‘ t’eh, {sweep away}. 奪脫 {t}öh t’eh, {rob of}.

Obs. This word may be regarded as forming a derivative verb. Its primary meaning is seen in 脱衣裳 t’öh í zong, {take off one’s clothes}, where the book sound t’öh is employed.

{c}. 打 ’táng, {to beat, apply one’s-self to}.

打掃 ’táng ’sau, {to sweep}. 打聽 ’táng t’ing, {to inquire}. 打發 ’táng fah, {to send}. 打扇 ’táng sé{n}‘, {to fan}. 打算 ’táng sö{n}‘, {consider}. 打結 ’táng kih, {tie a knot}.

Obs. The primary meaning of 打 ’táng, is seen in such phrases as 打樁 ’táng tsong, {drive piles}; 打火 ’táng ’hú, {strike a light}.

{d}. 見 kíe{n}‘, indicates a single act of perception.

看見 k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘, {see}. 聽見 t’ing kíe{n}‘, {to hear}. 望見 mong‘ kíe{n}‘, {see}.

{e}. 着 dzáh. This word expresses that the object implied in the verb is effected.

碰着 {p}áng‘ záh, {to meet}. 遇着 nü záh, {ib}. 捉着 tsoh záh, {catch}, or {succeed in catching}. 擒着 {k}iun záh, {ib}. 摸着 móh záh, {rub}, or {can be rubbed}. 奪着 döh záh, {succeed in robbing}. 得着 tuh záh, {succeed in getting}. 買着 ’má záh, {succeed in buying}.

Obs. i. In these examples, this meaning of the auxiliary is preserved, and must be regarded as additional to the sense of the principal verb, except in the first two instances.

Obs. ii. In 想着 ’siáng záh, {think of}, the word 着 záh limits 想 think to the sense of {think of some particular thing}. In 覺着 koh záh, {become aware of}, the verb 覺 koh, cannot in our dialect be used separately. It is however found in 勿知勿覺 veh tsz veh koh, {not be aware of}.

{f}. 殺 sah, {to kill}.

勿話殺 veh {w}ó‘ sah, {he did not say decisively}.

{g}. 住 dzû‘, {resist, take firm hold}. This word always preserves its meaning, but it occurs so frequently in union with verbs of resistance and interruption, that it deserves a place with the preceding enclitics.

阻住 ’tsú dzû‘, {resist}. 鎖住 ’sú dzû‘, {prevent motion by locking up}. 縛住 vóh dzû‘ {ib. by tying up}. 咬住 ’ngau dzû‘, {hold with the teeth}. 揑住 niah dzû‘, {hold in the hand}. 揪住 t’sieu dzû‘, {hold with the hand}.

{h}. 到 tau‘, {arrived}.

用到 {y}úng‘ tau‘, {employ to the utmost}. 做到 tsú‘ tau‘, {do to perfection}. 走到 ’tseu tau‘, {complete a journey on foot}. 昨日跑到 dzoh nyih {p}au‘ tau‘, {he arrived yesterday}.

218. In many cases a substantive follows the verb, when it is unnecessary in English.

走路 ’tseu lú‘, {to walk}. 織布 tsuh pú‘, {to weave}. 射箭 zok tsie{n}‘, {to shoot}. 紡紗 ’fong só, {to spin}. 搖船 {y}au zé{n}, {to scull}. 活命 {w}eh ming‘, {to live}.

Obs. i. So also 話說話 {w}ó‘ seh {w}ó‘, {to speak}. The words seh {w}ó‘, {words}, are as to sense superfluous. Yet many of these examples may be closely translated; e.g. 領路 ’ling lú‘, {lead the way}; 燒飯 sau va{n}‘, {to boil rice, to cook}.

Obs. ii. When the substantive comes under the government of another verb its usual companion is frequently appended; e.g. 尋飯吃 dzing va{n}‘ k’iuh, {seek for food}, where 吃 is superfluous.

Obs. iii. When the sense does not require a substantive, the reason of its introduction must be sought in the rhythmical construction of sentences, peculiar and essential to the Chinese language.

219. Compound verbs are formed by the apposition of a transitive verb and adjective.

加長 ká, ({add}) dzáng ({long}), {to lengthen}. 親近 t’sing ({to make near}) ’giun, ({near}), {become near, to approach closely}. 掘深 {k}iöh, ({dig}) sun ({deep}), {to deepen}. 減輕 ’ka{n} ({subtract}) k’iung ({light}), {subtract from}. 填高 {t}íe{n} ({place layers}) kau ({high}), {raise by layers}. 話大 {w}ó‘ ({speak}) dú‘ ({great}), {speak highly of}. 佈滿 ’pú ({to cover}) ’mé{n} ({full}), {fill up}. 教差 kau‘ ({instruct}) t’só ({wrong}), {teach wrong}. 改正 ’ké ({change}) tsung‘ ({correct}), {to correct}. 捉牢 tsoh ({catch}) lau ({firm}), {catch and retain}.

Obs. i. The word 好 ’hau, {good}, is found appended to many verbs, giving to them the sense of completeness, 做好 tsú‘ ’hau, {complete the making of}.

Obs. ii. These examples shew how in Chinese, compensation is made for that class of words called derivatives in languages possessing a system of terminations. Instead of a formation like {prolongare}, {to lengthen}, from {longus} or {long} in Latin, or {lengthen} from {length} in English, we have a separate word prefixed to the adjective {dzáng}, {long}. Many English phrases are compounded in the same manner; e.g. {rub smooth, rub dry}, which are equivalent in sense and grammatical construction to the Chinese forms, 磨光 mú kwong, 揩乾 k’á kû{n}.

Obs. iii. 差 t’só, {wrong}, is found after many other verbs; e.g. 懂 ’tóng, {understand}; 聽 t’ing, {to hear}; 待 {t}é‘ {treat any one}. In every case, it is predicated of the action, that it is wrong.

220. In some dissyllabic verbs used transitively, one of the constituent words is a substantive.

囘頭 {w}é ({turn}) deu ({head}), {to answer, to tell}. 弄神 lóng‘ ({trick}) zun ({spirits}), {to deceive}. 到手 tau‘ ({reach to}) ’seu ({hand}), {have in possession}. 算計 sö{n}‘ ({calculate}) kí‘ ({a plan}), {to plan}.

Obs. These may be seen to be transitive, in such sentences as 勿好弄 神朋友 veh ’hau lóng‘ zun báng ’{y}eu, {you should not deceive friends}; 就來囘頭我 dzieu lé {w}é deu ’ngú, {come at once and tell me}.

221. Some colloquial verbs, with examples of the manner in which they combine with other words, are here inserted.

踛上去 lóh ’zong k’í, {go up} (M. 升 shíng, 足 p‘a). 跑出來 {p}au‘ t’seh lé, {walk out} (M. 走 ’tseu). 搿住拉 geh dzû‘ ’lá, {held by the arm} (M. 挾 hieh). 碰着 {p}áng‘ záh, {meet} (M. 遇 ü‘ and p‘eng choh). 挬輔 {p}eh ’tsé{n}, {turn around} (M. 囘 hwei). 担到此地 ta{n} tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘, {bring here} (M. 拿 ná 端 twan). 甩脱 hwah t’eh, {throw away} (M. 扔下 jeng‘ hia‘). 孛相 {p}eh siáng‘, {to ramble} (M. 遊桄 yeu kwang‘). 坍銃 t’a{n} t’sóng, {to be ashamed}. 撥拉我 peh ’lá ’ngú, {give it me} (M. 給 ki‘, ’kei). 做唆 tsu‘ sú‘, {to deceive}.

Obs. At Súng-kiáng ’pun, is used for peh, in the sense of {give}. 跑 has two pronunciations, ’{p}au {run}, and pau‘ {walk}.

222. Some adverbs enter into combination with verbs.

預備 {ü}‘ ({before}) bé‘ ({prepare}), {to prepare}. 相打 siáng ({mutually}) ’táng ({beat}), {to fight}. 相罵 siáng （{mutually}) mó‘ ({rail}) {rail at one another}.

Groups of three. 223. Propositions and words equivalent to them combine with 來 lé, {come}, and 去 k’i‘, {go}, to express the direction of the action of verbs.

敲進去 k’au tsing‘ k’í, {knock in}. 担上來 ta{n} ’zong lé, {bring forward}. 走下來 ’tseu ’{a}u lé, {walk down}. 殺前去 sah zíe{n} k’í‘, {fight on before}. 踛起來 lók ’k’í lé, {stand up}. 坐下來 ’zú ’{a}u lé, {sit down}. 做進去 ’zú tsing‘ k’í, {sit farther up}. 飛出來 fí t’seh lé, {fly out}. 走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, {come through}. 拉過去 ’lá kú‘ k’í‘, {drag past}. 掇起來 töh ’k’í lé, {lift up}. 縮轉來 sók ’tsé{n} lé, {turn back}. 丟下來 {k}wa{n}‘ ’{a}u lé, {throw down}. 走開來 ’tseu k’é lé, {walk away}.

Obs. i. Thus we have an idiom similar to the English, except that the verbs of motion are added. The common prepositions annexed to verbs (and therefore sometimes called adverbs), follow the verbs in both instances. Of the Chinese five are verbs, which are all used as prepositions, 出 t’seh, {to go out, outward}; 進 tsing‘, {to go in, inward}; 起 ’k’í, {to raise up, upward}; 過 kú‘, {to pass, through, across}; 轉 ’tsé{n}, {to return, back}; 開 k’é, {to open, away}. Of the prepositions 上 ’zong, {forward}, 下 ’{a}u {backward, downward}, 前 zíe{n}, {before}, the two former are also frequently employed as verbs in the dialect as well as in books; e.g. 上蘇州 ’zong Sú-tseu, {go to Sú-cheú}; 下船 ’{a}u zé{n}, {to enter a boat}.

Obs. ii. In the classical languages, the prepositions were put before the verbs instead of after them, as in the derived words {ascend}, {descend}; and another numerous class of terms belonging to our western tongues, is thus seen to have its equivalent compound form in the Chinese language.

224. The {beginning} and {completion} of an action are expressed by appending, 起來 ’k’í lé, {begin} and 成功 zung kóng, {complete} to the verb 起 ’k’í is also used alone, and the words 完, 停, {w}é{n}, ding, {finish}, and 好 ’hau, {well}, stand for {completion}.

寫起來 ’siá ’k’í lé, {begin writing}. 做成工 tsú‘ zung kóng, {to finish making}. 畫成工 {w}ó zung kóng, {finish painting.} 今朝做起 kiun tsau tsú ’k’í, {begin to-day}. 幾時做完 ’kí zz tsú‘ {w}é{n}, {when will you finish?} 勿曾話停 veh zung {w}ó ding, {has not done speaking}. 造好者 ’zau ’hau ’tsé, {finished building}.

Obs. i. In examples with 起, ’k’í, we have an equivalent to that class of Lat. derivative verbs called Inchoative or Inceptive; e.g. calesco, {I grow warm}, from {calco}.

Obs. ii. 起 ’k’í is sometimes omitted e.g. 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, {do a thing badly}. But then the sense of {beginning} is lost also.

Obs. iii. This form is also assumed by adjectives, as 熱起來 nyih ’k’í lé, {becomes hot}; 熱來話勿得 nyih lé {w}ó veh tuh, {it is excessively hot}. In the dialects west of Shánghái 熱得來 nyih tuh lé, is used for {it is hot}.

Obs. iv. The substantive governed is place between 起 ’k’í and 來 lé; e.g. 動起手來 ’{t}óng ’k’í ’seu lé, {to move ones hand}. The same thing occurs with some of the other groups. 挬輔身體來 peh ’tsé{n} sun ’t’í lé, {turn one’s body round}: 担出洋錢來 ta{n} t’seh {y}áng díe{n} lé, {bring out dollars}.

225. Collective and separating verbs are formed by 攏 ’lóng, {collect}, and 開 k’é, {open}.

聚攏來 dzü ’lóng lé, {collect together}. 幷攏來 ’ping ’lóng lé, {add together}. 散開來 sa{n} k’é lé, {scatter}. 拆開來 t’sáh k’é lé, {undo}. 分開來 fun k’é lé, {divide}. 解開來 ’ká k’é lé, {untie}.

226. Reflexive action is expressed by placing 自 zz‘ before and after the verb.

自嚇自 zz‘ háh zz‘, {frighten one’s-self}. 自騙自 zz‘ p’ie{n}‘ zz‘, {deceive one’s-self}.

Obs. In examples of this sort, the constituent words are pronounced closely together and might be written with hyphens. They correspond in their sense, to the Hithpahel conjugation of Hebrew verbs, and the middle voice of Greek and Sanscrit. In a monosyllabic agglutinating language, no nearer approach, could well be made to an equivalent of those forms, than is exhibited in such groups as these.

{Groups. Affirmative and negative}. 227. The groups formed by help of the affirmative and negative particles are very numerous, so much so, that they constitute of themselves a feature of the language. The Chinese colloquial idiom is very much indebted to them, for the force and precision which it is acknowledged to possess.

In these groups 得 tuh and 勿 veh (不 púh M.), take the centre, and certain auxiliary words, with some adjectives and verbs stand last. The sense of the principal verb is thus limited and modified in various ways. 得 tuh and 勿 veh being opposite in sense, the modifications they produce in the sense of the verb must be opposed also. They may be reduced to the following pairs of terms.

1st. It is predicted of the {agent}, that he is {able} or knows how to effect the action of the verb and the contrary; e.g. 做得來 tsú‘ tuh lé, {able to do or make}; 做勿来 tsú‘ veh lé, {unable to do or make}.

2nd. It is predicated of the agent, that circumstances allow him to effect the action and the contrary. Thus, 當得起 tong tuh ’k’í, {in circumstances to bear}; 讀勿起 {t}óh veh ’k’í, {cannot afford to learn to read}; 拖勿起 t’ú veh ’k’í, {not strength to drag}.

3rd. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or does {succeed}, and the opposite; e.g. 尋得着 zing tuh záh, {can find} (尋 zing {seek}); 打勿着 ’táng veh záh, {it did not}, or {cannot hit}.

4th. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or cannot be performed in a particular {direction}; e.g. 走勿進 ’tseu veh tsing‘, {cannot go inside}.

5th. Of verbs of {motion}, {resistance} and {destruction}, it is predicated, with the help of auxiliary verbs cognate in meaning, that the act they represent, can or cannot take place. 走得動 ’tseu tuh ’dóng {can walk}; 阻勿住 ’tsú veh dzû‘, {unable to resist}; 解勿脫 ’ká veh t’eh, {cannot get rid of}.

6th. It is predicated of a verb followed by an adjective, that the act is or can be performed, to the extent indicated the adjective or the contrary; e.g. 醫得好 í (cure) tuh ’hau (good) {can be cured}; 填勿滿 {t}íe{n} veh ’mé{n} {cannot be filled by layers}.

228. Of the auxiliary words, used in affirmative and negative groups, verbs are the most numerous.

{a}. 來 lé, {come}, 出 t’seh, {go out}, express {able to}.

寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, {do not know how to write}. 聽勿來 t’ing veh lé, {have not the power to hear}. 呌勿出 kiau‘ veh t’seh, {know not what to call it}. 講得出 ’kong tuk t’seh, {can discourse on it}.

Obs. A group of four is sometimes made by introducing an adverb.

聽大勿出 t’ing dá‘ veh t’seh, {I do not hear very well}.

{b}. 起 ’k’í, {rise}, expresses {in circumstances to}.

板勿起 ’pa{n} veh ’k’í, {it is not for me to look angry}. 睏勿起 k’wun‘ veh ’k’í, {afraid to sleep}. 染勿起 ’níe{n} veh ’k’í, {will not bear to be dyed}. 印勿起 {y}un‘ veh ’k’í, {will not bear impressions}. 見勿起 kíe{n}‘ veh ’k’í, {do not dare meet him}.

{c}. 着, 出, 見, záh, t’seh, kíe{n}‘, express success in any single action; verbs of striking and seeking take záh; while verbs of thinking and perception take t’seh and kíe{n}‘.

呌得着 kiau‘ tuh záh, {succeed in calling him}. 殺勿着 sah veh záh, {not succeed in killing}. 懂勿出 ’tóng veh t’seh, {cannot understand}. 看勿出 k’ö{n}‘ veh t’seh, {I do not} (or {cannot}) {see it}. 看勿見 k’ö{n}‘ veh kíe{n}‘, {ib}.

{d}. 進, 出, 落, 過, 轉, 開, express {direction} as in the examples.

進得進 tsing‘ tuh tsing‘, {able to enter}. 行勿出 {h}áng veh t’seh, {cannot pass out}. 吃勿落 k’iuh veh loh, {cannot swallow} or {eat}. 跑勿過 pau‘ veh kú‘, {cannot pass by}. 縮勿轉 sóh veh ’tsé{n}, {cannot return}. 打得開 ’táng tuh k’é, {can beat open}. 睏勿落 k’wun‘ veh loh, {cannot lie down (either through pain or want of room)}.

{e}. 脱, 動, 住, t’eh, ’{t}óng, dzû‘, express {destruction}, {motion}, and {resistance}. e.g.

滅勿脱 mih veh t’eh, {cannot destroy}. 做勿動 tsú‘ veh ’dóng, {disabled from work}. 跑勿動 {p}au veh ’dóng, {unable to walk}. 免勿脱 ’mie{n} veh t’eh, {unable to avoid}. 立勿住 lih veh dzû‘, {not able to stand}. 當得住 tong tuh dzû‘, {able to resist}.

{f}. 得 tuh, expresses {permission} and {prohibition}.

動勿得 {t}óng veh tuh, {may not do it}. 去得 k’i‘ tuh, {may go}. 逃走勿得 {t}au ’tseu veh tuh, {may not flee}.

{g}. 停, 完, express the {cessation} of an act.

呌勿停 kiau‘ veh ding, {not cease to call}. 哭勿停 k’óh veh ding, {not cease to weep}. 用勿完 {y}úng‘ veh {w}é{n}, {cannot exhaust by using}. 痛勿停 t’ong‘ veh ding, {not cease to pain}.

{h}. 成功, 盡, 到, express {perfection} of an act.

做勿成功 tsú‘ veh dzung kóng, {cannot complete}. 走得到 ’tseu tuk tau‘, {can walk to}. 想勿到 ’siáng veh tau‘, {cannot reach in thought}. 及勿到 {k}ih veh tau‘, {cannot come up to or equal}. 報答勿盡 pau‘ tah veh dzing‘, {unable to shew sufficient gratitude}.

{i}. 及 {k}ih or {k}í, expresses {there is time for}.

抄勿及 t’sau veh gí, {not time to copy}. 追得及 tsûe tuh gí, {time to overtake}. 來勿及 lé veh gí, {not time for it}.

{j}. 落 loh, expresses {room for}.

擱得落 koh tuh loh, {room to pack}. 安勿落 ö{n} veh loh, {not room to place}. 坐勿落 ’zú veh loh, {not room to sit}.

{k}. 過 kú‘, indicates that the verb it qualifies will give superiority.

打也打伊勿過, 話也話伊勿過, ’táng {’á} ’táng í veh kú‘, {w}ó‘ {’á} {w}ó‘ í veh kú‘, {cannot conquer him by beating, nor by using the tongue}. 敵得過 {t}ih tuh kú‘, {can oppose him successfully}.

{l}. 理 ’lí, {to control}, ’long, {bring together}, 殺 sah, {kill} and 應 {y}ung‘, {answer}, add their own sense to the verb.

話勿理 {w}o‘ veh ’lí, {not attend to what is said}. 喊得理 ha{n}‘ tuh ’lí, {will come when called}. 合勿攏 {h}eh veh ’lóng, {cannot agree together}. 呌勿應 kiau‘ veh {y}ung‘, {not answer a call}.

Obs. i. In some instances, the sense of the auxiliaries varies from that assigned to them here; e.g. 看勿起 kön‘ veh ’k’i, {to despise}; 買勿動 ’má veh ’dóng, {not succeed in buying}; 相信勿過 siáng sing‘ veh kú‘, {incredible}; 意勿過 í‘ veh kú‘, {cannot but pity}; 罷勿得 {p}á‘ veh tuh, {indispensable}.

Obs. ii. 有 ’{y}eu, {have} and 嘸 {m}, {not to have}, form with {tuh} a few groups; e.g. 有得吃 ’{y}eu tuh k’iuh, {have something to eat}; 嘸得着 {m} tuh tsáh, {have nothing to wear}.

Obs. iii. Examples are rare in the case of 見, 脱, 動, 應 and 理, The rest are all extensively used.

229. Prepositions similarly employed in these negative and affirmative groups are rare. Those that are used may also be construed as verbs.

{a}. 前 zíe{n} {before}.

殺勿前 sah veh zíe{n}, {does not go forward fighting}.

{b}. 上 ’zong, {forward}.

踛勿上 lóh veh ’zong, {cannot be climbed}. 鎖勿上 ’sú veh ’zong, {(key) cannot be turned (cannot lock.)} 門關勿上 mun kwa{n} veh ’zong, {door will not shut}.

{c}. 下 ’{a}u, {down}.

踛勿下 lóh veh ’{a}u, {cannot climb down}. 吃勿下 k’iuh veh ’{a}u, {cannot swallow}.

230. Several adjectives are found in these combinations; e.g. 全, 直, 多, 好, 滿, 完, 全, 通, 明 白, etc.

讀勿全 {t}óh veh dzíe{n}, {cannot be read through}. 伸勿直 sun veh dzuh, {cannot stretch out straight}. 差勿多 t’só veh tú, {differs little}. 話得好 {w}ó‘ tuh ’hau, {well spoken}. 補得滿 ’pú tuh ’mé{n}, {can be filled up}. 走勿通 ’tseu veh t’óng, {no thoroughfare}. 話勿明白 {w}ó‘ veh ming báh, {cannot be made to understand}.

Obs. In the third and fourth examples, and others like them such as 跑得快 pau‘ tuk k’wá‘, the proposition is not one of possibility, {he can walk fast}, but of fact, {he walks fast}.

{Repetition and Antithesis}. 231. These occur extensively among the verbs. The meaning of the word repeated remains unaffected.

{а}. Many single intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransitively are repeated.

坐坐 ’zú zú‘, {sit down}. 看看 k’ö{n}‘ k’ö{n}‘, {look}.

{b}. Transitive verbs are repeated before the word they govern.

寫寫字 ’siá ’sia zz‘, {write}. 種種田 tsóng‘ tsóng‘ díe{n}, {work in the fields}. 候候儂 {h}eu‘ {h}eu‘ nóng‘, {I come to see you}.

{c}. k’ö{n}‘, {see}, occurs after a repeated verb, in a metaphorical sense.

睃睃看 sú sú k’ö{n}‘, {see what it is}. 聽聽看 t’ing t’ing k’ö{n}‘, {listen to it and see}. 試試看 sz‘ sz‘ k’ö{n}‘, {try it and see}. 做做看 tsú‘ tsú‘ k’ö{n}‘, {make it as a trial}.

Obs. K’ö{n}‘ also follows other groups, as 念起來看 nia{n}‘ ’k’í lé k’ö{n}‘, {read and let me hear}.

{d}. The components of dissyllabic verbs are often repeated.

談談說說 {t}a{n} da{n} söh söh, {conversing}. 啼啼哭哭 {t}í dí k’óh k’óh, {weeping}. 來來去去 lé lé k’í‘ k’í‘, {coming and going}.

{e}. Some dissyllabic verbs repeat themselves, not their component parts.

攀談攀談 p’a{n} da{n} p’a{n} da{n}, {talking}. 恭喜恭喜 kúng ’h’í, kúng ’h’í, {I congratulate you}.

{f}. When a dissyllabic from consists of a verb and its subject, a group of four is formed by repeating the former, and supplying the place of the latter by a synonymous or contrasted word.

嘸邊嘸岸 {m} píe{n} {m} ngö{n}‘, {not having a shore}. 動手動脚 ’{t}óng ’seu ’dóng kiáh, {move hands and feet}. 有憑有據 ’{y}eu bing {y}eu kü‘, {there is evidence}.

{g}. Sometimes both the verb and its object are varied by synonymous or contrasted words.

求天拜地 {k}ieu t’íe{n} pá‘ dí‘, {pray to heaven and worship earth}. 幷心竭力 {p}ing‘ sing gih lih (or liuh), {employ one’s whole mind and strength}.

{h}. Some verbs are repeated with a pair of antithetical verbs in alteration.

跑来跑去 ’{p}au lé ’{p}au k’í‘, {walking about}. 搖進搖出 {y}au {t}sing‘ {y}au t’seh, {row in and out}.

232. The verb is repeated with the intervention of 個 kú‘, or of 一 ih to represent {a little} of the act in question.

走一走 ’tseu ih ’tseu, {walk a little}. 等一等 ’tung ih ’tung, {wait a little}. 待個待 {t}é‘ kú‘ dé‘, {wait}. 做個做 ’zú kú‘ ’zú, {sit down}.

Obs. Sometimes auxiliary substantives supply the place of the repeated verb; e.g. 加一倍 ká ih bé‘, {make it as large again}. Other auxiliaries are 次, 燙, 囘, t’sz‘, t’ong‘, {w}e‘, applied to any verb in the sense of {times}. For going round in a circle 轉 ’tsé{n} with the numeral expresses the number of times. For beating 記 kí‘ expresses the number of blows. See Art. 163.

(2.) {Different kinds of verbs}.

{Substantive verb}. 233. The verb {to be} used as a copula is often omitted.

我你讀書個 ’ngú ’ní {t}ók sû kú‘, {we are persons of education}. 第個人長 {t}í kú‘ niun dzáng, {this man is tall}. 今朝最冷 kiun tsau tsûe‘ ’láng, {to-day it is very cold}.

234. The words 是[1] ’zz and 做 tsú‘ are employed as substantive verbs, and 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí when existence in place is spoken of. They are put in the negative by prefixing 勿 yeh.

是儂個否 ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ ’vá, {is it yours?} 是個勿是個 ’zz ku‘, veh ’zz ku‘, {it is; it is not}. 我做裁縫 ’ngú tsú‘ dzé vóng, {I am a tailor}. 做兒子要孝 tsú‘ ní ’tsz yau‘ h’iau‘, {he who is a son should be filial}. 勿勒拉此地 veh leh ’la ’t’sz di‘, {he is not here}.

Obs. i. The verb 呌 kiau‘, {to call} is sometimes so used that is may be translated as a substantive verb; e.g. í {y}áng‘ ’{t}au ’lí veh kiau‘ ’hau, 伊樣道理勿呌好 {that mode of action is not good}, or {is not what may be called good}.

Obs. ii. The words 當, 爲, and 作 are used in fixed phrases, from which they cannot be disengaged. 自家作主 zz‘ ká tsok ’tsû, {be your own master}; 改惡爲善 ’ké oh {w}é ’zé{n}, {repent and be virtuous}; 强盜作反 {k}iáng dau‘ tsok ’fa{n}, {the robbers are rebelling}; 當兵 tong ping, {to be a soldier}.

Obs. iii. 做 is also used as a transitive verb {make} or {do}, which is its primary meaning.

Obs. iv. 有 {to have} when no object follows affirms existence and is to be translated by the impersonal substantive verb in English; e.g. 魚有否 {ng} ’{y}eu ’vá, {are there any fish?} 豈有此理 ’k’í ’{y}eu ’t’sz ’lí, {how can this be?} ({It snows now}, is 落雪者 lok sih ’tsé.) Its negative is 嘸 {m} or 嘸沒 {m} meh.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. The substantive verb either simply affirms 是 ’zz or it affirms action 做 tsú‘ or it affirms existence in {place} 在 ’zé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, or it affirms {existence} 有 ’{y}eu. -----------------------------------------------------------------

235. Transitive verbs take the object after them, while the nominative precedes.

官府刻薄百姓 kwé{n} ’fú k’uh bóh pák sing‘, {the mandarins exact from the people}. 兵搶物事 ping ’t’siáng meh zz‘, {the soldiers commit robberies}.

236. When there are two objects as in verbs of {giving}, the nearer comes next to the verb, and the more remote stands last, usually with 拉 ’lá.

送禮物拉儂 sóng‘ ’lí veh ’lá nóng‘, {present you with gifts}. 撥飯拉儂吃 peh va{n}‘ ’lá nóng‘ k’iuh, {give you rice}.

Obs. This is the same as Remusat’s rule, “Dans les verbes à double rapport’ le complément direct se place après le verbe, et est suivi du complément indirect” 天子能薦人於天 t’íe{n} ’tsz nung tsíe{n}‘ zun ü t’íe{n}, {the emperor can propose a person to Heaven}; the order is not however confined to this one form; e.g. 送拉儂個物事 sóng‘ ’lá nóng‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, {I bring you a present}, is the same as, sóng‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng‘; 送儂兩個物事 sóng‘ nóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ {I bring you a few things}, is just as proper as sóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng.

237. The object is made to precede the transitive verb, by the use of the auxiliary 担 ta{n}, which is also the sign of the instrument.

担蠟燭火吹隱 ta{n} lah tsóh ’hú t’sz ’yun, {blow out the candle}. 担竹爿來打 ta{n} tsók {p}a{n} lé ’táng, {strike with a bamboo}. 担門關子 ta{n} mun kwa{n} tsz, {shut the door}.

238. Intransitive verbs when not followed by a preposition or another verb, prefer the last place.

此地坐 ’t’sz dí‘ ’zú, {sit here}. 第頭跑 {t}í‘ deu pau‘, {walk here}. 幾時來 ’kí zz lé, {when did you come}. 我船上來 ’ngú zé{n} long‘ lé, {I come from the boat}.

Obs. When a preposition is employed to connect an intransitive verb with a substantive, the verb may precede or follow; e.g. 到此地來 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé, {come here} is equivalent to lé tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘. So also 坐拉第搭, ’zú ’lá {t}í‘ tah, {sit here}, is the same as ’lá {t}í‘ tah ’zú.

