PART 1.

{ON SOUND}.

{Section} 1. {Alphabet}.

1. The alphabetical symbols we shall need to employ are the following:—

---------------------------------------------------------------- Symbols. Pronunciation and Examples. ---------------------------------------------------------------- á as {a} in f{a}ther; 揩 k’á, wipe; 拜 pá‘, {worship}.

a as {a} in s{a}nd, or in h{a}t; 鉛 k’a{n}, {lead}; 蠟 lah, {wax}.

au as in P{au}l, or as {a} in f{a}ll, or {o} in g{o}ne; 老 ’lau, {old}. Aú expresses the mandarin sound.

b or {p} as in 病 {p}ing‘, {sickness}; 生病 sáng bing‘, {to be sick}.

d or {t} as in 道 {t}au‘, {doctrine}; 神道 zun dau‘, {men canonized for their virtues}.

dz a compound of {d} and {z}; 盡 dzing‘, {exhaust}.

dzz do. as {dze} in a{dz}e. The second z marks a peculiar vowel sound which is sometimes between {i} and {e}, 辭 {dzz}, to {leave}.

é as {ai} in f{ai}l, or {a} in m{a}le; 來 lé, {come}.

e as {e} in l{e}d or l{e}t; 十 {s}eh, {ten}.

eu nearly as {ou} in c{ou}sin lengthened; 手 ’seu, {hand}. Eú expresses the mandarin sound, as {ow} in c{ow}.

f as in 夫 fú, or 轎夫 {k}iau‘ fû, {chair-bearer}.

g or {k} as in 其 {k}í, {he}, before {i}, {ü} often heard like {ji}; 共衆 {k}óng‘ tsóng‘, {altogether}.

{h} a feeble aspirate, often lost; 合 {h}eh, {combine}; 皇 {h}wong, {emperor}. When quite lost, as in the latter word, it will be omitted.

h and h’ a strong guttural aspirate, nearly equivalent to {sh} when occurring before í and ü; 海 ’hé, {sea}; 喜 ’h’í, {glad}. Before í and ü, the superior comma will be used.

í as {i} in mar{i}ne; 西 sí, {west}.

i as {i} in s{i}ng or s{i}t; 心 s{i}ng, {heart}.

dj nearly as {j} in {J}une; 序 djü‘, {preface}. This sound may also be read {z}. The natives use either.

k 古今 ’kú kiun, {ancient and modern}.

k’ a strongly aspirated sound 空 k’ung, {empty}. It is often mistaken by foreign ears when occurring before i and ü, for the aspirated c‘h but should be separated from that sound in careful pronunciation; 去 k’í‘, {go}; usually heard chi‘ aspirated.[1]

l 禮 ’li, {propriety}.

m or {m} 米 ’mí, {rice}; 唔沒 {m} méh, {there is no more}.

n 女, ’nü, {woman}.

ng or {ng} a nasal consonant used at the beginning or close of a syllable. When no distinct vowel sound accompanies it, it is marked {ng}; 江 kong, {river}; 我 ’ngú {I}; 五 ’{ng}, {five}

a{u}, e{n}, û{n} a slight nasal, best heard before another word; 但 {t}a{n}‘, {but}; 敢 ’ké{n}, {dare}; 幹 kû{n}, {dry}; 算 sû{n}‘, {count}; 搬轉 pè{n} ’tsé{n}, {to whril round}.

ó as {o} in g{o}; 怕 p’ô‘, {fear}.

o as {o} in g{o}ng and g{o}t; 當 tong, {ought}, {bear}; 落 loh, {fall}.

ö as ö in Göthe; 端 tö{n}, correct; 看 k’ön‘, {see}; 奪 {t}öh, {rob}.

p 比 pí, {compare}.

p’ as p with a strong aspirate; 譬 p’i‘, {like}.

rh a peculiar Chinese sound, the same as in mandarin; 而 rh, {and}.

s 所 ’sú, {which, therefore}.

sz a peculiar Chinese sibilant,[2] pronounced as in mandarin, and nearly as {se} in ca{stle}, whi{stle}, t, l, being supposed omitted; 詩 sz, {poetry}.

t 多 tú, {many}.

t’ as t with a strong aspirate; 拖 t’ú {to draw}.

ts 做 tsú‘, {do}.

ts’ the last strongly aspirated; 秋 ts‘ieu, {Autumn}.

tsz a peculiar Chinese sibilant, pronounced as in mandarin, as {ts} in ha{ts}; 子 ’tsz, {a son}; 知 tsz, {know}.

ts’z the above with a strong aspirate 雌 ts’z, {female}.

ú as {u} in r{u}le; 素 sú‘, {common}, {plain}.

u as {u} in r{u}n; 門 mun, {door}; 等 ’tung, {wait}.

ü French u as in vert{u}; German ü as in Tübingen; 虛 hü {empty}.

û 處 ts’û‘ {place}. This vowel is between ó and ú.

v or {f} 佛 {f}eh, {Buddha}; 房 {f}ong, {house}. More of v than f.

w 光 kwong, {light}; 王 {w}ong, {king}.

y 右 {y}eu‘, {right-hand}; 要 yau‘, {to want}.

z or {s} 象 {s}iáng‘, {elephant}; 坐 zú‘, {sit}.

An apostrophe ’ preceding the word, denotes the second tone.

A comma ‘ following the word, denotes the third tone.

The fourth tone will be written with {h}, {k} or {g} final.

Words left unmarked are in the first tone.[3]

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. When a native is asked whether k‘i‘ or c‘hi‘ is the more correct pronunciation of 去 he replies the former. Yet the orthography by c‘hi‘ seems to the foreigner more like the true sound. The fact is that the sound is in a state of transition from k‘i to c‘hi.

2. This sound is better described as s and a peculiar vowel ï or t, s, and ï. The mark ï denotes a vowel peculiar to China but like e in {castle}.

3. The further subdivision into upper and lower tones needs no mark, being indicated uniformly by the initial letter. Thus, b, g, d, z, l, m, n, r, and any letters italicized are in the lower tones; other initial letters denote upper tones. There are a few exceptions which will be noted afterwards. A {final} italic letter denotes a nasal. -----------------------------------------------------------------

2. Mandarin pronunciation wants several of these sounds. Among the vowels, the short a and e together with û are omitted, and au, eu, are lengthened into aú, eú. Among the consonants, b, d, g, dj, {m} {ng}, {n}, dz, dzz, v and z are wanting.

3. The Shánghái dialect is deficient in the sh, ch and soft j of mandarin and of Sú-cheú pronunciation.

4. Of the above sounds, those foreign to the English, language, and therefore needing particular attention, are the following:—

Of vowels, {eu} as in 口 ’k’eu, {mouth}; ö as in 安 ö{n}, {rest}. û as in 鑽 tsûn, {to bore}. A final r should be carefully avoided in these three sounds. Oe is not so common in this dialect as in that of Sú-cheú, where it occurs in 船 jö{n}, {boat}, 滿 ’mö{n}, {full}, etc., etc. The vowel ü, (French u), is often convertible with û. Thus 書 sû, {book} is pronounced sü at Súng-kiáng and to the east of the Hwáng-p’ú, while it becomes sz in Paú-shán district.

Of consonants, note well the sibilants sz, tsz, dzz, with rh, and the nasals {m}, {n}, {ng}, also the strong aspirate h’; also the three aspirated mutes p’, k’, t’, and ng at the beginning of a syllable.

5. The native arrangement of the alphabet, as found in the tables prefixed to K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, is borrowed from the Sanscrit.[1] The natural order of the letters as formed by the organs of speech, is as far as possible preserved, and the system adopted contrasts advantageously with the irregularity of the English and other alphabets. The pronunciation there registered is what Chinese authors call the 南音 Nán yin, {Southern pronunciation}, as it was early in the Christian era. It probably agrees in the main with the modern speech of Sú-cheú, Háng-chú and the surrounding cities. That the pronunciation of Sháng-hiá is one of its dialects, appears from the slightest examination of the tables in question. It is characterized by the same division into Yin and Yáng, i.e. hard and soft, or thin and broad consonants, which form the basis of arrangement, in those tables, and agrees in many of the details. Vide Appendix on K’áng-hí’s tables of Initials and Finals.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Vide Preface to Morrison’s Dictionary, and Marshman’s Clavis Sinica. None of the western alphabets appear to have been so scientifically arranged as the Sanscrit. -----------------------------------------------------------------

6. In the native system, while the consonants are accurately distinguished, the initial vowels are placed together, under only two heads. In this respect therefore, we depart from it in the following table. The initials sh, zh, ch, f’, and some others are also omitted as not applicable to our dialect. The imperfect nasal consonants are inserted, though as local variations they have no place in the native tables. In naming the classes, western terms have been adopted.

{Tabular view of the alphabetic sounds of the Shánghái dialect}. ---------------------------------------------------------------

Fifteen vowels. Quantity of syll.| Value. ------------------------------------------ long or short. | á f{a}ther do. | a h{a}nd, b{a}ck long | au P{au}l do. | é M{ay} short | e l{e}t long | eu c{ou}sin do. | í mar{i}ne long or short | i s{i}ng do. | ó g{o} do. | o l{o}ng, l{o}ck do. | ö Göthe long | ú r{u}le long or short | u s{u}n, s{u}ck long | ü T{ü}bingen do. | û as in 書 sû

Thirty three consonants. | High. | Low. |------------------------------------------------- | Thin | Aspirated | Broad | Nasals & | Imperfect | | | | Liquids | nasals |------------------------------------------------- Mutes | k | k’ | g | ng | {ng} | t | t’ | d | n | {n} | p | p’ | b | m | {m} ----------|------------------------------------------------- | | | | | Labio- | f | | v | | dentals | | | | | ----------|------------------------------------------------- Sibilants | s | | z | | and | sz | | zz | | aspirates | tz | ts’ | dz | | | | | dj | ni | | tsz | ts’z | dzz | | | h’ | | {h} | | ----------|------------------------------------------------- Semi- | | | | l | vocals | | | | rh | ------------------------------------------------------------

If from these consonants, we subtract the combinations of t and d, with s and z, the aspirated mutes, and ní, as capable of resolution, there remain twenty three in all. Of those that are left, sz and zz may also be supposed to be made up of s, z, and an indistinct vowel ï, heard in English after the l of beetle, needle, etc.

{Section} 2. {On the Tones}.

7. In order to determine the position of the Shánghái {patois} among the dialects of China, something must be said on tones generally. Chinese pronunciation may for our present purpose, be considered in three or more general divisions, according to the number of tones.