239. The passive is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb 撥 peh, {give}, with the substantive that represents the agent, to the transitive verb.

撥別人打 peh bih niun ’táng, {was beaten by others}. 撥伊做唆我 peh í tsú sú ’ngú, {I was deceived by him}.

Obs. i. This auxiliary particle 撥 peh, {give}, has in all four uses:— Active, 撥三兩個銅錢拉伊 peh sa{n} ’liang kú‘ {t}óng die{n} ’lá í, {give him two or three cash}. Passive, 撥拉父母責備 peh ’lá ’vú ’mú tsah bé‘, {he was rebuked by his parents}. 我個帽子撥拉人偷之去者 ’ngú kú‘ mau‘ ’tsz peh ’lá niun t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, {my hat has been stolen by some one}. Causative, 撥拉伊死 peh ’lá í ’sí, {cause him to die}; 伊撥拉我喫虧者 í peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’ü (k’wé) ’tsé, {he has caused me to suffer}. (M. 使 shï‘ 呌 kiau‘, chiau‘.) Permissive, 啥人肯撥拉別人欺負呢 sá‘ niun ’k’ung peh ’lá bih niun c‘hi vú‘ ni? {who is willing to allow others to insult him?} 勿要撥拉別人哄騙儂 veh yau‘ peh ’lá bih niun hóng‘ p‘ien‘ nóng‘, {do not allow others to deceive you}.

Obs. ii. In mandarin it is not the common word to {give}, that is chosen for the passive auxiliary, but a word set apart for this purpose 被 pei‘.

Obs. iii. ’Zeu 受 {to receive}, is often used as a passive, e.g. 勿肯受 別人罵 veh ’k’ung ’zeu bih niun mó‘, {unwilling to be spoken ill of by others}. K’iuh 吃 is found in combination as in the next examples. When separated from the groups where it is the sign of the passive, it recovers its transitive sense {to eat}.

240. Verbs are made causative By prefixing kau‘, {to call}, or peh, {to give}.

呌我吃虧 kau‘ ’ngú k’iuh k’ü, {causing me to suffer loss}. 勿要呌吾白送脫 veh yau‘ kaú ngú báh sóng‘ t’eh, {do not cause me to give it away} (or {say it}) {in vain}. 呌水勿要滾 kiau‘ ’sz veh yau‘ ’kwun, {prevent the water from boiling}. 撥拉我吃官司 peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh kwé{n} sz, {causing me to be the subject of a lawsuit}.

Obs. i The English auxiliary verb {must} is expressed by ’tsóng, as in 總要牢實’tsóng yau‘ lau zeh, {you must be upright}.

Obs. ii. The derivative verbs which have been already illustrated are the following:— Inchoative, 提起筆來 {t}i ’k’í pih lé, {take up the pen}; Reflexive, 自怨自 zz‘ yö{n}‘ zz‘, {be one’s own enemy}; Collective, 合攏來 {h}eh ’lóng lé, {combine together}; Separative, 折開 來 t’sák k’é lé, {pull open}; Completing, 造完 ’zau wé{n}, {finish building}; Resisting, 擋住 tong dzû‘, {stand against}; Destroying, 丢脫 tieu t’eh, {throw away}. There are also forms for the various directions indicated by prepositions, v. Art. 223.

(3.) {Modes of verbs}.

241. In very many cases the mood is determined entirely from the sense, and has no particular sign.

我去買 ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, {I will go and buy}. (Indicative.) 是儂去還便當 ’zz nóng‘ k’í‘ wa{n} bíe{n}‘ tong‘, {if you should go, it would be more convenient}. (Subjunctive.) 儂去買 nóng‘ k’í‘ má, {do you go and buy}. (Imperative.) 買是容易 ’má ’zz yúng {í}‘, {to buy is easy}. (Infinitive).

Obs. Here the four principal moods of Latin grammar are exemplified without any distinctive sign.

242. The particle 者 ’tsé and 末 meh, at the end of the clause often mark {indicative} and {conditional} prepositions respectively.

現在落雨末年世好者 {h}íe{n}‘ ’dzé loh ’{ü} meh, níe{n} sz‘ ’hau ’tsé, {should it now rain, it will be a good year}. 年紀大末勿要者 níe{n} ’kí dú‘ meh veh yau‘ ’tsé, {if old, they are not wanted}.

Obs. i. The conditional clause always precedes.

Obs. ii. These particles may in many cases be omitted without affecting the sense. 勿落雨百姓要苦惱 veh loh ’{u} pák sing‘ yau‘ ’k’ú ’nau, {if it does not rain, the people must suffer}.

Obs. iii. In any two connected clauses, whether the former be conditional or not, these particles are frequently used; e.g. k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ tsz ’t’au va{n}‘ kú‘ meh, dzieu‘ ’táng ’k’í lé ’tsé. 看見之討飯 個末就打起來者 {when he saw the beggars, he began beating them}. Both these clauses are in the past time.

Obs. iv. An indicative clause standing alone often takes 者 ’tsé. Thus 來者 lé ’tsé, {I am come}, or {I come}; 去者 k’i‘ ’tsé, {I go}.

243. Another particle found in conditional sentences, is 之 tsz, appended to the verb. This marks the past participle of the verb.

吾吃之飯就來者 ngú k’iuh tsz va{n}‘ dzieu‘ lé ’tsé, {having dined I came at once}.

244. A {potential} mood is formed by many of the groups already illustrated. Both kinds of ability, absolute or natural, and limited or moral, are found in them. For examples of the former kind:—

寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, {I cannot write}. 講究得來 ’kong kieu‘ tuh lé, {I can discuss it}. 彎勿轉 wa{n} veh ’tsé{n}, {cannot turn round}.

Obs. 會 {w}é‘, prefixed to verbs makes them potential 念勿來 nia{n}‘ veh lé, {I cannot read}, is equivalent to veh {w}é‘ nia{n}‘.

245. The limited potential mood is formed by 起’k’í, e.g.

當勿起 tong veh ’k’í, {I do not deserve to receive it}. 牽勿起 k’íe{n} veh ’k’í, {not able to pull}. 磨勿起 mú veh ’k’í, {will not bear rubbing}. 吃勿起 k’iuh veh ’k’í, {cannot afford to eat it}. 打勿起 ’táng veh ’k’í, {cannot bear beating}. 手硬勿起 ’seu ngáng‘ veh ’k’í, {could not use my hand roughly}.

246. A {permissive} and {prohibitive} mood is formed by, —

{a}. 得 tuh.

看得 k’ö{n}‘ tuh, {you may look at}. 看勿得 k’ö{n}‘ veh tuh, {you may not look}.

{b}. 好 ’hau, and 可以 ’k’ó ’í, also give a permissive sense.

好進去杏 ’hau tsing‘ k’i‘ ’vá, {may I enter?} 勿好出去 veh ’hau t’seh k’i‘, {you must not go out}. 可以吃得 ’k’ó ’í k’iuk tuh, {you may eat it}.

247. An {optative} mode of the verb is formed by pó veh tuh, and {h}ng‘ veh tuh. (恨 {h}ng‘, west of Shánghái {h}ung‘).

我巴勿得快點到 ’ngú pó veh tuh k’wa‘ ’tíe{n} tau‘, {would that I could arrive quickly}. 恨勿得做好 {h}ng‘ veh tuh tsú‘ ’hau, {I wish I could do it}.

248. The {imperative} (1) in its negative form takes 要 yau‘, {want}, with the common negative particle 勿 veh.

勿要閙 veh yau‘ nau‘, {do not be noisy}.

(2.) The affirmative form of the {imperative} is expressed by the verb alone, or by 末者 meh ’tsé, or 罷 {p}á‘ appended sometimes to a few verbs.

走末者 ’tseu meh ’tsé, {go}. 去罷 k’í bá‘, {go}.

Obs. All the verbs single and grouped, except those with the affirmative and negative, may be used as imperatives without a particle. 走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, means either {I am passing you} or {pass over to me}.

249. the {Infinitive} it may be remarked, (1.) that it stands first in many negative groups not potential. v. Art. 228. g.

念勿停 nia{n}‘ veh ding, {does not cease io recite}. 吵閙勿停 t’sau nau‘ veh ding, {does not cease to be noisy}.

(2) That when a verb is made the subject of a proposition, while the predicate follows with a copula, the verb is translated in the infinitive, e.g.

去是容易 k’í‘ ’zz yóng í‘, {it is easy to go}.

250. When a verb takes a case particle, it is construed as a present participle or gerund.

物事勒拉來 meh zz‘ leh ’lá lé, {the things are coming}. 吃飯個辰光 k’iuh va{n}‘ kú‘ zun kwong, {time for dining}. 我拉寫字 ’ngú ’lá ’siá zz‘, {I am writing}. 吃個物事 k’iuh kú‘ meh zz‘, {things to eat}

Obs. The supine {in order to} has no sign, 買點啥去者, ’má ’tíe{n} sá‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, {he is gone (in order) to buy something}; 我來望望㑚 ’ngú lé mong‘ mong‘ ná‘, {I come to see you}. v. 252. f.

251. The forms of interrogation are of two kinds.

1. By the interrogative particles ma{n}‘ and ’vá.

飯好曼 va{n}‘ ’hau ma{n}‘, {is dinner ready?} 去否 k’í‘ ’vá, {will you go?}

2. By putting the question in the form of an affirmative and negative, side by side. The particle ní is often placed between.

肯去勿肯去 ’k’ung k’í‘ veh ’k’ung k’í‘, {will you or not?} 曉得勿曉得 ’h’iau tuh veh ’h’iau tuh, {do you know?} 買呢勿買 ’má ní veh ’má, {will you buy?}

Obs. After ní, the second clause is sometimes supplied by sa‘; e.g.

要打呢啥 yau ’táng ní sá, {do you want to fight, or what is it you want to do?}

(4) {Particles of time, forming tenses of verbs}.

252. For the expression of present time, no auxiliary word is necessary.

我勿做啥 ’ngú veh tsú‘ sá‘, {I am doing nothing}. 來呢勿來 lé ní veh lé, {is he coming or not?} 懂勿懂 ’tóng veh ’tóng, {do you understand or not?} 怕冷否 p’ó‘ ’láng ’vá, {do you fear cold?} 勿能勿怕冷 veh nung veh p’o‘ ’lang; {I cannot but fear cold}.

Obs. Instead of considering the rest of the tenses in their order, it will be better to take the particles in succession, and show what tenses they may be used for.

{a}. 歇 h’ih, {a moment}; this particle gives a past sense to the phrases in which it occurs, and is perhaps most accurately designated an {aorist}.

看歇戲否 k’ö{n}‘ h’ih h’í‘ ’vá, {have you seen the play?} 去歇兩囘 k’í‘ h’ih ’liáng {w}é‘, {I have gone twice}.

{b}. 者 ’tsé, 哩 ’lí; these particles express that the action is completed, or determined on. M. 了 ’liaú. Their English grammatical equivalent is usually the passive participle joined with the auxiliary verb {to be}.

買好拉者 ’má ’hau ’lá ’tsé, {they are bought}. 賣脱者 má‘ t’eh ’tsé, {it is sold}. 我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, {I am going}.

{c}. 過 kú‘, {past}; this particle has the sense of the preterite tense.

到過兩囘 tau‘ kú‘ ’liáng {w}é‘, {I have gone twice}. 花種過多少 hwó tsóng‘ kú‘ tú ’sau, {how many flowers have you planted?} 路跑過幾化里 lú‘ pau‘ kú‘ ’ki hó‘ ’li, {how many miles of road have we walked?}

Obs. 有 ’{y}eu and 可 ’k’ó, employed in some dialects as signs of the past, are never so used in this.

{d}. 歇者 h’ih ’tsé or h’ih ’lá ’tsé, express perfect time.

認得過歇者 niung‘ tuh kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, {have known him}. 忒伊話歇者 t’eh í {w}ó‘ h’ih ’tsé, {have told him}. 鐘敲歇拉者 tsóng k’au h’ih ’lá ’tsé, {bell has rung}. 托撥歇者 t’ok peh h’ih ’tsé, {have entrusted to him}.

{e}. 過歇 kú‘ h’ih, form a perfect farther in the past than the above.

來過歇者 lé kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, {I have come formerly}. 勿曾去過歇 veh zung k’i‘ kú‘ h’ih, {I have yet gone}. 學過歇拉者 {h}ok kú‘ h’ih ’lá ’tsé, {I have learnt it before}.

{f}. 要 yau‘ expresses future time; sometimes {tsiáng} precedes. 要 may often be translated {in order to} (supine).

要落雨者 yau‘ loh ’{ü} ’tsé, {it will rain}. 明朝要去 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘, {I will go to-morrow}.

{g}. 將 tsiáng, is frequently used for the future.

將有閙事 tsiáng ’yeu nau‘ zz‘, {there will be a disturbance}.

Obs. These particles give the affirmative future. The form for the negative is different as is shown below.

{h}. 之 tsz; this particle appended to a verb, gives it the time of a past participle. English auxiliary participle {having}.

看之書末曉得者 k’ö{n}‘ tsz sû meh, ’h’iau tuh ’tsé, {when you have read it, you will know}. 懂之末好講 ’tóng tsz meh ’hau ’kong, {when you understand it, you can explain it}. 做之兵咾打帳去者 tsu‘ tsz ping lau ’táng tsáng‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, {having become a soldier, he has gone to fight}.

Obs. As a relative tense particle, this word may be used in past or future time. In the former case, it is the sign of the narrative participle; e.g. 看見之山高咾走上去者 k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ tsz sa{n} kau lau, ’tseu ’zong k’í‘ ’tsé, {seeing the hill was high, he went up}. In the latter case it forms a future perfect, such as is introduced in English with “when,” 寫好之撥拉我看 ’sia ’hau tsz peh ’lá ’ngú k’ö{n}‘, {when you have written it, let me see it}. The conditional particle 末 meh, is frequently introduced at the end of the first clause.

{i}. 曾 zung; as 之 tsz expresses the past in affirmative sentences, so zung in those that are negative.

勿曾看歇 veh zung k’ö{n}‘ h’ih, {I have not seen it}. 勿曾來 veh zung lé, {he has not come}.

Obs. In a negative reply to a question, this particle is introduced, when in English the present tense is employed; 勿曾去 veh zung k’í‘, {he is not gone}.

253. Adverbs of time often render these particles unnecessary.

昨日去個 zoh (g) nyih k’í‘ kú‘, {he went yesterday}. 我後日去 ’ngú ’{h}eu nyih k’í‘, {I shall go on the day after to-morrow}.

254. The particles for future time are not used in the negative form.

我勿去, ’ngú veh k’í‘, {I shall not go}.

Obs. i. If yau‘ 要 is employed in a negative sentence whose time is future, it is in the sense of {wish} or {must}; e.g. 我勿要去 ’ngú veh yau‘ k’í‘, {I do not wish to go}. 將 tsiáng, when it occurs, must stand first, so that when 勿 veh introduces the sentence, it cannot form a part of it.

Obs. ii. 勿見得 veh kíe{n}‘ tuh, {it is not likely}, is very commonly employed as a negative future; e.g. 勿見得落雨 veh kíe{n}‘ tuh loh ’{u}, {it is not likely to rain}, or {it will not rain}.

255. Examples of some verbs that require illustration are here appended.

{а}. 當 tong in combination {ought}, {receive}: tong‘ {regard as, to pawn}. N. B. The tone differs in the last two senses.

當之年撥草伊吃 tong‘ tsz nieu peh ’t’sau í k’iuh, {regard him as a buffalo, and feed him on grass}. 輕個當之重個 k’iung kú‘ tong‘ tsz ’dzóng kú‘, {what is light regard as heavy}. 該當個 ké tong kú‘, {ought}. 勿敢當 veh ’ké{n} tong, {not dare receive it}. 當衣裳去 tong‘ í zong k’í’, {am going to pawn clothes}.

{b}. 打 ’táng, {beat, set in operation}.

打官司 ’táng kwé{n} sz, {go to law}. 打官話 ’táng kwé{n} {w}ó‘, {speak mandarin}. 打秋風 ’táng t’sieu fóng, {make presents in hope of gain}.

{c}. 待 {t}é‘, {to treat, wait}.

待慢 {t}é‘ ma{n}‘, {treat contemptuously}. 待人接物 {t}é‘ niun tsih veh, {treat persons respectfully}. 待我來 {t}é‘ ’ngú lé, {wait till I come}.

{d}. 銷 siau, {consume, melt}.

開銷 k’é siau, {to expend}. 銷烊 siau {y}áng, {to melt}.

{e}. 對 té‘ (d) {correspond, opposite}.

總勿對境 ’tsóng veh té‘ ’kiung, {nothing pleases him}. 更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, {still more wrong}. 對面看起來 té‘ míe{n}‘ k’ö{n}‘ ’k’í lé, {on the other hand you see}.

{f}. 弄 lóng‘, {meddle with, play with}.

弄壞 lóng‘ {w}á‘, {spoil}. 作弄 tsoh lóng‘, {deceive}. 弄假成眞 lóng‘ ’ká zung tsun, {make-believe becomes truth at last}. 弄孛相 lóng‘ beh siáng‘, {amuse one’s-self with}.

{g}. 費 fí‘, {to expend}.

費用 fí‘ yúng‘, {expenses}. 費神 fí‘ zun, 費心 fí‘ sing, {may I trouble you}.

{h}. 是 ’zz, {it is, it is right, right}.

是非 ’zz fí, {right and wrong}. 是得極 ’zz tuh giuh, {very right}. 嘸啥勿是 {m} sá veh ’zz, {not at all untrue}.

{i}. 話 {w}ó‘, {say} (M. ’kiáng, or shwóh), in combination, {words}.

話勿轉 {w}ó‘ veh ’tse{n}, {will not listen to words, or he keeps his words}. 話定當 {w}ó‘ ding‘ tong‘, {said decisively}. 啥話頭 sá‘ {w}ó‘ deu, {why use such words?}

{k}. 可 ’k’ó, {can, may}.

可恨 ’k’ó {h}ng‘, {a thing to be hated, hateful}. 實在可愛 {s}eh zé‘ ’k’ó é‘, {truly to be loved, (truly loveable.)}

Obs. These forms with ’k’ó, might also, if construed as dissyllables, be placed among the adjectives, as derivatives from verbs.

{l}. 倒 ’tau, {to overturn}.

推倒 t’é ’tau, {to turn over}. 推倒傅來 tíe{n} ’tau tsé{n} lé, {place upside down}. 倒勿是 ’tau veh ’zz, {and yet it is not}.

{m}. 生 sáng, {produce, be by nature, be born}.

耳𦖋生得好 ’ní ’tú sáng tuh ’hau, {has handsome ears}. 生來好看 sáng lé ’hau k’ö{n}‘, {naturally handsome}. 未生之前 ví‘ sung tsz zíe{n}, {before birth}. 生出果子來 sáng t’seh ’ku ’tsz lé, {bear fruit}.

{Section} 8. {Prepositions and Postpositions}.

256. The words that express the relations (cases) of nouns to one another are placed, some of them before and some after the governed substantive. The case particles that are used for the dative and ablative are prepositions, as also those that express {motion towards} and {substitution}.

打 ’tang, {from, by}. 對 té‘, {to, towards}. 從 zóng, {from}. 到 tau‘, {to arrive at}. 拉 ’lá (M. 於), {to}. 替 t’i‘, {to, with, instead of}. 搭 tah, {with}. 忒 t’eh, {to, for, with}. 同 {t}óng, {with}. 代 {t}e‘, {instead of}. 聯 líe{n}, {ib}. 由 {y}eu, {by}.

Obs. i. 勒拉 leh lá, a locative particle also precedes its noun. 在 zé‘, its M. equivalent is in our dialect only used in fixed collocations, as 實在 zeh zé‘, {certain}.

Obs. ii. 自 zz‘ is an inseparable preposition used in combination with zóng, {from}. 當 a locative preposition, preceding its noun, is also only found in fixed groups; e.g. 當初 tong t’sú, {formerly}.

Obs. iii. Several of these words are also used as verbs with a cognate sense, viz. 徒, 到, 對, 而, {to follow, to arrive at, to correspond, to take origin from}.

Obs. iv. 爲 {w}é‘, {on account of}, is found with the particles 之 tsz, or 着 záh; 搭 tah also very frequently takes 之 tsz.

Obs. v. 連 líe{n}, {together with}, is also used as a verb to {connect}. It frequently takes 搭 tah, after it; e.g. 連搭一家屋裏人 líe{n} tah ih ká óh ’lí niun, {together with all his family}.

257. The particles that are used for the locative case are postpositions.

裏 ’lí, {inside}. 前 zíe{n}, {before}. 外 ngá‘, {outside}. 後 ’{h}eu, {behind}. 上 long‘, {above}, R. ’zong. 下 ’{hau}, {below}.

Obs. i. 裏 ’lí, forms the compound 裏向 ’lí h’iáng, M. 中 chóng; 以 ’í, combines with 外 ngá‘, 前 zíe{n} and 後 ’heu, in the sense of {beside}, {before} and {after}, or {since}; e.g. 今朝以後 kiun tsau ’í ’{h}eu, {after to-day}. Numerous compounds of these words, which will be found among the adverbs, are also often used as prepositions. See Section 9.

Obs. ii. The mandarin 中 chóng, {inside}, is found in some compounds; e.g. 空中 k’óng tsóng, {in the air}.

258. Forms borrowed from other parts of speech, compensate for the absence of several prepositions.

1. {Of}, the particle of the genitive case is compensated for either by juxtaposition, or by the particle 個 kú‘.

中國規矩 Tsúng kóh kwé ’kü, {custom of China}. 別人個事體 {p}ih niun kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {what concerns others}.

2. {With}, (instrumental) by, are expressed by 担 ta{n}, and peh ’la or peh.

担篙子撐 ta{n} kau ’tsz t’sáng, {pole the boat with the bamboo}.

3. {Except} is expressed by the verb 除脫 dzû t’eh, usually with 以外 ’í ngá‘, or 外頭 ngá‘ deu, ending the clause.

除脫之儂個外頭就是我 dzû t’eh tsz nóng‘ kú‘ ngá‘ deu, dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, {excepting you, there is only myself}.

4. {Beside} is expressed by, 勿算 veh sö{n}‘, at the end of the clause.

小末勿算共總有一百 ’siau meh veh sö{n}‘, {k}óng‘ ’tsóng ’{y}eu ih páh, {without counting the small, there are 100 in all}.

5. {Beyond} takes 過去 kú‘ k’í‘, or 外頭 ngá deu.

廣東過去 ’Kwong tóng kú‘ k’i‘, {beyond Canton}.

6. {Through} or {pass by} is expressed by kiung kú‘ or kú‘ alone.

路上經過去杭州 lú‘ long‘ kiung kú‘ {H}ong-tseu, {go through Háng-cheú on the way}.

7. {Towards} is expressed by the verbs 朝, 望, 對 zau, mong‘, té‘.

朝西轉灣朝南 zau sí ’tsé{n} wa{n} zau né{n}, {go to the west, and turn to the south}. 朝第邊走 zau dí‘ píe{n} ’tseu, {go this way}. 望之第邊走 mong‘ tsz dí‘ píe{n} ’tseu, {ib}. 對故塊走 té‘ kú‘ k’wé‘ ’tseu, {go that way}.

Obs. Some of these prepositions in English, are easily reduced to verbs and substantives. The author of the Diversion of purley would readily find an etymology for them all. In common English grammars, such words as {regarding} and {respecting}, are set down among the prepositions, without a word to tell the juvenile student, how it is that prepositions come to be formed by the termination {ing}.

{Section} 9. {On Adverbs}.

{Quality}. 259. Adverbs of manner are formed by affixing zé{n}, {h}ú, nung and ’lí, to repeated adjectives.

隱隱然 ’yung ’yung zé{n}, {not clearly}. 興興然 h’iung h’iung zé{n}, prosperously. 約約乎 yáh yáh {h}ú, {indistinctly}. 幾幾乎 ’kí ’kí {h}ú, {very near}. 稀稀能 h’í h’í nung, {seldom met with}. 險險能 ’h’ie{n} ’h’ie{n} nung, {dangerously}. 快快裏 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ ’lí, {quickly}.

Obs. i. Zé{n} and {h}ú, are found in book phrases transferred to the dialect. Expressions formed with nung and ’lí, are pure colloquial, and are very numerous.

Obs. ii. Kiau‘ is used in one instance 慢慢敎 ma{n}‘ ma{n}‘ kiau‘, {slowly}.

Obs. iii. Long adjective groups are more frequently used as adverbs than as adjectives. They do not take the formative particles zé{n}, nung etc. 走路一門心思 ’tseu lú‘ ih mun sing sz, {he walks eagerly}.

260. The numerals 一 ih, 兩 ’liáng, combine with certain words, principally adjectives, to form adverbs.

一直 ih dzuh, {straight}. 一連 ih líe{n}, {joined together}. 一氣 ih k’í‘, {together}. 兩氣 ’liáng k’í‘, {separate}. 一樣 ih {y}áng‘, {the same}. 兩樣 ’liáng {y}áng‘, {different}. 一向 ih h’iáng‘, {hitherto}. 一齊 ih dzí, {together}. 一切 ih t’sih, {the whole}. 一淘 ih dau, {ib}. 一般 ih pé{n}, {the same}.

Obs. These may be shown by examples to be adverbs. 放拉兩起個 fong‘ ’lá ’liáng k’í‘ kú‘, {place them apart}; 當伊父母一般 tong‘ í ’vú ’mú ih pé{n}, {treats him in the same way that he does his parents}.

261. Repeated adjectives standing before verbs, are used as adverbs.

早早來 ’tsau ’tsau lé, {come early}. 慢慢走 ma{n}‘ ma{n}‘ ’tseu, {walk slowly}.

Obs. Sometimes the adjective is not repeated, as in 慢去 ma{n}‘ k’í‘, {be slow to go, good bye}, In 走好 ’tseu ’hau, {walk carefully}, the adverb follows the verb as in English.

262. Repeated forms imitative of natural sounds are in frequent use.

丁冬了冬 ting tóng ting tóng, {sound of drum} (’kú). 鎟鋃鎟鋃 song long song long, {ib. horse bells} (ling). 帖塌帖塌 t’ih t’ah t’ih t’ah, {sound of shoes}. 結怪結怪 kih kwá kih kwá, {calling of crows}. 刮臘刮臘 kwah lah kwah lah, {wind blowing on reeds}. 兵兵浜浜 ping ping páng páng, {noise of beating ice}. 以列以列 ’í lih ’í lih, {braying of asses}. 以挨以挨 ’í á ’í á, {creaking of doors}. 胡盧胡盧 {ú} lú {ú} lú, {sound of piping}. 㷸爆㷸爆 pih póh pih póh, {sound of splitting bamboo as by fire}.

Obs. Words of this sort occur so frequently in conversation, that at the risk of their being thought too amusing for a serious book they are here noticed. The second and third tones scarcely occur in these onomatopœia. The forms used in other dialects differ from these.

263. Adverbs of manner applied to qualify actions, and not reducible to the heads already given are such as,—

白白裏 {p}áh báh ’lí, {in vain}; or, {p}áh alone, e.g. {p}áh sóng‘ t’éh. 特特裏 {t}uh duh ’lí, {on purpose}. 特意 {t}uh í‘, {intentionally}. 偷伴子 t’eu bé{n} ’tsz, {secretly}. 假佯頭 ’ká {y}áng deu, {falsely}. 倖喜 {y}ung‘ ’h’í, {luckily}. 造化 ’zau hó‘, 恰好 hah ’hau, {fortunately}.

264. There is a large number of primitive adverbs, applied to qualify adjectives.

{а}. 更 kung‘, 還 {w}a{n}, 又 {i}‘, 再 tse‘, signify {more}. They precede their word, and form the comparative degree, v. Art. 177.

{b}. 頂 ’ting, 最 tsûe‘, 極 {k}iuh, 蠻 ma{n}, 怪 kwá‘, 好 ’hau, 狠 ’hun, {very}. These words precede their word and form the superlative. v. Art 178.

{c}. 些 ’sí, 煞 sah, 極 {k}iuh, 野 ’yá, come after their word and form a superlative.

{d}. 忒 t’uh, gives to adjectives the sense of {too}; e.g. 忒大 t’uh dú‘, {too large}.

Obs. i. These words which in English qualify only adjectives, sometimes qualify verbs whether construed as participles or not. 頂愛拉 個 ’ting é‘ ’lá kú‘, {the most beloved}; 蠻會做 ma{n} {w}é‘ tsú‘, {extremely well able to do it}; 話煞 {w}ó‘ sah, {say decisively}; 極有文 理 {k}iuh ’{y}eu vun ’lí, {has very (great) literary beauty}; or {it has extreme beauty}.

Obs. ii. The mandarin intensitive particle 好 ’hau is found only in the phrase 好幾 ’hau ’kí, {very many}.

Obs. iii. It has been seen in illustrating the comparison of adjectives, that some verbs, single and grouped with the auxiliaries tuh and lé, (得, 來,) are applied to adjectives. In addition to the examples there given, may be noticed 熱勿過 nyih veh kú‘, {unbearably hot}.

{Correlative Adverbs}. 265. The questions how? how much? how many? why? when? and where? are formed by interrogative pronouns with the most general words for manner, place and time, and a mere particle for the rest.

那能 ná‘ nung, {how?} 幾時 ’kí zz, {when?} 幾許 ’kí hó‘, {how much?} {how many?} 那裏 ’{á} ’lí, {where?} „ {how many?} 啥所 sá‘ sü, „ 啥咾 sá‘ lau, {why?} Also 為啥 {w}é‘ sá‘, 有啥 ’{y}eu sá‘.