(1.) The first of these is the Northern mandarin. 北音 Pih yin, where four or five tones are in use. It is the pronunciation of the Emperor’s court, and professedly of the government officers throughout the empire. It is also spoken in considerable purity in the parts north of the Yáng tsz Kiáng (hence its name), and in the provinces of Sz-ch’uen, Kwei-cheú, Yün-nán, and parts of Kwangsi and Hunan.

(2.) The second in the Southern pronunciation, 南音 Nán yin, spoken in the part of Kiáng-sú, that is south of the Yáng-tsz’-kiáng, in Cheh-kiáng and part of Kiáng-sí. This is mainly the pronunciation out of which the mandarin grew and which is followed in the Dictionaries, from K’ang-hí upwards, nearly to the Hán dynasty.[1] The tones are four in number, each subdivided into kaú and tí, upper and lower, or as they are also denominated yin and yáng, feminine and masculine. These upper and lower series of tones are also distinguished, by different initial consonants, the one taking g, d, b, v, z, etc., and the other k, t, p, f, s, etc. The variations that exist even between contiguous districts, are very numerous, a circumstance which furnishes a mark of distinction between this part of China and the mandarin provinces, where orthographical differences are few.

(3.) The pronunciation of the other provinces presents many extensive departures from the true mandarin. The tones are seven or eight in number, and are often found inverted in position, as well as contradictory in nature to the names they bear. The Fúh-kien and Canton dialects have long been the subject of foreign study, and have received abundant illustration. Ngán-hwei and Kiangsi have also many eccentricities of pronunciation.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Vide in K’áng-hí, the Fán-ts’eih spelling, quoted from the previously existing Dictionaries. In K’áng-hí’s table of sounds, the former model is to some extent departed from, in favour of the Northern mandarin. The terms 北音南音 are common both in books, and in the conversation of the natives. Mandarin pronunciation has also its dictionaries, such as 五方元音, but it is the old tonic dictionaries and new works founded on them to which reference is here made. -----------------------------------------------------------------

8. The tones may be partially described according to their natural character. In attempting this, we intentionally avoid for the present, the usual Chinese terms 平上去入 {p}ing, {even}, záng, {rising}, k’ü‘, {going}, zeh, {entering}, because, being the same in all dialects, they do not in the majority of cases, represent the actual effect of the sounds on the ear. When first adopted in the reign of Liang wu ti, A.D. 402 to 450, they must have represented the tones of the dialect, spoken by Shen yoh[1] the writer who selected them a native of Hu cheu only 100 miles from Sháng-hái. But when applied according to universal practice, to the sounds given to the same characters in other parts of the empire, these four names convey no idea of the actual pronunciation. The descriptions given of the tones by native authors, are consequently often incomprehensible.

A. {Upper acute tone}. We pronounce monosyllabic words, when speaking with moderate emphasis, in a quick descending tone. It is heard in commands as Gó, Fíre, Go at ônce. In naming any object, English speakers usually adopt this intonation for a monosyllable, or the penultimate of a dissyllable. It might be called the affirmative tone. It represents the 上平 záng‘ bing, or upper first tone at Sháng-hái and Sú-cheú, as 天 t’íe{n} {heaven}; while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the second, and in the mandarin of Pe-king, the first tone.

B. {Upper even tone}. This is a sound without deflection like a long note in music, and is not so common in English conversation as the former. When high in key, it is in Sháng-hái the upper second tone, as in 水 sz; {water}; 火 hú, {fire}, 土 t’ú, {earth}. In Sz-ch’uen mandarin, and in the Fúh-kien of Amoy, it is the upper first tone.

C. {Upper quick rising tone}. This is nearly like the {staccato} of musical notation, and is usually heard in interjections of surprise and indignation, and frequently in questions. If quick and high, it is in Sháng-háe the upper third tone, as 信 sing, {a letter}, 菜 ts’é, {vegetables}. In Pe-king mandarin. It is the lower first tone.

D. {Upper slow rising tone}. This is a prolonged intonation rising more slowly than the last, and is not needed for the Sháng-háe dialect.

E. {Upper short tone}. This is the intonation of syllables short in quantity. Long and short quantity may be predicated of vowels or of syllables. In Latin, the short {ă} of {m-ă-gis}, becomes long by position in {magnus}. The converse of this example takes place in Sháng-hái pronunciation, where the long and short {a} and {o} are all found in a short tone.[2] In such cases, we write them all with a final {h}; the presence or absence of the accent marking the quantity of the vowel, while that of {h} marks the quantity of the syllable; as in 濕 sáh, {wet}; 薩 sah, in {P}ú sah, {disciple of Buddha}; 哭 k’óh {weep}; 悪 oh, {wicked}. This tone might be divided into two, as it ascends or descends; but as only the former occurs in Sháng-hái sounds, we count but one of these, to avoid too great subdivision.

F. {Lower acute tone}. In proceeding to tones in a lower pitch of voice, we enumerate them in an order corresponding to that followed above; thus the same natural description, except as regards key, will readily apply to them. The lower acute tone is not needed for the Shánghái sounds, except in cases of combination. In the Sú-cheú dialect, it represents the lower second tone, while in Fúh-kien, if set very low, it will be the upper third tone.

G. {Lower even tone}. A low musical sound without deflection. It is the lower first tone at Sháng-hái, as in 能 nung, {can}. 埋, má, {bury}. In the mandarin of Nán-king, it is the upper first tone, while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the lower third tone.

H. {Lower quick rising tone}. This intonation is nearly that of any common word, when spoken interrogatively, as I? Yes? Indeed? It is the lower third tone of Sháng-hái, and the lower first of Nán-king and Amoy.

I. {Lower slow rising tone}. This is the intonation of remonstrance as in “Et tù Brute,” if {tù} were spoken in a deep and rather lengthened tone. So in many antithetical sentences, as “We seek not yoùrs but yoú,” the former accented word is in a low slow rising tone, and the latter in a quick falling tone. Writers on Elocution mark them with the grave and acute, accents respectively.

J. {Lower short tone}. The remarks appended to the corresponding upper tone apply also to this. 學習 {h}oh dzih, {to learn and practice}.

K. {Upper circumflex}. This is an intonation high in key and having two deflections, apparently ascending and descending. It may be quick or slow in time. It is not used in Sháng-hái pronunciation. When slow it is the second tone of Nán-king.

L. {Lower circumflex}. This corresponds to the preceding in character and time, but differs from it in key. When, quick, it is the lower first tone of the district east of Sú-cheú.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Shen yoh 沈約 was high in favour with the emperor Liang wu ti whose capital was Nanking. Nan shï 南史 c. 57.

2. If different symbols were invented for the long and short vowels, so that syllables only should be considered long and short, this anomaly would disappear. All alphabets are deficient in vowel marks. -----------------------------------------------------------------

9. While selecting most of their tones from those thus described, some dialects would require a more minute subdivision, and perhaps two high and two low divisions of each series might be found necessary. The preceding arrangement however, will be sufficient to give some conception of the variety of tonic effects, whether harmonious or discordant the listener must judge, existing in the speech of China. If it be recollected that independently of these differences in tones, there are also numberless variations in the alphabetic form of the sounds, an accurate knowledge of so Protean a language might seem unattainable, were it not that the characters are everywhere the same. What one pronounces in a high shrill accent, and another in a prolonged whine, and another in a low musical intonation, they all write in the same form; and if asked what is its tone, they give the same reply.

The Chinese have themselves described the tones according to their natural character. We quote the following translation of some verses in K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, from Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.

“The even tone travels on a level road, neither elevated nor depressed. “The high tone exclaims aloud, being fierce, violent, and strong. “The departing tone is distinct and clear, gruffly travelling to a distance. “The entering tone is short and contracted, being hastily gathered up.”[1]

This description must be taken as answering to the tones spoken by the native writer from whom it is taken.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. 平聲平道莫低昂 上聲高呼猛烈强 去聲分明哀遠道 入聲短促急收藏 -----------------------------------------------------------------

10. The terms used by the Chinese to describe sounds in reference to tones, are such as—

高 低, kau tí, {high} and {low} ({key of the tone}).

陰 陽, yun {y}áng, {high} and {low} ({key of the tone}).

緩 急, {w}én‘ kih, {slow} and {quick} ({time of the tone}).

平 仄 {p}ing tsáh, {even}, {deflected}. 仄 is further divided into 上 去 入 záng‘, k’ü‘, zeh, {rising}, {departing}, {entering}.

To these we add to express quantity apart from tone:—

長 短 dzáng, ’dö{n},[1] {long} and {short} ({time in reference to the syllables}).

These terms include all the principles, on which our arrangement of natural tones has been made: thus—

The first two pairs define the upper and lower tones.

The third pair embraces differences in time, the quick and slow tones.

The fourth pair includes even tones and those having deflections, which may rise or fall, and be one or two in number.

The fifth pair distinguishes the three first tones from the fourth.

In an article in the Chinese Repository on the Birmese and Shán languages (Vol. V. page 71), there are some facts respecting tones as employed in those countries. The Sháns, inhabiting the country that separates Birmah from China, have two deflected tones rising and falling respectively, two tones short in quantity also rising and falling, and a low even tone.

The Birmese have the two deflected tones, and one short tone.

The Shán language is fundamentally the same as the Siamese, which also has tones.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. This is one of the words where d is heard in the upper series instead of t. Other cases of departures from the usual law will be subsequently pointed out. -----------------------------------------------------------------

11. TABLE OF TONES IN SEVERAL DIALECTS.[1]

i. MANDARIN TONES. 北音 -------------------------------------------------------------- Tones |Nan-King|Pe-king |Hó-nan |Sz-ch’uen | | |K‘ai-fung| -------------------------------------------------------------- Upper First, 上平|l, e, |u, e, or |u, q, e, |u, e, | |u, q, f, | -------------------------------------------------------------- Second, 上|l, s, r,|l, q, r, |l, q, r, |q, f, -----------------------------|--------------------------------- Third, 去|q, f, |l, q, f, |l, q, f, |l, s, r, --------------------------------------------------------------- Fourth, 入|sh, |u, e, |u, q, e, |l, q, e, or | |----------------------|l, q, f, | |l, q, r, |l, q, r, | | |------------| | | |l, q, f, &c.|l, q, r, | --------------------------------------------------------------- Lower first, 下平|l, q, r,|l, q, r, |u, q, r, |l, q, e, or | | | |l, q, f ---------------------------------------------------------------

ii. KIANG-NAN AND CHEH-KIANG. 南音 --------------------------------------------------------------- |Tones |Sú-cheú |Sháng-hái |Ning-pó --------------------------------------------------------------- Upper |First, 上平|u, q, f,|u, q, f, |u, q, f, Series|Second, 上上|u, e |u, e, |u, s, r, |Third, 上去|u, s, r,|u, q, r, |u, e, |Fourth, 上入|u, sh, |u, sh, |u, sh, ------|------------|------------------------------------------- Lower |First, 下平|l, q, r,|l, e, |l, s, c, q, f, Series|Second, 下上|l, q, f,|l, s, r, |l, s, r, |Third, 下去|l, s, r,|l, q, r, |l, s, r, or e, |Fourth, 下入|l, sh, |l, sh, |l, sh, ---------------------------------------------------------------

iii. FUH-KIEN. --------------------------------------------------------------- Tones |Amoy and Cháng-cheú --------------------------------------------------------------- Upper first, |u, e, do. second, |u, q, f, do. third, |l, f, do. fourth. |l, sh, f Lower first, |l, q, r, do. second, |u, q, f, do. third, |l, e, do. fourth. |u, sh, f ---------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. u, upper. l, lower. r, rising. f, falling. q, quick. s, slow. e, even. c, circumflex. sh, short. -----------------------------------------------------------------

12. Nán-king is here placed among those that belong to the 北音 or Northern Mandarin division. A native author[1] says, that this city and two others 淮陽 Hwái {y}áng and 徐海 Sü hái use the northern pronunciation.

The large Dictionaries are uniform in the adoption of the pronunciation in our (ii.) division, as their basis of spelling. They usually speak of only four tones, distinguishing the upper from the lower by the initial letter. This is also the universal practice among the educated class vivâ voce. They do not speak of 帝 ti‘ {emperor} and 地 di‘ {earth}, as different in tone, the one the upper third tone, the other the lower, but as different in the alphabetical form tí, dí.

The division into eight tones is preferable for a foreign reader, because (1) there is a difference in elevation of voice, 帝 tí‘ being at an interval of a fourth in the musical scale more or less, higher than 地 dí‘. (2) Although the third and fourth tones, upper and lower, are deflected at Sháng-hái in a similar way, so that they may be regarded as the same tones, this is not the case with the first and second, which differ decidedly in character.

The fourth tone in the 北音 Póh yun, class (i.) is in the Northern provinces, long in quantity. The words included under it are distributed among the other tones, and must be learnt separately, in order that they may be correctly pronounced; e.g. of words written {chúh}, some such as 竹, 竺, 燭 are at K’ai-fóng-fú in the upper first tone, while 軸, 祝, 昨 are in the lower first tone.[2]

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Vide 李氐音鑑. The author was a native of Peking.

2. The analogy between the Chinese tones and the Greek accents probably led the Catholic Missionaries to call the former {accentus}. The distinction between accent and quantity which existed in Greek, has been found also in Sanscrit in the Vedas. (Vide Bopp’s Sanscrit Grammar, section 80.) In both, there were three accents, acute, grave and circumflex. The grave is described as the negation of the acute and to be understood where that mark is not written. The acute was a rising in tone; while the circumflex is said to have raised and depressed the tone on the same syllable. (Vide Valpy’s, Greek Grammar.) Taking accent and quantity together, we obtain four distinctions of sound, which is the nominal number of tones in Chinese. The fundamental difference in the structure of polysyllabic and monosyllabic languages prevents the analogy from being carried far; the tones in one case being fixed to syllables, and in the other to words. But when it is remembered that those two branches of the great Indo-European stem are among the most ancient of languages, not much later in origin than the Chinese itself, and one of them its geographical neighbour, the fact of these delicate differences of sound existing till now in that language, becomes interesting as throwing light on some of the most precious remains of the literature of the past. Grammarians would not speak with such hesitation, as they do, when describing these peculiar intonations of the civilized races of the old world, if they had heard and could discriminate the Chinese tones. Late speculations on the change in language-forming power that has taken place in modern times, have referred to the gradual diminution of inflexions in new languages, and to other circumstances, as instances of it. From these has been argued the decay of a certain faculty once possessed by the human race. The limited use of accents fixed to words in newly-formed languages, may be viewed as another illustration of it. Clearly-marked alphabetical differences, as now preferred to those nicer distinctions of sounds, which perhaps were familiar alike to the most cultivated branches of the Great Arian family, and to the ancient and modern Chinese. It may be added that the use of many of the Hebrew accents is but imperfectly known in modern times. -----------------------------------------------------------------

{Section} 3. {On the Shanghai Tones}.

13. We shall illustrate the tones one by one with numerous examples, adding a translation for the use of those who wish to acquire at the same time, a vocabulary of common phrases. We have hitherto regarded tones as they are heard, when the sound is enunciated emphatically and single. But there are certain changes which occur in combinations of two or more words in rapid conversation, which can be only explained by examples of such groups arranged in separate columns. In the observations appended to each table, the more prominent of these variations will be pointed out, and the place of the accent determined.[1]

The vowel marks employed in this work are repeated here, that the eye of the reader may be familiarized with them:—

Long vowels. | Short vowels. | Other vowels. ------------------------------------------------- á r{a}ther. | a s{a}ng. | au Pa{u}l. é r{ay}. | e s{e}t. | eu as in 頭 {t}eu. í r{ea}d. | i s{i}ng. | ö Göthe. ó r{o}ad. | o s{o}ng. | ü vert{u}. ú r{ud}e. | u s{u}ng. | û as in 書 s{û}. -------------------------------------------------

In writing mandarin, the following will also be used:—

aú {á}, {ú}, combined. Prolongation of au. eú c{ow}. Prolongation of eu. ei kine. The Greek, ei.

The accents denote long vowels, and a symbol is never used for more than one sound. This is the principle of the orthography usually called Sir W. Jones’ system. It was proposed by the Hon. J. R. Morrison in 1836, in the Chinese Repository, (vol, 5, page 22), for application to the Chinese language. For this part of China, modifications are needed in the details, and hence the differences in the system here adopted, from that described by the writer of that article, and in Williams’ Chinese Vocabulary, etc.

The long vowels all have, what is called in England, the Italian pronunciation.

The sound eu is something like the French {eu} in dou{leu}r, or the common short English u as in b{u}n prolonged ’or the corresponding mandarin sound eú as in 口 ’k’eú, Premare uses eou, and Klaproth eu; from them we have borrowed it. In the lengthened form, it is a diphthong eú or uú, as in English cl{ou}d. The shorter form eu has no exact English equivalent.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. In an Essay on the Hok-kien tones by the Rev. S. Dyer of Malacca, descriptions of them with a musical notation are given. Tables of examples for groups of two like those we now give, but without the Chinese characters, are annexed. -----------------------------------------------------------------

14. {The upper first tone}. This is the common quick falling sound, usually given in. English pronunciation, to any monosyllable when standing alone, and spoken with emphasis.

瓜 kwó, {melon}. 鍾 tsúng, {bell}. 風 fóng, {wind}. 多 tú, {many}. 輕 k’iung, {light}. 飛 fí, {to fly}.

That it may be readily compared with the other tones, by such as have a native assistant at hand, some examples are here given of the same alphabetical sound, varied according to the four upper tones.

希喜戲歇 hí ’hí hí‘ hih 多覩妒篤 tú ’tú tú‘ tóh, 枯苦課哭 k’ú ’k’ú k’ú‘ k’óh,

In the fourth word of each series, the vowels change, í into i, and ú into ó. The Chinese regard them as different only in tone; to a foreign ear, the difference is one both of time, as the syllables are long and short, and of vowels sound, as the long {i} becomes short {i}, and long {u} becomes long {o}.

15. As examples of combination, take first those which have the upper first tone in the penultimate, (p, s, k, j, in roman type, represent the four upper tones in their order; in italic type, the lower).

Tones. Place of the Accent. p.p. 今朝 kiun tsau, {to-day}, ult. 相公 siáng kóng, {sir}, {husband}, „ 工夫 kúng fú, {work}, pen. 當中 tong tsóng, {in the middle}, ult. p.s. 天頂 t’íe{n} ting, {the zenith}, „ 多少 tú sau, {how many?} „ 恩主 un tsû, {benefactor}, „ p.k. 眞正 tsun tsung, {truly}, „ 相信 siang sing, {believe}, {be fond of}, „ 聲氣 sáng kí, (c’h) {sound of voice}, pen. p.j. 中國 tsúng kóh, {China}, „ 彎曲 wa{n} k’ióh, (c’h) {winding}, {crooked}, ult. p.{p}. 中原 tsóng niö{n}, {China}, „ 天堂 t’íe{n} dong, {heaven}, „ 差人 ts’á niun, {a messenger}, pen. p.{s}. 天理 t’íe{n} lí, {heavenly reason}, ult. 裝滿 tsong mé{n}, {to pack full}, „ 新米 sing mí, {new rice}, pen. p.{k}. 天地 t’íe{n} dí, {heaven and earth}, ult. 天亮 t’íe{n} liáng, {daybreak}, „ 鄕下 h’iáng {a}u, i{n the country}, pen. p.{j}. 風俗 fóng zóh, {custom}, ult. 新閘 sing zah, {village near Shanghai}, „

Obs. In this table, the tone preserves its natural character throughout, but when followed by the quick rising tones, as in p, k, and p, {k}, or by the short tones, or by a word hurried over without emphasis on account of its unimportance, it is heard with a more distinct accent than in other cases. When the accent is upon the other word, this tone needs to have the voice rest upon it for a time, to prevent its becoming the third tone.

The tone which is the same as this in the Amoy dialect, undergoes a regular change, in combinations such as those in this table. When standing first of two words, it becomes an upper quick rising tone. Thus though a tone be identical when pronounced alone in two dialects, it does not follow that its laws of combination are also the same. For much important information on the Hok-kien tones, and the laws of combination in that dialect, the writer is indebted to Rev. J. Stronach of Amoy.

16. Examples of the upper first tone in the antepenultimate or when first in a group of three.

Tones. Accent. p.p.{p}. 蘇州人 Sú-tseu niun, {a Sú-cheú man}, ult. p.s.{p}. 天主堂 t’íe{n}-tsû dong, {Roman Catholic Chapel}, „ p.k.k. 挑過去 t’iau kú-k’í, {carry it past}, ant. p.j.{k}. 當得住 tong tuh-dzû, {able to stand against}, „ p.{p}.{p}. 朝辰頭 tsau-zun deu, {in the morning}, „ p.{s}.k. 千里鏡 ts’íe{n}-lí kiung, {telescope}, ult. p.{k}.p. 三字經 sa{n}-zz’ kiung, {the Three Character Classic}, „ p.{j}.{k}. 追勿上 tsûi veh-zong, {cannot overtake him}, ant. p.s.s. 多好狗 tú-hau keu, {a number of dogs}, „

Obs. i. In the example standing last but two, if 經 is accented, it preserves its proper character, but if, as is often the case, 三 is accented, 經 becomes even and falls in pitch.