Obs. i. {How may parts in ten?} is 十分裏幾分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ’kí vun‘. The answer might be 十分裏有三分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ’{y}eu sa{n} vun‘, {three tenths}. Questions and replies may be framed in the same way with any numerals.

Obs. ii. For other examples, see section on pronouns, to which etymologically these words belong.

Obs. iii. {How much more used as a logical particle}, is expressed by 何况於 {h}ú hwong‘ ü.

266. The adverbs corresponding to these, {thus, however, whenever, wherever} are expressed in various ways.

什蓋能 {s}eh ké‘ nung, {thus}, {s}eh ké‘, {ib}. 隨便那能 zûe bíe{n}‘ ná‘ nung, {which ever way you please}. 勿論幾許 veh lun‘ ’kí hó‘, {however much}. 勿拘那裏 veh kü {á} ’lí, {wherever you please}. 要那能就那能 yau‘ ná‘ nung dzieu‘ ná‘ nung, {however you want it, it shall be so}. 我那能做勿要問 ’ngú ná‘ nung tsú‘ veh yau‘ mun‘, {do not ask how I do it}.

Obs. i. Other examples may be seen in the section on pronouns. The answers to {when? where? how many?} will be found among the adverbs of time, place and number. {Why?} is answered by any direct statement, with or without the conjunction 因爲 yung {w}é‘.

Obs. ii. Dzûe bíe{n}‘, veh lun‘, veh kü, are properly verb combinations. They mean {following your convenience, without regarding, not constraining}.

{Quantity}. 267. The forms for {about, enough, much, little, together}, etc. are such as follow:—

{a}. {About}, is expressed by pó, kwong ’kiung, after their word, and yáh, {t}eu, before.

約歸一百 yáh kwé ih páh, {about a hundred}. 約畧, 約摸 yáh liáh, yáh máh, both signify {about}. 約數幾許 yáh sú‘ ’kí ’hau, {about how many?} 里巴 ’lí pó, {about a le}. 尺巴 t’sák pó, {about a foot}. 步巴 {p}ú pó, {about a step}. 寸巴 t’sun‘ pó, {about an inch}. 桶巴 ’{t}óng pó, {a bucket-ful}. 本巴 ’pun pó, {about a volume}. 半夜巴 pé{n}‘ {y}á pó, {about midnight}. 半托巴 pé{n}‘ t’ok pó, {two arms length} (t’ok, {stretch out both arms}). 頭二百 {t}eu ní‘ páh, {about two hundred}. 約百錢 yák páh díe{n}, {about 100 cash}. 約有二十 yáh {y}eu ní‘ seh, {there are about 20}. 一千光景 ih t’síe{n} kwong ’kiung, {about 1000}.

Obs. A very common form is 差勿多 t’só veh tú, {not far wrong}, which is used in the same sense as the above words.

{b}. {Enough} and {not enough} are expressed by keu‘, veh tsóh, veh kû{n} zz‘, k’iöh ’sau and some verbs with the negative.

彀哩, 干事者 keu‘ ’lí, kû{n} zz‘ ’tsé, {enough}. 勿彀, 勿干事 veh keu‘, veh kû{n} zz‘, {not enough}. 有哩 ’{y}eu ’lí, {it is enough}. 勿足 veh tsóh, {not enough}. 勿到三十 veh tau‘ sa{n} seh, {not so many as 30}. 勿滿三十 veh ’mé{n} sa{n} seh, {ib}. 勿缺少個 veh k’iöh ’sau kú‘, {not insufficient}. 第個裏少一錢 {t}i‘ kú‘ ’lí ’sau ih die{n}, {this is deficient one cash}. 第籃桶子裡缺十隻 {t}i‘ la{n} kiöh ’tsz ’lí k’iöh seh tsáh, {this basket of oranges in ten short}.

Obs. These words might be divided between adjectives and verbs, and no place reserved for them here, were it not that their equivalents in English and other languages are adverbs.

{c}. {Much, more, many} are all expressed by the adjective 多 tú. If tú precedes it is {more} (adv.): if it follows its word, it is {much} or {many} (adj.) Other words for {more} are 還 {w}a{n}, 越 yöh, and the verbs ká, t’íe{n}, ’tíe{n}, etc.

多撥點 tú peh ’tíe{n}, {give more}. 第袋米多二斤 {t}i‘ dé‘ ’mi tú ni‘ kiun, {this bag of rice is two catties more} (or {over}). 人多個 niun tú kú‘, {the men are many}. 越加勿好 {y}öh ká veh ’hau, {much worse}. 加點, 添點 ká ’tíe{n}, t’íe{n} ’tíe{n}, {give more}. 一錢勿加 ih díe{n} veh ká, {I will not give one more cash}. 勿罷一百 veh bá‘ ih páh, {there are more than a hundred}. 也勿罷 ’{á} veh bá‘, {and more too}. 銅錢還要 {t}óng díe{n} {w}a{n} yau‘, {I want more cash}.

Obs. For examples of such forms as 好幾 ’hau ’kí, 多許 tú hau‘, {many}. See section on pronouns. The only words here adduced that can claim to be adverbs are 越 {still more}, 也 {too}, and {w}a{n} 還. {Too} is an adverb in English, but its equivalent 也 becomes by its position a conjunction, and {w}a{n} when it is not an adverb of time {still}, may often fairly be considered a conjunction.

{d}. {Less, few} are represented by 少 ’sau, standing before its word, and by such borrowed phrases as veh siau, {not necessary, less}: ’{y}eu {h}ie{n}‘ k’ú‘, {few, not much}.

兩日勿消 ’liáng nyih veh siau, {in less than 2 days}. 少吃點 ’sau k’iuh ’tíe{n}, {eat less}. 減脱點 ’ka{n} t’eh ’tíe{n}, {take less, subtract a little}. 勿能減少 veh nung ’ka{n} ’sau, {cannot take less}. 人有限個 niun ’{y}eu {h}íe{n}‘ kú‘, {of men there are few}.

{e}. {A little, any}, are used sometimes adverbially in English. Their representatives in our dialect are liák sü, ’sau {w}é, sü ’sau with the auxiliary substantive forms ih ’nga{n}, ’tíe{n}, etc.

畧須曉得 liák sü ’h’iau tuh, {know it a little}. 須為明白 sü {w}é ming báh, {understand it a little}. 須稍懂得 sü ’sau ’tóng tuh, {ib}. 些須加點 ’sí sü ká ’tíe{n}, {add a little}. 稍為要個 ’sau {w}é yau‘ kú‘, {I want it a little}. 稍為便宜點 ’sau {w}é bie{n}‘ ni ’tíe{n}, {a little cheaper}. 脚有一眼酸 kiáh ’{y}eu ih ’nga{n} sû{n}, {my feet are a little tired}. 有點怕個 ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} p’ó‘ kú‘, {he is a little afraid}. 一點點 ih ’tíe{n} ’tíe{n}, {a very little}. 有點𨅓跎 ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} sá dú, {I am a little tired}. 有點會飛 ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} {w}é‘ fí‘, {can fly a little}.

Obs. ’Tíe{n}, ih ’nga{n}, when they follow an adjective, while placing it in the comparative degree, preserve their own sense {a little}; e.g. 好一眼多謝 ’hau ih ’nga{n} tú zia‘, {a little better thank you}; 快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíe{n} ’tseu, {walk a little faster}.

{f}. {Not very, very much, too much} are expressed by the derivative adverb, veh da‘ ’lí, and the forms {s}eh ní‘ fun, kú‘ vun‘, t’uh kú‘ vun‘.

勿大哩要 veh da‘ ’lí yau‘, {he does not much want it}. 勿大哩多 veh da‘ ’lí tú, {not very many}. 十分要 {s}eh fun yau‘, {wants it very much}. 十二分好 {s}eh ní‘ fun ’hau, {very good}.

{g}. {Not at all, not in the least}, are translated in several ways.

一無用頭 ih vú {y}úng‘ deu, {of no use}. 萬無好處 va{n}‘ vú ’hau t’sû‘, {of no use at all}. 絲毫勿對 sz {h}au veh té‘, {not in the least agreeing}. 嘸啥蹉跎 {m} sá‘ sá dú, {not at all tired}. 一眼勿差 ih ’nga{n} veh t’só, {just so, not at all wrong}.

{h}. To {altogether} correspond ’lóng ’tsóng, {k}óng ’tsóng, tseu sun, ’lóng ’t’óng.

共總二百 {k}óng‘ ’tsóng ni‘ páh, {in all two hundred}. 週身幾許 tseu sun ’kí hau‘, {in all how many?} 盡行勿好 dzing‘ {y}ung veh ’hau, {altogether wrong}. 一氣賣完 ih k’í‘ má‘ {w}é{n}, {altogether sold off}. 攏統三萬 ’lóng ’t’óng sa{n} ma{n}‘, {altogether 30,000}.

{i}. {Mostly, chiefly}, are expressed by pronominal forms, which have been already partially illustrated.

大一半, {t}ú‘ ih pé{n}‘, {the greater part}. 大凡人勿懂 {t}á‘ va{n} niun veh ’tóng, {men mostly do not understand}. 大槩百姓 {t}á ké pák sing‘, {most people}. 大凡人什蓋寫個多, {t}a‘ va{n} niun seh ké ’sia kú‘ tú, {most persons write it thus}. 第能貸色是好個多 {t}i‘ nung hú‘ suh ’zz ’hau kú‘ tú, {articles of this kind are mostly good}. 吃鴉片烟個人勿牢寔個多 k’iuh {á} p’ie{n} ye{n} kú‘ niun veh lau zeh kú‘ tú, {opium smokers are for the most part dishonest}.

{j}. {Half} is sometimes used in English as an adverb; so also it is in Chinese, as in the following phrases.

半死半活 pé{n}‘ ’sí pé{n}‘ {w}eh, {half dead half alive}. 半假半眞 pé{n}‘ ’ká pé{n}‘ tsun, {half false half true}. 半推半愛 pé{n}‘ t’é pé{n}‘ é‘, {refuse and yet wish for}. 半吞半吐 pé{n}‘ t’un pé{n}‘ t’ú‘, {cease from saying a thing when half through it}.

Obs. The other proportional parts, such as 四分裏一分 si‘ vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, {a quarter}; 十分裏一分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, {one tenth}, are much too long to enter into such groups.

{k}. {only, alone} are represented by {tseh}, {t}ók, ta{n}, {t}a{n}‘ and forms into which they enter.

只得一眼 tseh tuh ih ’nga{n}, {only a little}. 獨一干 {t}ók ih kû{n}, {only one}. 獨干子 {t}ók kû{n} ’tsz, {alone}. 勿但一個 veh da{n}‘ ih kú‘, {not only one}. 惟獨兩個人 ví‘ dóh ’liáng kú‘ niun, {only two men}. 勿獨之一個 veh dók tsz ih kú‘, {not only one}. 一干子 ih kû{n} ’tsz, {alone}. 單單一個 ta{n} ta{n} ih kú‘, {a single one}. 不過一個 pih ({should be} peh) kú‘ ih kú‘, {only one}. 獨獨哩我會做 {t}óh dóh ’lí ’ngú {w}é‘ tsú‘, {only I can do it}.

Obs. i. Ta{n}, is also an adjective, as in the question, 花單個呢雙個 hwó ta{n} kú‘ ní song kú‘, {is the flower single or double?} {T}óh and {t}a{n}‘ are both conjunctions, when joined to ’zz, as 但是, 獨是 {t}a{n}‘ ’zz, {t}óh ’zz, {but}.

Obs. ii. The numeral adverbs {once, twice}, etc. translated by 一次 ih t’sz‘, etc. may be seen in section 4. on auxiliary substantives, Art. 163.

{Negative and Affirmative}. 268. One of the most common negative particles is 嘸 {m}, to which 沒 meh, the same in meaning is frequently appended. 嘸 {m} is properly a verb {not to have}.

嘸啥事體 m sá‘ zz‘ t’í, {it is nothing}. 嘸形嘸踪 m {y}ung m tsóng, {there is no trace of him}. 嘸沒啥話頭 m meh sá‘ {w}ó‘ deu, {there is nothing to say}. 嘸憂嘸慮 m yeu m lü‘, {having no grief or care}.

269. The literary word that corresponds to this particle is 無 vú, which is also in common use in colloquial phrases derived from the books or formed on book models.

無財無勢 vú dzé vú sz‘, {having no riches or influence}. 無親無戚 vú t’sing vú t’sih, {having no relations}. 無冬無夏 vú tóng vú ’{y}á, {having neither winter nor summer}.

270 The negative particle in most general use is 勿 veh. It is not prohibitive as in the books, but simply denies like 不 peh in mandarin.

勿會度日 veh {w}é‘ dú‘ nyih, {I cannot live on}. 勿三勿四 veh sa{n} veh sz‘, {neither this nor that}. 勿聲勿嚮 veh sung veh ’h’iáng, {he said nothing}. 勿薦拉儂 veh tsíe{n}‘ ’lá nóng‘, {I shall not recommend him to you}. 勿是, 勿個 veh ’zz, veh kú‘, {it is not so} (or veh alone).

271. The particles 惟 ví, 不 peh and 非 fí, are used in a few combinations.

惟獨 ví dóh, {only}. 惟我一人 ví ’ngú ih zun, {only I}. 不止一人 peh ’tsz ih zun, {not one man only}. 不知下落 peh tsz ’{y}á loh, {do not know where he is}. 眼不能見 ’nga{n} peh nung kíe{n}‘, {not to be seen}. 非獨之我 fí dók tsz ’ngú, {not only I}.

272. The simplest affirmative is 是 ’zz; certain auxiliary particles are often appended or prefixed.

是個, 是拉個 ’zz kú‘, ’zz ’lá kú‘, {it is so}. 就是, 是者 dzieu‘ ’zz, ’zz ’tsé, {ib}.

273. When some quality is affirmed, an adjective of opposite meaning, with the negative particle prefixed, is often employed.

勿孬 veh k’ieu, {that is good}. 倒勿對 ’tau veh té‘, {but that is wrong}. 勿差 veh t’só, {you are right}.

274. The emphasis of positive certainty is conveyed by phrases such as tsun tsung‘, {s}eh zé‘, etc., and the double negation 無非 prefixed to the proposition affirmed.

眞正嘸沒 tsun tsung‘ m meh, {certainly there is none}. 畢竟勿曾到 pih kiung‘ veh zung tau‘, {certainly he has not come}. 實在有個 {s}eh zé ’{y}eu kú‘, {there certainly is}. 斷斷乎是個 tö{n}‘ tö{n}‘ ú ’zz kú‘, {it certainly is so}. 果然勿差 ’kú ze{n} veh t’só, {it is certainly right}.

Obs. The interrogative final {mó}, is often used to express the same sense with these words, 小囝蠻麽 ’siau nö{n} ma{n} mó, {the boys are wild indeed}.

275. Some phrases imply a moral certainty or necessity ({must}), and with the negative, the absence of that necessity ({need not}).

柴總有個 zá ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, {there must be fire wood}. 銀子一定有 niung ’tsz ih ding‘ ’{y}eu, {there must be silver}. 總要解說個 ’tsóng yau‘ ’ká seh kú‘, {you must explain it}. 必定要去 pih ding‘ yau‘ k’i‘, {you must go}. 板定要來者 ’pa{n} ding‘ yau‘ lé ’tsé, {he must necessarily come}. 板要做個 ’pan yau‘ tsu‘ kú‘, {you must do it}. 善终有善報 ’zé{n} tsóng ’yeu ’zé{n} pau‘, {virtue will surely have a good reward}. 做生意總要用心 tsú‘ sang i‘ ’tsóng yau‘ yúng‘ sing, {in transacting business you must apply the mind}.

276. There are several phrases to express that the thing affirmed is naturally so, and that nothing else ought to be expected.

本來什蓋能 ’pun lé {s}eh ké‘ nung, {it is originally so}. 本者來自家要來 ’pun ’tsé lé zz‘ ka yau‘ lé, {he originally wished to come himself}. 自然者 zz‘ zé{n} ’tsé, {as might be expected}. 自然而然 zz‘ zé{n} rh zé{n}, {spontaneously}. 原來嘸啥 niö{n} lé {m} sá‘, {it is really nothing}. 本者乎勿肯 ’pun ’tsé {ú} veh ’k’ung, {by nature unwilling}. 良心本底子有個 liáng sing ’pun ’tí ’tsz ’{y}eu ku‘, {conscience belongs to us by nature}.

277. Different words are usually appropriated to the affirmative and negative forms of assertions. Thus (1) absolute certainty in the negative is expressed by,—

並勿是 {p}ing‘ veh ’zz, {certainly it is not}. 决勿好做 kiöh veh ’hau tsu‘, {it ought surely not to be done}. 切勿可以 t’sih veh ’k’ó ’í, {you certainly may not}.

(2). The denial of necessity (need not) is conveyed in such expressions as the following.

勿必得去 veh pih tuh ’k’í, {you need not go}. 勿必多 veh pih tú, {do not need many}.

Obs. The Imperative also, as in 勿要去 veh yau‘ k’í‘, {do not go}; 去 末者 k’í‘ meh ’tsé, {go} has distinct auxiliary words for the affirmative and negative forms.

278. There are some adverbs appropriated to express affirmative and negative propositions in the interrogative form.

豈勿是頂好 ’k’i veh ’zz ’ting ’hau, {how is it not admirable}. 難道儂勿曉得我 na{n} dau‘ nóng‘ veh ’h’iau tuh ’ngú, {it can hardly be that you do not know me}. 有啥勿識字 ’{y}eu sá‘ veh suh zz‘, {why should I not know how to read}.

Obs. i. The final interrogative 麽 mau, or 呢 ní, is appended frequently to any sentences of this sort.

Obs. ii. Affirmative questions implying a strong denial are also occasionally asked by these particles; e.g. 豈有此理 k’í ’{y}eu ’t’sz ’lí, {how can this be?} 難道我哄騙儂否 na{n} dau‘ ’ngú hóng‘ p’ie{n}‘ nóng‘ ’vá, {could I deceive you?}

{Adverbs of place}. 279. Demonstrative adverbs are derived from pronouns, as adverbs of manner from adjectives. Thus {here and there}, are translated by compounds formed from the three pronouns {t}í‘, kú‘, í.

第塊, 第搭, 第頭, {t}í‘ k’wé‘, {t}í‘ tah, {t}í‘ deu, {here}. 故塊, 故搭, 故頭, kú‘ k’wé‘, kú‘ tah, kú‘ deu, {there}. 伊塊, 伊搭, 伊頭, í k’wé‘, í tah, í deu, {there}.

Obs. From 此 ’t’sz is formed 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, {here}; 堂 {t}ong, also forms {t}í‘ dong, {here}, etc.

280. {On this}, and {on that side} are formed in a similar manner with the auxiliaries míe{n}‘, {face}, and píe{n}, {side}.

第面, 第邊, {t}í‘ míe{n}‘, {t}í‘ píe{n}, {on this side}. 第半爿, {t}í‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {ib}. 故面, 故邊, kú‘ míe{n}‘, kú‘ píe{n}, {on that side}. 故半爿, 伊半爿, kú‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, í pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {ib}. 伊面, 伊邊, í míe{n}‘, í píe{n}, {ib}.

281. The postpositions or case particles corresponding to our locative prepositions enter into similar forms.

上面, 上頭 ’zong míe{n}‘, ’zong deu, {above}. 上邊, 上半爿 ’zong píe{n}, ’zong pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {on the upper side}. 上首, 上肩, 上底頭 ’zong ’seu, ’zong kíe{n}, ’zong ’tí deu, {on the upper side}. 前面, 前頭, 前底 zíe{n} míe{n}‘, zíe{n} deu, zíe{n} ’tí, {before}. 後面, 後頭, 後首 ’{h}eu míe{n}‘, ’{h}eu deu, ’{h}eu ’seu, {behind}. 後底, 後底頭 ’{h}eu ’tí, ’{h}eu ’tí deu, {behind}. 裏頭, 裏厮, 裏面 ’lí deu, ’lí sz, ’lí míe{n}‘, {inside}. 裏向, 裏邊 ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí píe{n}, {ib}. 裏半爿 ’lí pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {ib}.

Obs. i. 下 ’au forms the same compounds as 上 ’zong, with one other 下底 ’au ’tí, all of them with the sense {below}. 外 ngá‘, forms the same compounds as 裏 ’lí (excepting that with 向 h’iáng‘), in the sense of {outside}.

Obs. ii. For similar groups of nouns, with the points of the compass, see Art. 152.

282. The adjectives ’tsú {y}eu‘, {right and left}, form some groups.

右邊, 右半爿, {y}eu‘ píe{n}, {y}eu‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {on the right-hand}. 左邊, 左半爿, tsí‘ (ú) píe{n}, tsí‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {on the left-hand}.

283. The adverbs of place and direction that remain are few.

週圍, 四週圍, tseu {w}é, sz‘ tseu {w}é, {all round}. 當中 tong tsóng, {in the middle}. 空中 k’óng tsóng, {in the air}. 橫肚裏 {w}áng ’tú ’lí, {obliquely}. 射角 dzák kok, {obliquely}. 對直 té‘ dzuh, {straight before}. 那裏那裏堂 ’{á} ’lí, ’{á} ’lí dong, {where?} 各處, 處處, 到處, kok t’sû‘, t’sû‘ t’sû‘, tau‘ t’sû‘, {everywhere}. 各道落處 kok tau‘ lok t’sû‘, {everywhere}.

284. {W}áng and ’zû form with verbs many groups of four characters, in which the action is said to be done in various ways, literally {across and perpendicularly}.

橫做𥪡做 {w}áng tsú‘ ’zû tsú‘, {do this and that}. 橫勿是𥪡勿是 {w}áng veh ’zz, ’zû veh ’zz, {wrong in this and in that}.

Obs. In weaving, the cross thread is 芉紗 ü‘ só, the other 經紗 kiung só; here ü‘ is used for wei 緯.

285. The adverbs {in and out, up and down, here and there}, etc. are translated in Chinese by repeated verbs.

飛進飛出 fí tsing‘ fí t’seh, {fly in and out}. 跳上跳下 t’iau‘ ’zong t’iau‘ ’{a}u, {jump up and down}. 搖來搖去 {y}au lé {y}au k’í‘, {row about}.

{Adverbs of time}. 286. The following are the primitive adverbs of time employed in the dialect.

曾 zung, {already}; 勿曾 veh zung, {not yet}. 向 h’iáng‘, 一向 ih h’iáng‘, {hitherto}; (it embraces the whole of the past time), 向來 h’iáng‘ lé, 向係 h’iáng‘ {í}‘, {ib}. 已 ’í, {already}; e.g. 已經 ’í kiung, {already}. 昨 zoh (zóh, zog), in 昨日 zoh nyih, {yesterday}. 先 síe{n}, {first}; 第個先要做 {t}í‘ kú‘ síe{n} yau‘ tsú‘, {this must be done first}. 暴 {p}au‘, {at first}; e.g. 暴時 {p}au‘ zz, {at first}; 暴時間 {p}au‘ zz ka{n}, {ib}. 預 ü‘, {beforehand}; 預先防備 ü‘ síe{n} bong bé‘, {guard against beforehand}. (防 {guard against}; M. {fang}; S.R. {vong}). 初 t’sú, {at first}, is only found as an adverb in the phrase 當初 tong t’sú, {formerly}. 今 kiun, {now}; e.g. 目今 mók kiun, 刻今 k’uk kiun, 現今 {h}íe{n}‘ kiun, {now}; 今朝 kiun tsau, {to-day}; 今曰 kiun nyih, {ib}.; 今月 kiun niöh, {this month}; 今年 kiun níe{n}, {this year}. 難 na{n}, {now}; 難故歇 na{n} kú‘ h’ih, {at the present moment}; 難朝後 na{n} dzau ’eu, {from this time forward}; 難下來 na{n} ’{a}u lé, {ib}.; 難末 na{n} meh, {then}. 正 tsung‘, (or 淮 ’tsung) {just}; 正勒拉 tsung‘ leh ’lá, {just while}; 貼正 t’ih (or t’eh) tsung‘, {just at the moment}. 現 {h}íe{n}‘ {now}; 現在 {h}íe{n}‘ dzé‘, {now}; 現時 {h}íe{n}‘ zz, {ib}. 暫 dza{n}‘, {temporarily}; e.g. 暫時 dza{n}‘ zz, {for a short time}; 暫為 dza{n}‘ {w}e‘, {ib}. 將 tsiáng, {about to be}; 將來 tsiáng lé, {it will happen that}. 卽 tsiuk (tsih) just; 隨卽 zûe tsiuk, {just}; 卽刻 tsih k’uh, {ib}. 卽鉛 tsih k’a{n}, {ib}. 再 tsé‘, {again}; 再會 tsé‘ {w}é‘, {we shall meet again}. 鉛 k’a{n} {just}; 鉛鉛 k’a{n} k’a{n} {ib}.; 鉛起始 k’a{n} ’k‘í ’sz, {at the beginning}. 又 {í}‘, 又來者 {í}‘ lé ’tsé, {come again}. 還 {w}a{n}, {still}; 還要來 {w}a{n} yau‘ lé, {come again}. 就 dzieu‘, {immediately}; 就轉來 dzieu‘ ’tsé{n} lé, {return directly} 就此 dzieu‘ ’t’sz, {immediately}. 一 ih followed by 就 dzieu‘ {the moment that}; 一睏就覺 ih k’wun‘ dzieu‘ kau‘, {the moment he went to sleep he awoke}.

Obs. i. Of these words, only 難, 將, 再, 又, 還, 就, na{n}, tsiáng, tsé‘, {í}‘, {w}a{n}, dzieu‘, are separable from the groups in which they are found. 未 as in 未哩 mí‘ ’lí, {not yet}, is a negative adverb of time.

Obs. ii. All these adverbs are book words, except {p}au‘, na{n}, and k’a{n}.

287. The demonstrative pronouns 第, 伊, 故, {t}í‘, í, kú‘, and some other words combine with the substantives 歇, 刻, 時, h’ih, k’uh, zz, {a short time}, to form adverbs of time.

第歇故歇 {t}í‘ h’ih, kú‘ h’ih, {at this moment}. 故歇頭上 kú‘ h’ih deu long‘, {at that time}. 伊歇頭上 í h’ih deu long‘, {ib}. 一時頭上 ih zz deu long‘, {all at once}. 立刻 lih k’uh, {immediately}. 立時立刻 lih zz lih k’uh, {ib}. 立時三刻 lih zz sa{n} k’uh, {ib}.

歇 h’ih, also helps to form 大歇 tá h’ih, 爽歇 zong h’ih, {after a little time}; 少歇 ’sau h’ih, {ib}.

288. Several adjectives and prepositions are borrowed to form compound adverbs of time.

{a}. 明 ming, {bright}. 明朝 ming tsau, {to-morrow}; 明日 ming nyih, {ib}.; 明天 ming t’íe{n}, {ib}.; 明年 ming níe{n}, {next year}.

{b}. 早 ’tsau, {early}; 早早 ’tsau ’tsau, {early}; 老早 ’lau ’tsau, {early}.

{c}. 古 ’kú {ancient}. 古時間 ’kú zz ka{n}, {in ancient times}; 古時節 ’kú zz tsih, {ib}.; 古來 ’kú lé, {from ancient times}.

{d}. 新 sing, {new}. 新年 sing níe{n}, {new year}; 從新 dzóng sing, {afresh}.

{e}. 近 ’{k}iun, {near}. 近年 ’{k}iun níe{n}, {of late years}; 近時 ’{k}iun zz, {lately}; 近來 ’{k}iun lé, {ib}. 近今 ’{k}iun kiun, {ib}. 近世 ’{k}iun sz‘, {in modern times}.

{f}. 舊 ’{k}ieu, {old}. 舊年 ’{k}ieu níe{n}, {last year}; 仍舊 zung ’gieu, {as before}; 照舊 tsau‘ ’gieu, {ib}. 依舊 í‘ ’gieu, {ib}.

{g}. 常 dzáng, {constant}. 常庄 dzáng tsong, 打常 ’táng dzáng, 常常 dzáng dzáng 不常 peh dzáng, {always}; 常時 dzáng zz, {sometimes}; 日常 nyih dzáng, {daily}.

{h}. 前 zíe{n}, {former}. 前日子 zíe{n} nyih ’tsz, {day before yesterday}; 目前 móh zíe{n}, {now}. 前年 zíe{n} níe{n}, {year before last}. 從前 dzóng zíe{n}, {formerly}. 以前 ’í zíe{n}, {before}; 前代 zíe{n} dé‘, {the former dynasty}. 前朝 zíe{n} zau, {ib}.; 前世 zíe{n} sz‘, {in a former life}.

{i}. 後 ’{h}eu, {after}. 後來 ’{h}eu lé, 以後 ’í {h}eu‘, {after}; 後月 ’{h}eu niöh, {next month}; 後年 ’{h}eu níe{n}, {year after next}; 後日 ’{h}eu nyih, {day after to-morrow}.

{j}. 下 ’{h}au, 目下 móh ’{h}au, {at present}.

{k}. 多 tú, 日多 nyih tú, {daily}.

Obs. Zie{n} deu, ’{h}eu deu, {before}, {after}, and the cognate adverbs of place are used also for time.

289. Sometimes verbs take the place of what in English are adverbs. They are 來, 過, 歇, 隔 lé, kú‘, h’ih, káh.

自古以來 zz‘ ’kú ’í lé, {from ancient times till now}. 周朝以來 Tseu dzau ’í lé, {from the Cheú dynasty till now}. 歇之兩日 h’ih tsz ’liáng nyih, {after two days}. 隔之幾十年 kák tsz ’kí zeh níe{n}, {after several tens of years}. 再過一月 tsé‘ kú‘ ih niöh, {after another month}.