Obs. ii. The accent often varies between the first and the last syllable. In regard to position, it is the latter that should receive it. But in reference to tone, that now under illustration admitting emphasis freely, overbears the accent of position.

17. Examples of upper first tone standing last in a combination of two or three.

Tones. Accent. p.p. 當心 tong sing, {take care}, pen. 燒香 sau h’iáng, {burn incense}, ult. s.p. 祖宗 tsú tsóng, {ancestors}, pen. 頂多 ting tú, {greatest number of}, „ 講書 kong sû, {explain books}, „ 水晶 sz tsing, {rock crystal}, ult. k.p. 貴庚 kwé káng, {your honourable age?} „ 放心 fong sing, {be content}, „ j.p. 插花 ts’ah hwó, {insert flowers}, „ 忒多 t’uk tú, {too many}, „ {p}.p. 明朝 ming tsau, {to-morrow}, pen. 良心 liáng sing, {good heart}, {conscience}, „ k.{p}.p. 啥晨光 sá zun-kwong, {what time}, ant. {s}.p. 母親 mú ts’ing, {mother}, ult. 老兄 lau hiúng, {venerated brother}, „ {k}.p. 地方 {t}í fong, {a place}, „ 念經 nia{n} kiung, {chant sacred books}, „ {j}.p. 逆風 niuh fóng, {contrary wind}, „

Obs. In the groups p.p., s.p., and {p}.p. in this table, the tone of the last word falls and becomes even. In such cases, the initial consonants remain unaffected. Thus, 工夫 kúng fú cannot become kúng vú, though, fú falls in key. The same change may sometimes be observed after the third and fourth tones.

18. Examples of this tone, as the second in a group, of three.

Tones. Accent. s.p.k. 小生意 siau sáng-í, {small retail trade}, pen. k.p.{p}. 雇工人 kú-kóng niun, {workman}, „ j.p.k. 束腰帶 sóh-yan tá, {waist-band}, „ {p}.p.{k}. 文昌殿 vun-ts’áng díen, {temple of the patron of Literature}, „ {s}.p.{p}. 軟心腸 niö{n} sing-dzáng, {merciful heart}, ult. {k}.p.j. 大英國 {t}a-yung kóh, {England}, ant. {j}.p.{p}. 讀書人 {t}ók-sû niun, {educated man}, ult.

Obs. i. There is a secondary accent on some other syllable in groups of three, which sometimes predominates over the other. We have not attempted to record more than one. E.g. 讀 the antepenultimate of the last example is often heard with a decided accent.

Obs. ii. An inspection of these tables will shew that the first tone attracts the accent to itself in many instances, and that through rapidity of pronunciation, or from the accent being placed on the word before, it tends to fall in key and become even.

Obs. iii. In regard to position the accent prefers the last syllable.

19. {The upper second tone}. It is a high even tone without deflection, and forms a principal element in producing that curious singing effect in many dialects, which the foreigner notices in first listening to Chinese pronunciation.

Ex.

水 sz, {water}. 好 hau, {good}. 火 hú, {fire}. 討 t’au, {beg}. 許 hé, {promise}. 點 tíe{n}, {point} (verb or subs.)

20. Examples of the upper second tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. Accent. p.s. 恩典 un tíe{n}, {favour}, pen. 酗酒 h’iúng tsieu, {intoxicated}, „ s.s. 滾水 kwun sz, {boiling water}, pen. 頂好 ting hau, {the best possible}, „ k.s. 救火 kieú hú, {save from fire}, ult. 要緊 yau kiun, {important}, „ j.s. 作主 tsok tsû, {to be master}, „ 出首 ts’eh seu, {accuser}, „ {p}.s. 門口 mun k’eu, {door-way}, „ 財主 dzé tsû, {rich man}, „ {s}.s. 勉强 míe{n} k’iáng, {by compulsion}, (c‘h) „ 耳𦖋 ní tú, {ears}, „ {k}.s. 面孔 míe{n} k’óng, {face}, „ {j}.s. 折手 zeh seu, {maimed hand}, „ 曆本 lih pun, {almanac}, „ p.{j}.s. 燒熱水 sau nyih sz, {prepare hot water}, „ {p}.k.s. 唔要緊 {m} yau kiun, {not important}, ant. {j}.j.s. 勿缺少 veh k’iöh sau, {not deficient}, (c‘h) ult. {j}.j.s. 實骨子 {s}eh kweh tsz, {in reality}, pen.

Obs. i. The last syllable, when preceded by a word in the upper first tone, is usually heard to fall in key, as in the first two of the above examples.

Obs. ii. In some examples, the tone under illustration often changes into a quick falling tone, as in 救火 kieu‘ ’hú, pronounced kieu‘ hú, and 勉强 pronounced míe{n}‘ k’iáng.

21. Examples of the upper second tone in the antepenultimate.

Tones. Accent. s.p.p. 請先生 ts’ing síe{n}-sáng, {engage a teacher}, ant. s.s.{p}. 考舉人 k’au kü-niun, {be examined for Master of Arts decree}, pen. s.s.{k}. 手低下 seu tí-{a}u, {under (my) control}, ant. s.j.k. 打磕瞌 táng k’eh-ts’óng, {nod the head when sleeping}, ult. s.{p}.{p}. 火輪船 hú-lun zé{n}, steamer, „ s.{k}.{k}. 土地廟 t’ú-dí miau, {temple of the Lares arvales}, „ s.{j}.s. 考勿起 k’au-veh-k’í, {cannot venture to be examined}, „

Obs. For purposes of accentuation 下, 打, and 勿 in the above examples may be called {enclitics} or {proclitics}. As such they leave the emphasis to rest on the {significant} words.

22. Examples of the second tone in the penultimate of a group of two.

Tones. Accent. s.p. 小干 siau kû{n}, {a boy}, ult. 喜歡 h’í hwé{n}, {glad}, „ {j}.s.s. 白滾水 {p}áh kwun-sz, {simply boiling water} (weak tea), „ 打窵 táng tiau, {shoot birds}, „ 水手 sz seu, {sailors}, „ s.k. 寶貝 pau pé, {precious}, „ 請教 ts’ing kiau, {will you inform me?} „ 小菜 siau ts’é, {vegetables}, „ s.j. 可惜 k’ó sih, {alas!} pen. 曉得 h’iau tuh, {understand}, „ 打鐵 táng t’ih, {work in iron}, ult. s.{p}. 水牛 sz nieu, {water buffalo}, „ 保全 pau dzíe{n}, {preserve}, „ 水桐 sz dóng, {water bucket}, „ s.{s}. 苦惱 k’ú nau, {unfortunate}, „ 倒滿 tau mé{n}, {pour full}, „ s.{k}. 胆大 tan dú, {courageous}, „ 體面 t’í míe{n}, respectable, „ 請坐 ts’ing zú, {please sit down}, „ s.{j}. 搶奪 ts’iáng döh, {rob and plunder}, „ 寶石 pau záh, {precious stone}, „

Obs. The accent is usually on the last word, and it is especially marked when that word is in the first or third tone. When the penultimate assumes the accent, it frequently changes to the upper rising tone, but this is apparently nothing more than an occasional irregularity, produced by rapid pronunciation. Native assistants generally deny the existence of these and all such changes; but on having their attention drawn more closely to the subject, they admit that there are exceptional cases.

23. Examples of the same tone standing second in a group of three.

Tones. Accent. p.s.p. 齊祖宗 tsá tsú-tsóng, {sacrifice to ancestors}, ult. s.s.k. 比比看 pí-pí k’ö{n}, {compare them}, „ k.s.{j}. 做好日 tsú hau-nyih, {keep a wedding}, pen. j.s.{p}. 一本頭 ih-pun deu, {just one volume}, ult. {p}.s.{p}. 秦如皇 dzing sz {w}ong, {the emperor who burnt the books}, „ {k}.s.{j}. 字紙簏 zz-tsz lóh, {written-paper basket}, „ {j}.s.{p}. 踛起來 lók k’í-lé, {stand up}, „

Obs. i. The penultimate is heard higher in key than the others. The last falls, but retains the principal accent more or less distinctly.

Obs. ii. The secondary accent is usually on the first word, except in the example 做好日, where the penultimate word changes into an upper rising tone, and receives the accent.

24. {The upper third tone}. This tone being both high in key and deflected upwards, is difficult to imitate correctly.

Ex.

葬 tsong, {bury}. 變 píe{n}, {change}. 四 sz, {four}. 寸 ts’un, {inch}. 姓 sing, {family name}. 店 tíe{n}, {shop}.

Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Tones. Accent. k. p. 意思 í sz, {object, idea}, pen. 看書 k’ö{n} sû, {to read}, ult. 種花 tsóng hwó, {plant cotton or flowers}, „ k.s. 放火 fong hú, {set on fire}, pen. 禁止 kiung tsz, {forbid}, „ k.k. 富貴 fú kwé, {rich and honourable}, ult. 教訓 kiau h’iün, {instruct}, „ k.j. 愛惜 é sih, {love and pity}, „ 過歇 kú h’ih, {at present}, „ k.{p}. 算盤 sûn bén, {Chinese abacus}, „ 教門 kiau mun, {form of instruction}, „ k.{s}. 怕冷 p’ó láng, {afraid of cold}, „ 快馬 k’wá mó, {a swift horse}, „ k.{k}. 對面 dé míe{n}, {the opposite}, ult. 算命 sû{n} ming, {to calculate destiny}, „ k.{j}. 氣力 k’í lih, {strength}, pen. 做賊 tsú zuh, {be a thief}, ult.

Obs. i. It may be useful as an aid to memory, to notice that verbs are very numerous in this tone. The majority of the above examples will illustrate this remark.

Obs. ii. In the first example 意 í is irregular, and is pronounced in the first tone.

Obs. iii. When the accent is decidedly on the last word, as in most of the examples, the penultimate is very short and pronounced with the least possible emphasis.

Obs. iv. In the examples, k, k, penultimate word is in rapid pronunciation, heard even, like the second tone. Thus 照‘ 應‘ is pronounced ’tsau yung‘.

25. Examples of the same tone, as the antepenultimate of three words.

Tones. Accent. k.p.s. 照規矩 tsau kwé-kü, {follow the custom}, pen. k.s.k. 種小菜 tsóng siau-ts’é, {plant vegetables}, „ k.k.{k}. 世界上 sz-ká long, {in the world}, ult. k.j.{p}. 派出來 p’á ts’eh-lé, {place in divisions}, ant. k.{p}.{k}. 啥時候 sá zz-{e}u, {what time?}, „ k.{p}.p. 做成功 tsú zung-kóng, {to complete}, ult. k.{s}.{s} 敬父母 kiung ’vú-mú, {reverence parents}, „ k.{j}.{k}. 帶勿動 tá veh-dóng, {cannot carry}, ant.

Obs. To keep the first word short in time, and deflected upwards, is the chief requisite in examples of this kind, If the voice were allowed to rest on it, it would necessarily become the first or second tone.

26. Examples of the upper third tone standing last of two or three words.

Tones. Accent. p.k. 生意 sáng í, {trade}, pen. 東喊 tóng ha{n}, {eastwards}, „ 爽快 song k’wá, {in good health}, „ s.k. 寫信 siá sing, {write a letter}, ult. 打算 táng sûh, {consider, plan}, pen. k.k. 正派 tsung p’á, {correct conduct}, ult. 做戲 tsú h’í, {act a play}, „ j.k. 得意 tuh í, {obtain one’s wishes}, „ 失信 seh sing, {be unfaithful}, „ {p}.k. 皇帝 {w}ong tí, {emperor}, „ 回信 {w}é sing, {letter in answer}, „ {s}.k. 禮拜 lí pá, {worship}, „ 馬掛 mo kwó {jacket}, „ {k}.k. 造化 ’zau hwó, {fortunately, to create}, „ 地界 {t}í ká, {boundary of land}, „ 罪過 zé kú, {sin, an impropriety}, pen. k.{j}.k 看勿見 k’ö{n} veh-kíe{n}, {do not see}, ant. {p.j.}k. 搖勿過 {y}au veh-kú, {cannot row past}, „ {j}.k.k. 勿要怕 veh-yau p’ó, {do not fear}, pen. {j}.j.k. 勿適意 veh suh-í, {not in health}, ult. {s}.s.k 冷小菜 láng siau ts’é, {cold vegetables}, „

Obs. i. The almost unbroken regularity of the accent in these examples, arises partly from the last word being the proper place for it, and partly from the tone under illustration being naturally adapted to receive it.

Obs. ii. In the examples p, k, the last word falls in key, and its upward deflection and initial consonant remain unaffected.

Obs. iii. The examples k, k, follow the same law as in Art. 24. Obs. iv. In 打算 the former word being merely an auxiliary particle, is short in time as if it were táng‘.

27. Examples of the upper third tone as the penultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent. p.k.{p}. 担過來 ta{n} kú-lé, {bring it over}, ant. s.k.k. 寫信去 siá-sing k’í, {send a letter}, „ k.k.{s}. 細細哩 sí-sí lí, {accurately}, „ j.k.{k}. 忒過分 t’uk kú-vun, {excessive}, ult. {p}.k.j. 難過歇 na{n} kú-h’ih, {at present}, „ {s}.k.{k}. 理性上 lí-sing long, {according to reason}, ant. {k}.k.{p}. 右半爿 yeu pé{n} ba{n}, {right-hand side}, ult. {j}.k.j. 勿見得 veh kíe{n} tuh, {it is not likely}, pen.

Obs. i. The middle word is always carefully shortened in tone.

Obs. ii. When the last word is one of less significance than the others, it frequently loses the accent.

28. {The upper fourth tone}. This tone is a short syllable, high and bent upwards. It has k final after the vowels á, ó, o, u, after other vowels k is not heard.

Ex. 角 kok, {horn}; 刻 k’uk, {quarter of an hour}; 法 fah, {method}.

Examples in which it is the first of a group of two.

Tones. Accent. j.p. 出身 ts’eh sun, {rank or profession}, ult. 發風 fah fóng, {wind rising}, „ j.s. 爀顯 hok h’íe{n}, {lightning}, „ 出產 ts’eh ts’a{n}, {field productions}, „ j.k. 百姓 pák sing, {people} (hundred names,) „ j.j. 法則 fah tsuh, {method}, „ j.{p}. 出門 ts’eh mun, {to go from home}, „ 客人 k’áh niun, {stranger, guest}, pen. 磕頭 k’eh deu, {to make a prostration}, ult. j.{s}. 瞎眼 hah nga{n}, {blind eyes}, „ j.{k}. 識字 suh zz, {able to read}, „ 質地 tseh dí, {natural powers}, „ k.{j}. 濶狹 k’weh {a}h, {width}, (broad, narrow,) pen. 骨肉 kweh nióh, {blood relations}, „

Words of the fourth tone naturally short, are here in a position unfavourable for the accent. Even the few cases of exception marked, do not take it exclusively on the penultimate.

29. Examples of the same tone in the antepenultimate.

Tones. Accent. j.p.{s}. 忒伊兩 t’eh-í liáng, {with him}, ult. j.s.{p}. 縮轉來 sók tsé{n}-lé, {return}, „ j.k.j. 撥過歇 peh-kú-h’ih, {given}, ant. j.{k.p.} 跌下來 tih ’{a}u-lé, {fall down}, ult. j.{p}.p. 織成功 tsuh zung-kóng, {completely woven}, ult. j.{s}.j. 搨顔色 t’ah gna{n} suh, {paint on colours}, pen. j.{j.p.} 角落頭 koh-loh deu, {corner}, ult.

The secondary accent is on the first syllable in these examples.

30. Examples of this tone standing last of two or three words.

Tones. Accent. p.j. 天色 t’íen suh, {weather}, pen. 分別 fun pih, {difference}, „ s.j. 手筆 seu pih, {hand-writing}, ult. 寶塔 pau t’ah, {pagoda}, „ k.j. 算法 sûn fah, {method of calculation}, „ j.j. 吃粥 k’íuk tsóh, {eat rice water}, „ {p}.j. 頭髮 {t}eu fah, {hair}, pen. 沉殺 dzun sah, {be drowned}, „ {s}.j. 顔色 gna{n} suh, {colour}, „ 五十 {ng} seh,[1] {fifty}, „ {k}.j. 二十 ní seh {twenty}, „ 吝嗇 ling sih {parsimonious}, „ {j}.j. 沒殺 meh sah {be drowned}, ult. 立刻 lih k’uh {immediately}, „ p.{p}.j. 骷髏骨 kú leu kweh {scull}, „ {p}.p.j. 龍華塔 lúng hwó t’ah {Lúng-hwá pagoda}, „

In the first two examples, the penultimate being in the upper first tone, the last word may be heard to fall in key.

In those marked {k}, j, the first word is lengthened in pronunciation, and thus passes into the lower second tone.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. The character 十 is read zeh The sound seh as heard in conversation is irregular. -----------------------------------------------------------------

31. Examples of the upper fourth tone standing second in a group of three.

Tones. Accent. p.j.{p}. 推出來 t’é t’seh-lé, {investigate}, ult. s.j.p. 保國家 pau kók-kiá, {defend one’s country}, „ k.j.j. 背脊骨 pé-tsih kweh, {back-bone}, „ j.j.{p}. 脚節頭 kiák tsih-deu, {toes}, „ {p}.j.k. 跑得動 {p}au tuh-dóng, {able to walk}, ant. {k}.j.s. 話得好 {w}ó tuh-hau, {well spoken}, „ {j}.j.p. 額角頭 ngák koh-deu, {forehead}, ult.

The secondary accent may often be distinctly heard on the first word in these examples.

32. A few examples of large groups are here appended.

Tones. p.p.s.s. 清清爽爽 ts’ing-ts’ing song-song, {distinct}, p.k.j.{k}. 忠孝節義 tsóng-hiau tsih ní, {fidelity, filial piety, chastity and uprightness}, j.k.j.k. 各到落處 kok-tau-lok-ts’û, {everywhere}, s.s.p.p. 喜喜歡歡 h’í-h’í hwé{n}-hwé{n}, {glad}, k.k.k.k. 正正派派 tsung-tsung p’á-p’á, {good conduct}, j.j.j.j. 瞎七瞎八 hah-t’sih hah-pah, {all in confusion}, j.j.j.{s}. 七曲八裊 ts’ih-k’ióh pah-niau, {winding about}, p.{j}.s.s.s. 金木水火土 kiun mók sûi hú t’ú, {metal, wood, water, fire and earth}, k.k.j.k.s. 看過歇個者 k’ön-kú-h’ih-k’ú-tsé, {have seen it}, p.{p}.j.j.{j}. 青黃赤黑白 t’sing {w}ong t’suh huh {p}ah, {blue, yellow, red, black, and white}, p.p.{p}.j.p. 東西南北中 tung sí né{n} póh tsóng, {east, west, south, north and middle}, p.k.j.{s}.s. 聽過歇拉者 t’ing-kú-h’ih-lá-tsé, {I have heard it},

For analysing such groups as these, all that would seem to be necessary, is to divide them into smaller combinations. Dissyllables and trisyllables may thus be formed, and linked together by the hyphen as above. They then fall under the same laws as preceding examples, and the accent of position will be usually on the last word.

When a number of particles are collected, as in k’ön‘-kú‘-h‘ih-kú-’tsé, they are heard like a word of five syllables with an accent in the first and last syllables. The English words {acceptableness}, {peremptorily}, {necessarily}, may be compared with examples of this kind; without the last two words, the accent would be on the first and third.

In the last example, the first accent is on 聽 t’ing, the second on 拉 lá, which being in a long tone, attracts it.

When there is a string of substantives together, as in enumerating the five colours, the five elements, the five constant virtues, etc. more time is allowed for the pronunciation of each. The hyphen has therefore been omitted in such cases.

33. Collecting these results, the following general remarks may be made on the upper tones.

I. The principal accent prefers the last syllable, but enclitic particles often reject it, while it is attracted most readily by the first and third tones.

The reverse of this is true at Ch’á-p’ú and Hái-ning to the South-west of Sháng-hái, where the penultimate takes the accent.

II. A secondary accent occurs in groups of three, which rests on the most significant word, or on the tones naturally requiring most stress of voice, the first and third.

III. An interchange takes places between the second and third tones, when either of them stands before a word which is the same in tone.

IV. The first tone becomes the lower first, i e. even, low and rising at the end, when standing last, if the word preceding takes the accent. After the third tone, upper and lower, it does not vary.

V. The first tone is lengthened in time in the penultimate, when the stress of the voice is on the last word, and the third, when in that position, shortened.