290. There are some provincial adverbs of time, whose etymology is uncertain, or at least not referable to words of time.

做慣 tsok (kwa{n}‘) kû{n}‘, {constantly (in the habit of)}. 只管 tseh ’kwé{n}, {ib}. or {my only concern is}, etc. (M.) 冷陌生頭 ’láng mák sáng deu, {suddenly}. 難板 na{n} ’pa{n}, {seldom (difficult to fix)}.

291. The adjective pronouns combine with substantives of time to form common phrases, which are often used as adverbs.

多 tá, {several}; 多歇 tá h’ih, {after a little time}; 多日 tá nyih, {after some days}; 多年 tá níe{n}, {after some years}; 多時 tá zz, {a considerable time} (多 {tú} in this sense is generally pronounced {tá}.) 幾 ’kí, {several}; 連幾日 líe{n} ’kí nyih, {during several days}. 多 tú, {many}; 介多 ká‘ tú, {mutually}. 逐 dzóh, {each}; 日逐 nyih dzóh, {daily}; 逐點逐點高 dzók ’tíe{n} dzók ’tíe{n} kau, {gradually growing higher}.

292. Substantives of time, when repeated, are adverbs.

日日 nyih nyih, {daily}. 年年 níe{n} níe{n}, {yearly}. 時時刻刻 zz zz k’uh k’uh, {constantly}. 歇歇 h’ih h’ih, {ib}. 出出變, 囘囘變 t’seh t’seh pie{n}‘, {w}é {w}é pie{n}‘, {constantly changing}.

Obs. Succession in time is frequently represented in English by repetition of a noun with an adverb inserted. Thus, {day by day} corresponds to 日日 nyih nyih. Such phrases as {year after year, one after another} are other examples, and have their Chinese equivalents in the next article.

{Order and Succession}. 293. Succession of periods of time is represented by repetition, and the intervention of the verb 過 kú‘, {pass} (English adverb {after}).

一世過一世 ih sz‘ kú‘ ih sz‘, {age after age}.

294. The particles {and}, {after}, {by}, in {one by one}, {two and two}, {in rows}, etc. are not represented, succession being expressed by mere repetition of the numeral and its particle.

一個一個出去者 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ t’seh k’i‘ ’tsé, {one after another they went out}. 要種個一行一行個 yau‘ tsóng‘ kú‘ ih {h}ong ih {h}ong kú‘, {plant them in rows}.

Obs. For the repetition of verbs, in phrases such as 站一站 dza{n}‘ ih dza{n}‘, {stand waiting a little}; 研一研 níe{n} ih níe{n}, {rub a little ink}; 冷個冷 ’láng kú‘ ’láng, {cool it a little}; 調個調 diau kú‘ diau, {stir it a little}; 淘個淘 dau kú‘ dau, {wash it} (of rice); 净個净 zing‘ kú‘ zing‘, {wash it} (of clothes); 我要辨個辨清爽 ’ngú yau‘ bíe{n}‘ kú‘ bíe{n}‘ t’sing ’song, {I wish to distinguish clearly}; see also Art. 232.

295. Gradual increase by little and little, is expressed by repeating the auxiliary phrases ih ’nga{n}, ih ’tíe{n}, with the adjective in the centre. When the gradual change is in time, words of time form similar phrases.

一眼高一眼 ih ’nga{n} kau ih ’nga{n}, {to become gradually higher}. 一點大一點 ih ’tíe{n} dú‘ ih ’tíe{n}, {grow gradually greater}. 一歇大一歇 ih h’ih dú‘ ih h’ih, {greater every moment}. 一日小一日 ih nyih ’siau ih nyih, {grow less every day}.

296. Many adverbial phrases are formed by verbs and other words. Thus, the adverb {when} is often supplied by a noun of time following the verb with the connecting particle 個 kú‘.

覺個辰光 kau‘ kú‘ zun kwong, {when you awake}. 出門個時候 t’seh mun kú‘ zz {h}eu‘, {when on a journey}.

297. {Never}, is expressed by 一向 ih h’iáng‘, with a negative phrase following it.

一向勿曾讀書 ih h’iáng‘ veh zung {t}ók sû, {I have never gone to school}.

298. The questions why? and how? are often asked by verbs with the pronoun {what?} thus rendering an adverb unnecessary.

昨日想啥咾勿來 zóh nyih ’siáng sá‘ lau veh lé, {why (thinking of what) did you not come yesterday?}. 聽之啥咾曉得個 t’ing tsz sá‘ lau ’h’iau tuh kú‘, {how (having heard what) do you know?}

{Adverbs of Similarity and Reciprocity}. 299. The adverb 恰 hah, and adjective 像 {s}iáng‘, {like}, assist in forming several compound phrases in the sense {like}.

恰像 hah ziáng‘, 恰替 hah t’í‘, {like}. 好像 hau ziáng‘, {very like}. 恰得小囝能個 hah tuh ’siau nö{n} nung kú‘, {like a child}. 倒像 ’tau ziáng‘, {or rather it is like}.

Obs. 能 nung, is usually appended to the noun that follows these words, in the sense of {like}; 一樣 ih {y}áng‘, 一般 ih pé{n}, are also employed in the sense {in the same manner}.

300.The adverbs of reciprocity are 大介 {t}á‘ ká‘, 介家 ká‘ ká, 介多 ká‘ tú, {mutually, one to another}, and 相 in combination with verbs and adjectives; e.g. siáng ziáng‘, 相像 {like one another}.

Obs. {Together with}, is expressed by means of certain adverbs 一淘, ih dau, 一氣 ih k’í‘, following the preposition and its noun. 忒我一氣進 城 t’eh ’ngú ih k’i‘ tsing‘ zung, {go with me into the city}. v. Art. 140.

301. The primitive adverbs are not repeated, except in one or two instances. It is different with those that are derived. Some examples in addition to these already given are here appended.

自自在在 zz‘ zz‘ ’zé ’zé, {at ease}. 活的活的 {w}eh tih {w}eh tih, {constantly moving}. 什蓋什蓋 {s}eh ké‘ {s}eh ké‘, {thus}. 適適意意 suh suh í‘ í‘, {comfortably}.

Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time, become adverbs by repetition.

302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as to form compound adverbs.

加 ká, {add}, forms {y}öh ká, 越加; {í}‘ ká, 又加; kung‘ ká, 更加 {still more}. 發 fah, {produce}, forms 越發 {y}öh fah; {still more}. 隨 zûe, {follow}, 隨時 zûe zz, {always}; 隨處 zûe t’sû‘, {everywhere}.

303. It will be seen in the next section, that some words marked as adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is also true. For some words, such as 越, 且, 如 {y}öh, ’t’síe, zû regarded in this work as primitive conjunctions, form adverbial phrases.

並且勿是 {p}ing‘ ’t’síe veh ’zz, {it certainly is not so}. 如同皇帝能 zû dóng {w}ong {t}í‘ nung, {like the emperor}.

304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying verbs, and expressive of place and quantity are for the most part derived. On the other hand, those adverbs that qualify adjectives, and express time are usually primitive. In our own language, the adverbs that qualify affirmations, e.g. assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here they are primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been often supposed to present no resemblance in etymological development to the speech of the rest of mankind. The Romans made their adverbs of place out of demonstrative pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very similar to the Chinese, (e.g. hic {here}, supra {above}, etc.) Adjectives with particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of manner, (cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive adverbs of time, while the root stá {stand}, in statim, exactly corresponds to 立 lih, {stand}, in 立刻 lih k’uh, {immediately}. It may be added that zé{n}, {h}ú, etc. in Art. 259 form appendages to the root, of the same value as the terminations -{ly}, -{like}, to which we are accustomed. What is new, is the extensive use of repetitions, the great number of fixed phrases, and the peculiarities in the laws of grouping.

{Section} 10. {Conjunctions}.

305. The primitive conjunctions may be thus classed:—

{a}. Connectives, 咾 lau, 也 ’{á}, {and}; 且, ’t’siá, 而 rh. {and, further}.

{b}. Adversatives 但 da{n}‘. Forms like 但是 da{n}‘ ’zz 獨是 {t}óh ’zz, {but}, etc. are compounded of adverbs, verbs, etc.

{c}. Illative 故 kú‘, 蓋 ké‘ (keh), {therefore}.

{d}. Causal. 因 yung, 為 {w}é‘, {because}.

{e}. Conditional. 末 meh, 若 záh, 倘 ’t’ong.

{f}. Antithetical, 雖 sûe, 然 zé{n}, 或 {w}óh, 越 yöh, 也 ’{á}, 又 {i}‘.

Obs. The compounds formed by these words, and words and phrases used as conjunctions derived from other parts of speech, will most of them be found in the following articles.

{Connectives}. 306. The particle that connects words like the English {and}, is 咾 lau.

進咾出 tsing‘ lau t’seh, {going in and out}. 中牲咾窵咾魚 tsóng sáng lau ’tiau lau {n}g, {beasts, bird, and fishes}.

Obs. The preposition tah, t’eh, {with}, often serve the same purpose, e.g. 儂忒我 nóng‘ t’eh ’ngú, {you and I}; 日頭搭之月 nyih deu tah tsz niöh, {the sun and moon}.

307. Clauses are connected by 也 ’{á} and 還 {w}a{n}. They are also frequently used merely as introductory particles.

南京去過之末, 我也要上北京去 Né{n} kiung k’í‘ kú‘ tsz meh, ’ngú ’{á} yau‘ ’zong Poh kiung k’í‘, {after going to Nanking, I also wish to go to Peking}. 明朝我也要歸去 ming tsau ’ngú ’{á} yau‘ kü k’í‘, {to-morrow, I wish to go home.} (introductory). 也要買否 ’{á} yau‘ ’má ’vá, {do you wish to buy?}

Obs. i. If the ’{á} or {w}a{n} is emphasized it means {also}. If pronounced without emphasis, it is simply introductory.

Obs. ii. The adverbs dzieu‘, niö{n}, are used as introductory particles to affirmative prepositions: 就是我 dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, 原是我 niön ’zz ’ngú, {it is I}.

308. Another circumstance to be considered, in addition to what has preceded, is introduced 而且 rh ’t’siá, {and further} 尙且 zong‘ ’t’siá, {and what is still more}.

今朝路勿好跑個而且我脚跑勿動 kiun tsau lú‘ veh ’hau pau‘ kú‘, rh ’t’siá ’ngú kiáh pau‘ veh ’dóng, {it is bad walking to-day, and besides I am lame}. 有個朋友話昨日來, 尙且勿曾來 ’{y}eu kú‘ báng ’{y}eu {w}ó‘ zóh nyih lé, zong‘ ’t’siá veh zung lé, {a friend told me he would come yesterday, and still he has not yet come}. (adverbial). 前頭借過歇銅錢, 而且勿曾還哩, 難又要借否 zie{n} deu tsiá‘ kú‘ h’ih dóng díe{n}, rh ’t’siá veh zung {w}a{n} ’lí, na{n} {í}‘ yau‘ tsiá‘ ’vá, {you borrowed money before, and further you have not returned it, and do you wish to borrow again?} (adverbial). 水深而且渾 ’sz sun rh ’t’siá {w}un, {the water is deep and also muddy}.

309. A new subject of remark is introduced by 再者 tsé‘ ’tsé, {again, to proceed}; 還有 {w}a{n} ’{y}eu, {there is another thing}; 那裏曉得 ’á ’lí ’h’iau tuh, {meantime; who could have thought it? strange to say!}

托儂買蒔菇, 再者呌船一隻 t’oh nóng‘ ’má zz kú, tsé‘ ’tsé kiau‘ zé{n} ih tsáh, {I commission you to buy fruit, and also to call a boat}. 還有一樣事體 {w}a{n} ’{y}eu ih {y}áng‘ zz‘ ’t’i, {there is another thing I have to say}.

{Adversatives}. 310. {But} is represented by 但 {t}a{n}‘ 但是 {t}a{n}‘ ’zz, 獨是 {t}óh (g) ’zz; {however} is 到底 tau‘ ’tí, or 究竟 kieu‘ kiung‘.

說話好聽, 但是道理嘸啥好 seh {w}ó ’hau t’ing, {t}a{n}‘ ’zz ’{t}au ’lí {m} sá‘ ’hau, {his words are plausible but his doctrine bad}. 現在還勿起到底要還儂個 {h}íe{n}‘ zé {w}a{n} veh ’k’í tau‘ ’tí yau‘ {w}a{n} nóng‘ kú‘, {I cannot pay you now, but I intend to do so in the end}. (adverbial).

Obs. Of these words, tau‘ ’tí is the most common. It sometimes preserves its etymological meaning {in the end}, as in the example given.

311. {Lest} is expressed 常怕 dzáng p’ó‘. The compounded phrase 只怕 tseh p’ó‘, {I am only afraid that}, has come to mean {I suppose that}.

要打伊隻夠常怕要咬 yau‘ ’táng í tsáh ’keu dzáng p’ó‘ yau‘ ’ngau, {beat that dog lest he should bite}. 伊個話頭只怕虛個 í kú‘ ’{w}ó‘ deu tseh p’ó‘ h’ü kú‘, {that account is I suppose false}. (or 恐怕 ’k’úng p’ó‘).

Obs. 恐怕, ’k’úng p’ó‘ is {I fear that}; 只怕 tseh p’ó‘ has sometimes a similar meaning. 燈旺來些只怕燙壞之手 tung {y}ong‘ lé ’sí tseh p’ó‘ t’ong‘ {w}á‘ tsz ’seu, {the lamp is very hot (bright) I fear it will burn your hand}.

312. The conjunctional phrases {and yet, on the other hand}, are expressed by 倒 ’tau and 偏 píe{n}, {perversely}.

第個事體呌儂做, 儂倒撥拉別人做 {t}í kú‘ zz ’t’í kau‘ nóng‘ tsú‘, nóng‘ ’tau peh ’la bih niun tsú‘, {I called you to do this, and yet you have given it to some one else to do}. 打伊倒勿痛 ’táng i ’tau veh t’óng‘, {he is beaten and yet feels no pain}. 勸儂好偏勿肯好 k’iö{n}‘ nóng‘ ’hau p’íe{n} veh ’k’ung ’hau, {when exhorted to be good, you on the other hand will not}.

313. Such conjunctional phrases as {it would be better to}, are represented by 勿如 veh zû, {not so good as}, or 𡨴可 niung ’k’ó, {I would rather}, 勿比 veh ’pí, {it cannot be compared with}.

勿如轉去更好 veh zû ’tsé{n} k’í‘ kung‘ ’hau, {it would be better to go back}. 讀勿熟勿比再讀 {t}óh veh zóh veh ’pí tsé‘ dóh, {not having learned it perfectly, it would be better to study it again}. 惡事𡨴可死勿做 oh zz‘ niung ’k’ó ’sí veh tsú‘, {I would rather die than do what is wrong}.

{Illative or Transitional Conjunctions}. 314. {Therefore} is represented by 所以 ’sú ’í, 故此 kú‘ ’t’sz, 故所以 kú‘ ’sú ’í, 𡀽咾 keh lau.