VI. The upper tones tend to fall in key, where they come after the first tone, and when they do so, always preserve their initial consonants. After any other tone, they usually keep their proper elevation.

34. In entering on the lower tones we meet with new consonants, G, D, B, NG, N, M, L, R. The exceptions will be found noticed in Art. 56.

{Lower first tone}. This is a long low tone deflected upwards at the end. East of the Hwáng-p’ú river and in the city of Sháng-hái, this tone is as here described. But to the westward of that river, the quick low circumflex very soon takes its place, and is met with to the immediate neighbourhood of Sú-cheú and Háng-cheú. It appears to consist of a quick rising and quick falling tone pronounced rapidly together.

Ex. 篷 {p}óng, {sail}; 龍 lóng, {dragon}; 門 mun, {door}.

35. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Tones. Accent. {p}.p. 唐詩 {t}óng sz’, {poetry of Táng dynasty}, pen. 文章 vun tsáng, {essays composed by rule}, „ {p}.s. 牙齒 ngá ts’z, {teeth}, „ 常久 dzáng kieu, {long time}, „ {p}.k. 憑據 {p}íng kü, {evidence}, ult. 同姓 {t}óng síng, {of the same name}, „ {p}.j. 頭髮 {t}eu fah, {hair}, „ {p.p.} 停船 {t}ing zé{n}, {stop a boat}, „ {p.p.} 窮人 {k}ióng niun, {poor man}, pen. {p.s.} 文禮 vun lí, {elegance in style}, „ 騎馬 {k}í mó, {to ride}, ult. {p}.k. 和尙 {u} zong, {priest}, „ 强盜 {k}iáng dau, {robber}, „ {p.j.} 題目 {t}í móh, {a theme}, pen. 牛肉 nieu nióh, {beef}, „

Obs. i. The accent is predominantly on the penultimate word, and the lower first tone is thus seen to be one of those, that attracts to itself the stress of the voice. In this combination the penultimate is always carefully enunciated in a low key.

Obs. ii. Where we have written {t, k, p}, the corresponding soft consonants d, g, b, if the ear only were consulted, might sometime be employed; but an orthography ought to be consistent, and it appears to us that the best imitation on the whole of the native sounds, will be secured by writing the latter symbols in the last word of a combination, and the former in the penultimate. The only case it is believed, where this method does not fully represent the true pronunciation, is in such words as 窮, 强, {k}ióng, {k}iáng, and others whose initial is in mandarin k’ and which are in the lower first tone. There could be no objection to the use of g in those cases, except the want of uniformity among the mute consonants; keeping the letter {k}, it will be enough to inform the reader, that there is a peculiar thickness of sound, and a consonant difficult to write with any of our alphabetic symbols.

36. Examples of the lower first tone, as the antepenultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent. {p}.p.p. 黃昏星 {w}ong-hwun sing, {evening star}, ult. {p}.s.{p}. 神主牌 zun-tsû bá, {ancestral table}, „ {p}.k.p. 前世寃 dzíe{n}-sz’ yön, {enemy of a former life}, „ {p}.p.j. 磨刀石 mu tau záh, {grinding hone}, „ {p.p.j.} 如來佛 zû-lé veh, {title of Buddha}, „ {p.s.j.} 前兩日 zíe{n} liáng-nyih, {two days ago}, ant. {p.k.}p. 堂弟兄 {d}ong {t}í-hiúng, {cousin on father’s side}, „ {p.j.p.} 擡勿來 dé veh-lé, {cannot carry it}, ult.

Obs. The first word in this table, as in the preceding, needs to be studiously kept low, even, and undeflected.

37. Examples of the lower first tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. Accent. p.{p}. 京城 kiung zung, {metropolis}, ult. 功勞 kúng lau, {merit}, „ s.{p}. 賞頭 song deu, {reward}, „ k.{p}. 進城 tsing dzung, {enter the city}, „ 性情 sing dzing, {disposition}, „ j.{p}. 北門 póh mun, {north gate}, „ {p.p.} 城頭 dzung deu, {city wall}, „ 衙門 ngá mun, {mandarin’s office}, „ {s.p.} 老爺 lau yá, {a title of respect}, „ {k.p.} 養牛 yáng nieu, {keep buffaloes}, „ 樹皮 zû bí, {bark of trees}, ult. {j.p.} 月牙 niöh ngá, {moon’s horns}, „ 木頭 móh deu, {wood}, „ j.p.{p}. 黑心人 huh-sing niun, {black-hearted man}, ant. k.{k.p.} 蓋地皮 ké {t}í-bí, {possess land}, ult. k.p.{p}. 算希奇 sû{n} hí-gí, {regard as remarkable}, „ {j.p.p.} 木頭人 móh-deu niun, {wooden image}, ant. {k.j.p.} 舊木頭 {k}ieu móh-deu, {old wood}, ult.

Obs. In the groups not marked p, {p}, and {p, p,} the last word changes to the upper quick falling tone. In the remaining instances it preserves its even character. The way is prepared for reciprocal changes between the upper and lower series, by the initial consonants being different. The alphabetical distinction prevents the confusion, that would arise from this intermingling of sounds.

38. Examples of the lower first tone, as the penultimate of three.

Tones. Accent. p.{p}.s. 新房子 sing vong-tsz, {a new house}, pen. s.{p}.p. 主人家 tsû niun-ká, {master of family}, ult. k.{p}.p. 做人家 tsú niun ká, {to be economical}, „ k.{p.p.} 要銅錢 yau dóng-die{n}, {he wants money}, ant. {s.p.}p. 老人家 lau niun-ká, {an old man}, ult. {s.p.}p. 洞庭山 {t}óng-ding sa{n}, {island in the Great Lake}, „ {j.p.k.} 十王殿 seh-{w}ong die{n}, {temple of the ten kings}. „

Obs. After the deep deflected tone preceding it in {s}, {p}, p, the penultimate in these examples is usually raised to the upper falling tone.

39. {Lower second tone}. This tone properly a low protracted tone rising at its close, contains in it a number of words whose pronunciation is not fixed. These words, sometimes counted in this tone, and at other times in the next in order, are in other parts of China in the third tone. It will be better to consider them under the heading to which they belong in other dialects, and present here such examples as are free from this uncertainty in tone.

Ex. 有 yeu, {have}; 五 {ng}, {five}; 里 lí, {Chinese mile}.

40. Examples of the lower second tone in the penultimate of two words.

Tones. Accent. {s}.p. 眼睛 nga{n} tsing, {eyes}, ult. 老君 lau kiün, {founder of Taúism}, „ {s}.s. 冷水 láng sz, {cold water}, pen. 鈕子 nieu tsz, {button}, „ {s}.k. 理性 lí sing, {reason}, ult. 買處 má ts’û, {means of buying}, „ {s}.j. 免脫 míe{n} t’eh, {forgive}, „ {s.p.} 領頭 ling deu, {neckband}, „ 女人 nü niun, {woman}, „ {s.s.} 永遠 {y}úng {y}ö{n}, {very long time}, „ {s.k.} 引誘 {y}un {y}eu‘, {to tempt}, „ 領路 ling lú, {lead the way}, „ {s.j.} 擄掠 lú liáh, {rob}, „

Obs. i. The tone under illustration, keeps its natural character throughout. No initial letters occur but l, m, ng, n, r, and the vowels. Words beginning with mutes and sibilants that were originally in this tone, are in course of transition to the lower third tone. V from w in mandarin, remains in the second tone.

Obs. ii. The low deflected tone in the penultimate of {s.p.} and {s}.s. so affects the last words, that they are heard in the quick falling tone.

Obs. iii. This tone is difficult to describe as distinct from the preceding, from the fact that both tend upwards; the former deviates slightly, after beginning even; the latter begins low and ascends through its whole time. The first is in its general character even, but when compared with the pure monotone in the Amoy dialect, to which it is most nearly allied, there is a difference perceptible that needs to be specified. It is heard we believe with this peculiarity when pronounced alone, and when standing last in a binary combination, if it does not then change to the upper first tone. When first in order, it is even. It was before observed, that the first upper tone, when last in order, changes to the first lower. In the sound then heard, when enunciated with the true native drawl, the same may be noticed.

Obs. iv. There is nothing even in the second tone when alone, except when enunciated in a high key. When last in order it often rises to the upper second tone, and is then heard even.

For ready comparison of the sounds, a few examples of words in the lower tones are here appended:—

良, 兩, 亮, liáng, in the tones {p.s.k.} 埋, 買, 賣, má, „ 泥, 你, 義, ní, „ 人, 忍, 認, niun, (R. zun), „ 油, 有, 佑, yeu, „ 題, 弟, 地, dí, „ 隨, 罪, 睿, zûe, „

The last two words here marked as in the second tone will be shewn immediately to be so for this district.

41. Examples of the same tone as the antepenultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent. {s}.p.j. 冷天色 láng t’íe{n}-suh, {cold weather}, ult. {s}.s.s. 耳𦖋管 ní-tú kwé{n}, {ear cavity}, „ {s}.k.{p}. 老太婆 lau t’á bú, {aged dame}, „ {s}.k.{p}. 買進來 má tsing-lé, {to buy}, „ {s.k.}s. 武藝子 vú-ní tsz, {capacity for an art or business}, pen. {s.k.}p. 領事官 ling-zz kwé{n}, {foreign consul}, ult.

42. Examples of this tone as the last in a group of two or three words.

Tones. Accent. p.{s}. 杴米 k’íe{n} mí, {grind rice}, ult. s.{s}. 小雨 siau {ü}, {small rain}, „ k.{s}. 囥籠 k’ong lóng, {to hide}, „ j.{s}. 搭鈕 tah nieu, {an iron hook}, „ j.{s}. 瞎眼 hah nga{n}, {blind}, „ {p.s.} 情理 dzing lí, {reasonable, reason}, „ {s.s.} 美女 mé n{ü}, {beautiful woman}, „ {k.s.} 盡禮 dzing lí, {do everything properly}, „ {j.s.} 落雨 loh {ü}, {it rains}, „ 着冷 dzáh láng {catch cold}, „ p.p.{s}. 珍珠米 tsun-tsû mí, {Indian corn}, „ k.s.{s}. 最苦惱 tsûe k’ú nau, {very miserable}, „ {s.k.s.} 有道理 {y}eu ’dau-lí, {virtue}, ant. {j.j.s.} 勿勒裡 veh leh-lí, {not at home}, „ {k.j.s.} 話勿理 {w}ó veh-lí, {will not listen}, „

Obs. In 情理 and 盡禮 where a difference of accent might have been expected, the distinction is kept in the native pronunciation, entirely by means of the tones. In many of these cases, the last word rises and becomes even, i.e. passes into the upper second tone. Thus, 眼 nga{n} and 理 lí, become high and even.