心裏勿忘記儂故此又來 sing ’lí veh mong‘ kí‘ nóng‘, kú‘ ’t’sz {í}‘ lé, {I have not forgotten you, and therefore have come again}.

315. {Then} is expressed by 𡀽末 ké‘ (keh) meh, when it denotes a logical consequence, and by 難末 na{n} meh, when the transition is one of time.

撥勒儂勿要, 𡀽末要啥 peh ’lá nóng‘ veh yau‘, ké‘ meh yau‘ sá‘, {I give it and you do not want it, then what do you want?} 懂之道理難末好者 ’tóng tsz ’dau ’lí na{n} meh ’hau ’tsé, {the doctrine being understood, then all is well}.

Obs. Na{n} meh, has also been placed among the adverbs as a particle of time. Its book equivalent 於是 ü ’zz, {consequently}.

{Causal Conjunctions}. 316. 因爲 {y}ung {w}é‘, 爲 {w}é‘ and 爲之 {w}é‘ tsz correspond to our word {because}.

{Conditional particles}. 317. 末 meh, {if}, is placed at the end of the clause.

賤末要買, 貴末勿要買 {k}iáng (zíe{n}‘) meh yau‘ ’má, kü‘ meh veh yau‘ ’má, {if it is cheap buy it, but not if it is dear}.

318. 若使 zák sz‘, 若是 zog ’sz, 若然 zog zé{n}, 倘或 ’t’ong {w}óh, 倘使 ’t’ong sz‘, 倘然 ’t’ong zé{n}, are used in the sense of {if}: 旣然 kí‘ zé{n} is {if it was already so}.

若使勿看見末, 就歸來 zák sz‘ veh k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ meh, dzieu‘ kü lé, {if you do not see him, return at once}.

Obs. The verbs 使, 是, and adverb 然 lose their primary sense, and form in colloquial usage merely a terminating syllable to the conjunction with which they combine.

319. {Even if} is expressed by 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, 也怕 ’{á} p’ó‘ 那裏怕 ’{á} ’lí p’ó‘.

就是其哭, 也勿要憑其 dzieu‘ ’zz gí k’óh, ’{á} veh yau‘ bing gí, {even if he cries, do not yield to him}. 也怕嘸末銅錢, 總勿要去偷人家 ’{á} p’ó‘ m meh dóng díe{n}, ’tsóng veh yau‘ k’í‘ t’eu niun ká, {even if you have no money, you must not steal from others}.

320. {If}, with the negative is represented 勿然 veh zé{n}, or 再勿然 tsé‘ veh zé{n}, {should it not be so}.

快點撥勒我, 勿然我要去者 k’wá ’tíe{n} peh ’lá ’ngú, veh zé{n} ’ngú yau‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, {If you do not give it me quickly, I shall go}. 再勿然我自家去 tsé‘ veh ze{n} ’ngú zz‘ ká k’í‘, {if is so, I shall go myself}.

Obs. This amounts to an entire omission of the {if}, for 然 zé{n} is an adverb {so}. In fact, the {if} is often not used in affirmative sentences as well as negative.

321. The conjunctional phrases {suppose that, for instance, for example}, are expressed by 比方 ’pí fong, 譬如 p’í zû, 猶如 {y}eu zû, etc.

比方死之末那能 ’pí fong ’sí tsz meh ná‘ nung, {if you should die, what then?} 猶之乎 {y}eu tsz {h}ú, {just as if}. 猶如 {y}eu zû, {ib}.

Obs. The adverbs of likeness (see Art. 299) are also similarly employed. 好像日頭忒旺, 眼睛勿好對之伊咾看 ’hau ziáng‘ nyih deu t’uh {y}ong‘, ’nga{n} tsing veh ’hau té‘ tsz í lau k’ön, {just as the sun is too bright for our eyes to gaze on him}.

{Antithetical Conjunctions}. 322. Clauses with the particles {although, yet}, are formed by 雖然 sûe zé{n} and 然而 zé{n} rh, etc.

雖然巧個, 然而勿牢實個 sûe zé{n} ’k’iau kú‘, zé{n} rh veh lau zeh kú‘, {although clever, he is not trustworthy}. 好是好個, 到底本事平常 ’hau ’zz ’hau kú‘ tau‘ ’tí ’pun zz‘ bing dzáng, {he is well disposed, but his abilities are not great}. 雖然路遠, 究竟走得到 sûe zé{n} lú‘ ’yö{n}, kieu‘ kiung‘ ’tseu tuh tau‘, {although it is a long way, yet I can walk it}.

Obs. {Although} is very frequently omitted, as in the second example.

323. {Either,—or} are expressed by 或者 {w}óh ’tsé, 或者 {w}óh ’tsé, or by 勿是, 就是 veh ’zz—dzieu‘ ’zz.

勿是打贏, 就是打敗 veh ’zz ’táng {y}ung, dzieu‘ ’zz ’táng bá‘, {you must either conquer, or be vanquished}. 或在東, 或在西 {w}óh ’dzé tóng, {w}óh ’dzé sí, {it is either east or west}. 勿是儂, 就是儂個兄弟 veh ’zz nóng‘, dzieu‘ ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ h’iung dí‘, {it is either you or your brother}. 或是姓張, 或是姓李 {w}óh ’zz sing‘ tsáng, {w}óh ’zz sing‘ lí, {it must be some one named Cháng or Lí}.

324. {Neither,—nor} are represented both by 也—也 ’{á}—’{á}, and by 又—又 {í}‘—{í}‘, with a negative.

也勿會飛, 也勿會走 ’{á} veh {w}é‘ fí, ’{á} veh {w}é‘ ’tseu. {he can neither fly nor walk}. 口也勿開, 手也勿動 ’k’eu ’{á} veh k’é, ’seu ’{á} veh ’dóng, {he neither opens his mouth, nor moves his hands}. 又勿賤, 又勿貴 {í}‘ veh giáng, {í}‘ veh kü‘, {it is neither cheap nor dear}.

325. When the first clause is interrogative, and the second commences with {or}, the equivalent form is ní, the interrogative particle at the end of the first clause, and 還是 {w}a{n} ’zz beginning the second. Sometimes 也 ’{á} alone is used.

明朝要去呢, 還是要待兩日 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘ ní, {w}a{n} ’zz yau‘ dé‘ ’liáng nyih, {will you go to-morrow, or wait for a few days?} (See also Art. 251).

326. {Because,—therefore} are expressed by 因爲 yung {w}é‘, or 爲之 {w}é‘ tsz, in the first clause, and any of the illative particles in the second.

因爲勿曾熟哩, 所以還要燒 yung {w}é‘ veh zung zóh ’lí, ’sú ’í {w}a{n} yau‘ sau, {since it is not yet well done, you must boil it longer}. 爲之儂勿快活咾, 故此我勿來 {w}é‘ tsz nóng‘ veh k’á‘ {w}eh lau, kú‘ ’t’sz ’ngú veh lé, {because you were displeased, I did not come again}.

327. {Why—? because—}are expressed by any of the adverb forms for {why?} and the casual conjunctions in the answering clause.

爲啥要眠檣因爲要過橋拉 {w}é‘ sá‘ yau‘ míe{n} dziáng? yung {w}é‘ yau‘ kú‘ giau ’lá, {why do you take down the mast? because there is a bridge to pass}.

328. {On the one hand, on the other hand}, are expressed by ih míe{n}‘ or ih deu repeated.

一面近河咾要沉殺, 一面兵過來咾要嚇昏 ih míe{n}‘ ’giun {h}ú lau yau zung sah, ih míe{n}‘ ping kú‘ lé lau yau‘ háh hwun, {on the one side it is near the river, and they will be drowned, on the other side soldiers are coming who fill them with fear}. 一半哭一半笑 ih pé{n}‘ k’oh, ih pé{n}‘ siau‘, {partly crying and partly laughing}. 一頭走一頭想 ih deu ’tseu, ih deu ’siáng, {while he walks he thinks}.

329. {Not only—but even},— are expressed by 勿獨之 veh dók tsz, 惟獨 ví {t}ók, {not only}, or 勿但不過 veh {d}an‘ peh kú‘ in the first clause, 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, or 連 líe{n} or 連搭 líe{n} tah, in the second.

勿獨之朋友什蓋, 就是陌生人也什蓋 veh dók tsz {p}áng ’{y}eu {s}eh ké‘, dzieu‘ ’zz mák sáng niun ’á zeh ké‘, {it is not only friends that are so, but even strangers too}. 勿獨自家, 連搭子孫 veh dók zz‘ ká, líe{n} tah ’tsz sun, {not only himself, but even his children also}. 非獨逆風, 連水也逆個 fí dók niuk fóng, líe{n} ’sz ’á niuk kú‘, {not only is the wind contrary, but the tide is also against us}.

330. {The—the—}are expressed by 越 yöh repeated, 越早越好 yöh ’tsau yöh ’hau, {the earlier the better}.

Obs. Similar phrases are formed with 越發 yöh fah, {the more}, in each clause, also with 越加 yöh ká.

331. When the supplementary clause is, {how much more}, 何况于 {h}ú hwong‘ ü, 况乎 hwong‘ {ú}, 而况 rh hwong‘ or 况且 hwong‘ ’t’siá, are employed.

天好勿看見, 而况雨落 t’íe{n} ’hau veh k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}’, {h}ú hwong’ ’{ü} loh, {when the weather is fine you cannot see it, how much more when it rains}. 小個做勿來, 况且大個 ’siau kú‘ tsú‘ veh lé, hwong‘ ’t’siá dú‘ kú‘, {if you cannot do a little thing, how much more impossible for you to do a greater}. 自家尙且勿會做, 何况于別人 zz ká zang‘ ’t’siá veh {w}é tsú‘, {h}ú hwong‘ ü bih niun, {since you cannot do it yourself, much more cannot others do it}.

{Section} 11. {Expletives and Interjections}.

332. There are some words which though they have important grammatical uses cannot be conveniently set down among the preceding parts of speech and they are therefore placed here. Such are 個, 之, 者, 哩, kú‘, tsz, ’tsé, ’lí.

{a}. 個 kú‘, besides its use as a numeral particle (Art. 156), as the sign of the possessive (130) and in relative pronoun sentences, also takes its place as a final after a verb, or adjective in any indicative proposition.

好個好拉個 ’hau kú‘, ’hau ’lá kú‘, {it is good, well}. 勿能做個 veh nung tsú‘ kú‘, or veh nung kú‘ tsú‘, {I cannot do it}.

{b}. 之 tsz is the sign of the past or past participle, but as will be seen in the first three examples, it is often indicative.

前年做之宰相者 zíe{n} níe{n} tsú‘ tsz tsé‘ siáng‘ ’tsé, {the year before last, he was prime minister}. 本地白也會話之 ’pun dí‘ {p}ah ’{á} {w}é‘ {w}ó‘ tsz, {he can speak in the dialect of this place}. 明朝要寫好之末者 ming tsau yau‘ ’siá ’hau tsz meh ’tsé, {finish writing it to-morrow}. 做之十年官咾告老者 tsú‘ tsz zeh níe{n} kwé{n} lau kau‘ ’lau ’tsé, {after having been in office for ten years, he retired on the plea of old age}.

{c}. 者 ’tsé is the sign of an action completed, or in course of being done, whether expressed by a verb or adjective; also of the imperative.

做拉者, 好者 tsú‘ ’lá ’tsé, ’hau ’tsé, {it is done, it is right}. 去拉個者 k’í‘ ’lá kú‘ ’tsé, {he is gone}. 吾拉做者 ngú ’lá tsú‘ ’tsé, {I am doing it}.

{d}. 哩 ’lí and 拉 ’lá, are used like ’tsé and kú‘, as finals to any indicative proposition. 拉 ’lá is also a preposition (Art. 256).

好哩, 勿好拉哩, 好個哩 ’hau ’lí, veh ’hau ’lá ’lí, ’hau kú‘ ’lí, {good, it is not well, it is well}.

{e}. 咾 lau, the particle that connects a string of substantives, occurs at the end of sentences that require something to complete their sense.

已經話拉者咾, 有啥再話 ’í kiung {w}ó‘ ’lá ’tsé lau, ’{y}eu sá‘ tsé‘ {w}ó‘, {I have said it, and why should I say it again}.

Obs. 𫡄 ná is a final expletive used with 者 ’tsé.

讀者𫡄 {t}ók ’tsé ná, I am reading.

333. The final interrogatives are 呢, 否, 蠻, 麽, ní, ’vá, ma{n}‘, mó. Characters are borrowed for ’vá and ma{n}‘.

{a}. 呢 ní is used either at the end of the first clause in an interrogative antithesis, or at the end of a single clause. It is sometimes pronounced ’nia{n}.

做呢勿做 tsú‘ ní veh tsú‘, {will you do it or not?} 好勿好呢 ’hau veh ’hau ní, {is it right or not?} 勿懂呢啥 veh ’tóng ní sa‘, {do you not understand?} 物事忒貴個呢 meh zz‘ tuh kü‘ kú‘ ní, {are the things too dear?}

{b}. 否 ’vá and 蠻 ma{n}‘ are appropriated to direct interrogations, where not antithetical. They are colloquialisms.

飯用蠻 va{n}‘ {y}úng‘ ma{n}‘, {have you dined?} 還要再來否 wa{n} yau‘ tsé‘ lé‘ vá, {shall you come again?} 曉得否 ’h’iau tuh ’vá, {do you understand?}

{c}. 麽 mó (mau), besides expressing direct and indirect interrogation, also implies a strong affirmative. (Art. 278).

第個稀奇個物事有磨 {t}í‘ kú‘ h’í gí kú‘ meh zz‘ ’{y}eu mó, {is there this remarkable thing?} 倒勿是十分壞良心麽 ’tau veh ’zz {s}eh vun {w}á‘ liáng sing mó? {is it not most wilfully unconscionable!} 是否, 是麽 ’zz ’vá, ’zz mó, {is it so? indeed it is?} 第個價錢大麽 {t}í‘ kú‘ ká‘ díe{n} dú‘ mó, {the price of this is great indeed} (亦通嗎).

334. The initial interrogatives 豈 ’k’í, {how?} 幾 ’kí, {how many?} with 那 ’ná, forming ’{á} ’lí, 那裏 {where? which?} and 那能 ’ná nung, {how?} have already been illustrated among the pronouns and adverbs.

335. The interjections properly so called are such as—

噯 é, {ah!} 噯動勿得個 é ’{t}óng veh tuh kú‘, {ah! you must not do such a thing}. 呔 t’é, {ho!} 呸 ’p’é, {it is bad}. 阿唷 ah yóh, {alas! oh!} 㕭 au‘, indicates assent, {yes}, or {I understand}. In the first tone, it calls attention or conveys a warning, 當心㕭 tong sing au, {be careful and mind what I say}. 呀 á, 喲 yá, as in 是呀 ’zz á, 是喲 ’zz yáh, {it is so}. 哇 vá, {is it not so?} 哈 hé, {ah!}