43. Examples of the same tone, as the penultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent. p.{s}.p. 裝滿之 tsong-mén tsz, {having packed full}, ant. k.{s}.k. 看冷破 k’ö{n} láng p’ú, {despise others}, pen. {p.s.}s. 情理點 dzing-lí tíe{n}, {be more reasonable}, ant. {k.s.s.} 廿五里 nia{n}-{ng} lí, {twenty-five Chinese miles.}, „ {j.s.k.} 洛眼淚 loh nga{n}-lí, {to weep}, ult. {s.s.k.} 五里路 {ng}-lí lú, {five Chinese miles}, „

44. Before proceeding to those words whose tone is undecided, it may be first observed, that in the Tonic Dictionaries,[1] there is a large class of characters ranged under the second tone, not found there, either in the dialects of the Southern provinces, or in the Northern mandarin as registered by Prémare. These words have for their initials, only the sibilant and mute consonants z, dz, zh, b, d, g, with the vowels, and v from f. In the modern pronunciation of Háng-cheú and Sú-cheú, they are also found as in other parts of the empire in the third tone. It follows that they must have made the transition, since the Dictionary system was completed. The earliest works containing it, quoted in K’áng-hí, are said in the preface to have been written in the Liáng and Táng dynasties,[2] and must consequently be regarded as the tradition of at least a thousand years. While this change has taken place in the sound of a large class of very common words, through the greater part of China, it is curious to notice, that the older pronunciation still lingers in the colloquial practice of one part at least of central China.

Even if the inventors of the syllabic spelling confined themselves in the first instance to the usage of the Kiáng provinces, whik north and south of them a different pronunciation prevailed, still this change has taken place in the large cities of Cheh-kiáng and Kiáng-nán, which are now one with their neighbours. In our own dialect it has not yet been completed. After a sufficient time perhaps, this anomaly will have its term, and the boundaries of the tones be as sharply defined, as according to the laws of Chinese pronunciation they ought to be. There are moreover other illustrations that may be drawn from the Dictionaries, of secular changes (to adopt the phraseology employed in sciences of higher mark) occurring in the tones of China.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. The names of some of the most commonly used are 詩韻集成, 詩韻含英.

2. 自說文以後, 字書善者, 於粱則玉篇, 於唐則廣韻. “From the Shwóh-wun downward, the best Dictionaries, were Yúh-p’ien in the Liáng, and Kwáng Yün in the Táng dynasties,” etc. Liáng A.D. 502 to 560, T’áng 617 to 917. -----------------------------------------------------------------

45. {Lower third tone}. The words that were primarily in this tone, are always heard with the quick rising pronunciation that properly belongs to it. It is like “the tone given to some words, when spoken ironically, or to the word ‘indeed!’ when used as an exclamation.” (Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.)

The words referred to in the last article, are placed here rather than in the second tone, because the other dialects are unanimous in doing so. In fact, however, they are in Sháng-hái usage more in the last tone than in this. The following words for example, when pronounced alone, have the long sound.

後 ’{h}eu, 上 ’záng, 動 ’{t}óng, 奉 ’vóng, 坐 ’zú, 部 ’{p}ú, 禍 ’{h}ú, 是 ’zz, 弟 ’{t}í, 父 ’vú, 罪 dzûi, 緩 ’{h}wé{n}, 倖 ’{h}yung, 市 ’zz, 道 ’{t}au, 婦 ’vú, 造 ’zau, 罷 ’{p}ó, 跪 ’{k}wé 緒 ’dzü, 蕩 ’{t}ong, 犯 ’va{n}, 重 ’dzóng, 下 ’{h}iá, 近 ’{k}iun, 善 ’zé{n}, 丈 ’dzáng, 在 ’dzé

⁂ In the department of 嘉興 Ka-hiung, occupying the space between those of Háng-cheú and Súng-kiáng, these words are never in the third tone.

Any of these words that occasionally become verbs in the books, being commonly in other parts of speech, are in that case always marked as belonging to the third tone in good editions of native works. E.e. 上꜄ 下꜄ 善꜄ 弟꜄ 後꜄ when they become verbs, change from the second to the third tone and are so marked. All the authorities are uniform in these matters; and the Dictionaries specify the tones by name, assigning the primary sense to the second tone, and the secondary sense, in all these cases a verb, to the third tone.

46. These words though when standing isolated, they keep the old dictionary tone, are liable to such frequent changes in combination, that teachers who have not studied the subject, are at a loss to affix their true tone. In the following examples, these variations will be indicated as they occur, by the apostrophe on the left, and inverted comma on the right, for the second and third tones respectively.

Tones. Accent. {k.k.} 坐坐 ’zú zú‘, {sit down}, ult. s.{k}. 請坐 ts’ing ’zú, {please sit down}, pen. {k.p.} 上頭 ’zong deu, {above}, ult. {p.k.} 皇上 {w}ong záng‘, {emperor}, „ p.{k}. 兄弟 h’iúng dí‘, {younger brother}, pen. {k}.p. 弟兄 ’tí h’iúng, {brothers}, ult. {k.k.} 味道 mí dau‘, {taste}, „ {k.p.} 道臺 ’{t}au dé, {Revenue Commissioner}, „ {k.p.} 道爺 {t}au‘ yá, „ „ {k.k.} 罪過 zé‘ kú, {sin}, pen. {k.k.} 定罪 {t}ing ’dzûe, {to condemn}, „ {k}.k. 是個 zz‘ kú, {it is so}, „ {j.k.} 勿是 veh ’zz, {it is not so}, ult. {j.k.} 活動 {w}eh ’dóng, {living and moving}, „ {k}.p. 動身 ’{t}óng sun, {move one’s-self}, „ s.{k}. 寡婦 kwó ’vú, {a widow}, pen. p.{k}. 夫婦 fu vú‘, {husband and wife}, ult. {p.k.} 爲善 {w}é ’zé{n}, {be virtuous}, pen. {k}.k. 善報 ’zé{n} pau, {reward of virtue}, ult. {p}.p.k.{k}. 明知過犯 ming tsz kú ’va{n}, {wilfully transgress}, „ {k}.j. 犯法 va{n}‘ fah, {break the law}, „ {k.j.k.} 是勿是 zz‘ veh zz, {is it so or not?} „ {k.j.k.} 並勿是 {p}ing veh zz, {certainly not}, ant. {k}.j. 造屋 ’zau óh, {build a house}, ult. {k.p.}s. 造完者 zau‘ wén tsé, {finished building}, pen. p.{k}.p.{k}. 街市頭上 ká ’zz deu long, {in the streets}, ult. {k.p.} 市頭 zz‘ deu, {the street}, „ {k.s.k.} 動咾動 ’{t}óng lau dóng’, {moving}, „ {k.p.}s. 重來死 dzóng‘ lé sí, {very heavy}, „ k.{k}. 看重 k’ö{n} ’dzóng, {value highly}, „

Obs. It will be seen that among these examples, there are nearly as many of the quick or third tone, as of the longer one. Taking the usage all in all, the balance in cases of grouping is however, in favour of the quicker form. When alone the original tone is used almost exclusively. In reading there is about the same amount of variation as in colloquial usage. The quicker tone usually, but not exclusively, prefers to stand last, leaving the penultimate of a combination to the longer tone.

47. In regard to the words that have always been in the lower third tone, there is as much regularity of pronunciation as in any other tone.

Ex. 病 {p}ing, {disease}; 話 {w}ó, {words, to speak}; 大 {t}ú, {great}.

The following are examples where this tone occurs in the penultimate of a group of two.

Tones. Accent. {k}.p. 順風 zun fóng, {fair wind}, ult. {k}.s. 硯子 níe{n} tsz, {ink stone}, pen. {k}.k. 定當 {t}ing tong, {to fix}, ult. {k}.j. 外國 ngá kóh, {foreign state}, „ 賣脫 má teh, {to sell off}, pen. {k.p.} 浪頭 long deu, {waves}, ult. {k.k.} 面貌 míe{n} mau, {countenance}, „ {k.k.} 謝謝 {s}iá ziá, {I thank you}, „ {k.j.} 念佛 nia{n} veh, {chant Buddhist classics}, „

48. Examples of this tone in the antepenultimate of three.

Tones. Accent. {k}.p.{p}. 硬心腸 ngáng sing-dzáng, {hard heart}, ult. {k}.j.{p}. 外國人 ngá-koh niun, {foreigner}, ant. {k}.j.j. 靜出出 zing’ t‘seh t‘seh, {quiet and empty}, „ {k.p.}j. 硬如鐵 ngáng zû t’ih, {hard as iron}, ult. {k.p.}s. 大娘子 {t}ú niáng-tsz, {wife}, pen. {k.j.}j. 飯粒屑 vau{n} lih-sih, {rice crumbs}, ant.

Obs. In the fourth example 子 being an enclitic, throws back the accent on the penultimate. In the last, the accent is on the first word for a similar reason.

49. Examples of the lower third tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. Accent. p.{k}. 街上 ká long, {in the streets}, pen. 多謝 tú ziá, {many thanks}, ult. 燒飯 sau va{n}, {cook rice}, „ s.{k}. 响亮 h’iáng liáng, {distinct in sound}, „ k.{k}. 頂大 ting dú, {the greatest}, „ 性命 sing ming, {life} „ j.{k}. 看病 k’ö{n} bing, {cure diseases}, „ {p.k.} 國度 kóh dú, {a kingdom}, „ 城外 dzung ’ngá, {outside the city wall}, „ {s.k.} 隨便 dzûe bie{n}, {as you please}, „ {k.k.} 忍耐 zun (or niun) né, {patient}, „ 話壊 {w}ó {w}á, {speak ill of}, „ 命令 ming ling, {a command}, „ {j.k.} 月亮 niöh liáng, {moonlight}, „ s.s.{k}. 果子樹 kú tsz zû, {fruit-bearing tree}, „ k.p.{k}. 送羮飯 sóng káng va{n}, {give away food}, pen. {j}.s.{k}. 瘧子病 ngok (R. niák) tsz bing, {fever and ague}, ult.

In the first example, {long} is always in the third tone. With 街上 ká long or 山上 sa{n} long, compare the English {convict, wisdom, darkness}. If the last words however, were not a mere enclitic, the comparison of pronunciation would fail, the accent being on the ultimate.

50. Examples of the same tone in the penultimate of a group of three.

Tones. Accent. p.{k.s.} 虛字眼 h’ü-zz nga{n}, {particles}, ant. p.{k.k.} 多謝儂 tú ziá nóng, {many thanks to you}, „ j.{k}.p. 執定之 tseh-ding tsz, {obstinate}, „ {p.k.p.} 城外頭 dzung ngá-deu, {outside the city}, ult. {s.k.}k. 兩樣個 liáng-yáng kú, {different}, pen. {k.k.}k. 念念看 ’nia{n}-nia{n} k’ö{n}, {read a little aloud}, ant. {j.k.}k 勿碍啥 veh-ngé sá, {no matter}, pen. {p.k.p.} 嘸用人 {m}-yúng niun, {a useless man}, „

Obs. When an enclitic stands last, as in the 3rd, 5th, and 7th examples, the lower third tone preceding it takes the accent.

51. {Lower fourth tone}. While this may be described as the lower short rising tone, and represented as short in {quantity}, it should be observed, that two long vowels, and several diphthongs are also admitted to it. The same is true of the short tone in the upper scale. These vowels and diphthongs are á, ó, (vide art. 6,), and iák, iah, iók, iöh, iuk, wák, wah, weh, wok.

Ex. 賊 zuk, {thief}; 挾 {k}áh, {to press}; 掘 {k}iöh, {to dig}.

52. Examples of this tone when standing last of two words.

Tones. Accent. p.{j}. 遮沒 tsó meh, {cover over}, ult. s.{j}. 土白 t’ú báh, {local dialect}, „ k.{j}. 對敵 dé dih, {oppose enemies}, „ j.{j}. 覺着 koh (g) záh, {become aware of}, pen. 出力 t’seh lih (liuk), {exert strength}, „ {p.j.} 明白 ming báh, {clear, to understand}, ult. 重疊 dzóng deh, {tautology}, „ {s.j.} 煖熱 nö{n} nyih, {warm}, „ {k.j.} 樹木 zû móh, {trees}, „ {j.j.} 毒藥 {t}óh (g) yáh, {poison}, pen.

Obs. The long tones preserve their character before the short tone with great accuracy.

53. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of two words.

Tones. Accent. {j}.p. 陌生 mák sáng, {strange, unknown}, ult. {j.p.} 畧些 liák sü, {a little}, ult. {j}.s. 落水 lok sz, {ebb tide}, „ {j}.k. 孛相 {p}eh siáng, {amusement, do nothing}, „ {j}.j. 狭窄 {h}ah tsah, {narrow-minded}, „ 落脫 lok t’eh, {let fall}, pen. {j.p.} 別人 {p}ih niun, {another man}, ult. {j.k.} 實在 {s}eh zé, {truly}, „ {j.j.} 目錄 móh (g) lóh, {table of contents}, „

Obs. The terminating consonants of the fourth tone, in some dialects are three, k, t, p, corresponding to the final ng, n, m, of words in the other tones. Only the first of these is audible in Shánghái pronunciation. It occurs after á, ó, o, u. It is heard k before consonants of the upper series, particularly s, t; and g before those of the lower series, particularly z, d. Both will be found exemplified in these two tables.

54. Examples of combinations of three.

Tones. Accent. {j}.p.s. 學生子 {h}ok-sáng tsz, {scholar}, pen. {j}.j.{k}. 勿一定 veh ih ding, {not necessarily}, ant. j.{k.p.} 落下來 loh ’{a}u-lé, {fall down}, „ {j.k.j.} 白話脫 {p}áh (g) {w}ó-t’eh, {speak to no purpose}, pen. {p.j.}s. 担勿起 ta{n} veh-k’í, {cannot lift}, ant. {p.j.j.} 尋勿着 dzing-veh-dzáh, {cannot find}, ult.

Obs. The first of these may be compared to a trissyllable with an accent on the penultimate, as “convicted,” i.e. if 生 sáng be pronounced high. The syllables adjacent to the accent in English are so contracted in time as to sound more like words in short tones or enclitics, than in long tones. Should 生 fall to the lower first tone as it often does, the similarity would not hold.

55. Examples of larger groups in the lower tones.

男男女女 né{n}-né{n} ’nü-’nü, {men and women}. 明明白白 ming-ming báh-báh, {perfectly clear}. 綾羅緞疋 ling-lú dön‘ p’ih, {silks and satins}. 風調雨順 fóng diau ’{ü} zun‘, {wind and rain favourable}. 日月星辰 zeh, {y}öh, sing, dzun, {sun, moon, and stars}. 仁義禮智 zun ní‘ ’lí tsz‘ sing‘, {five cardinal virtues}. 天地萬物 t’íe{n}-dí‘ va{n}‘-veh, {heaven and earth and all things}. 書裡有黃金 sû-’lí {y}eu-{w}ong-kiun, {there is gold in books}. 家常白話 ká-dzáng {p}áh-{w}ó‘, {household words}. 一眼大一眼 ih-’nga{n}-dú ih-’nga{n}, {increase little by little}. 謀衣謀食 meu-í meu-zuh, {seek food and clothing}.

56. General remarks on the lower tones.

I. The initial consonant is a test for any word being in the upper or lower series. Thus, all the broad mutes and sibilants, the weak aspirate, with the liquids and nasals are in the lower tones. The other consonants with the strong aspirate are in the upper series. The following in the higher tones are exceptions.

Ex. 端, 短, 斷, 對, 答, 鬥, 躭, dön, ’dön, dön‘, dé‘, deh, deu‘, dé{n}. 拉, 咯, lá, lóh. Yet 對 is heard té‘ in té‘ deu, {adversary}. This is caused by the accent falling on 頭 deu.

This furnishes the principle of the orthography adopted in the present work. The initial letter being an index to the tone, it is needless to employ distinct tonal marks for the upper and lower series. In the same way, the Fan t‘sieh or native syllabic spelling marks the series by the first word, and the particular tone by the sound. Thus 夫 fú is spelt with 方徒 fang dú. The initial F of the first word combined with the U final of the second, gives the sound fu in the first tone. We add an example or two from K’áng-hí:—

正 is spelt with 章並 cháng {p}ing‘, giving ching‘. 學 „ „ 行酌 {h}ing chóh, „ {h}ióh.

The first word tells us, whether the sound required is high or low, and the second to which of the four tones it belongs. The pronunciation of the words borrowed for this purpose is supposed known.

II. The orthography is in many instances not fixed. Words sometimes heard g, d, b, are at other times heard {k}, {t}, {p}. The sounds g, d, b, occur after a word in combination; while {k}, {t}, {p} occur when no word precedes. To indicate that they are always low in pitch, they are printed in italics. V, z, come partially under the same rule. The rest dz, dzz, are scarcely heard in the thin form at all, and are therefore spelt with d in this work. Another peculiarity is that z and dz are interchangeable. Z is more common in conversation; dz in reading.

III. There are many words having sibilants or mutes, or the weak aspirate for their initial consonants, of which the tone is uncertain, being sometimes in the second, and at other times in the third. The liquids and vowels have not this peculiarity, and it only belongs to words that were originally in the second tone.

IV. The first tone, when last in a binary combination, rises to the upper first, except when preceded by the first tone, upper or lower. The initial consonant remains broad as in other cases.

V. The other tones also frequently rise to the upper series when standing last, each to its corresponding tone, and the initial consonant is unaffected.

VI. The laws of accent are the same as in the upper tones. The last word of a combination being usually accented, affords the best opportunity for the discrimination of the tones.

57. {Relation of Tones to Music}. It is only when they are even, that a musical notation can fully and correctly represent the tones. For deflection, so essential to the latter, is not allowed in music, being destructive of harmony. The short and quick tones may however be described as {staccato} notes, and the violin may be made in passing from one note to another, to produce a continuous sound, which has been adduced in “The Chinese as they are,” to illustrate the deflections. In regard to time, so minutely subdivided in music, there do not appear be more than two classes of tones, the quick and the slow. Kircher supposed that the five tones were the first five notes in an octave do, re, mi, fa, sol; but in reality, differences of elevation are usually not more than two for one dialect. The interval between the two series varies, it being greater for example, in some parts of the north of China, than in Kiáng-nán, where it is about half an octave.

58. {Relation of Tones to Accents in other languages}. So far as accent only means the distinction of loud and soft, there seems no analogy. For the Chinese tones may be pronounced as gently or sonorously as the speaker pleases, and loudness in this language also constitutes accent as distinct from tone. In the common accents of English conversation however, there is usually a difference in deflection, or as it is called by some writers, modulation. There is one tone (1) for assertion and determination, and another (2) for asking questions; and these differ not in time, or in loudness, but in the fact that they are deflected downwards and upwards respectively. Again, the tone of interrogation (2) is commonly quick, while that of sarcasm (3) is often slow. Those who read aloud, too often confine themselves almost exclusively to the monotone, a fourth variation (4). Now it is these very distinctions of deflection and time that form the essence of the Chinese tones, and they are in daily use in our own language, as aids in expressing the feelings, as marks of emphasis, and as a means of relieving the voice by interchange. All that a foreigner has to do then in imitating the Chinese tones is to apply forms of utterance, to which he is already accustomed, to those words in which the Chinese employ them, and to treat the tone thus individualized, whichever it may be, as a part of the word, to be learned contemporaneously with the vowels and consonants. With regard to the doubly deflected tones, and those that are less familiar to us, the ancient Greeks would have had an advantage we do not possess. Their circumflex was made up of two tones, the acute and grave combined. (Buttman Gr. Gram. Sect. 9.) Every syllable had a tone, and the tones were placed on either long or short vowels. There seem also to have been dialectic and secular varieties. These four facts are all suggestive of a similarity in their enunciation to that of China. Mr. Lay in the work alluded to above, has pointed out to what tones the Greek accents appeared to him to correspond. But our data are so scanty on the subject of classical pronunciation, that nothing certain can be said, when we attempt to detail their individual differences.

59. Examples are here annexed of words, which differing slightly, as in a tone or an aspirate, may be mistaken for each other if mispronounced.

鏡子 kiung‘ ’tsz, {a mirror}. 景致 ’kiung tsz‘, {beautiful scenery}. 浪頭 long‘ deu, {waves}. 榔頭 ’long deu, {a hammer}. 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, {here}. 次第 t’sz‘ dí‘, {regularity}. 進教 tsing‘ kiau‘, {enter a religious order}. 請教 ’t’sing kiau‘, {please inform me}. 第頭 {t}í‘ deu, {here}. 剃頭 t’í‘ deu, {shave}. 最多 tsûe‘ tú, {very many}. 最大 tsûe‘ dú‘, {very great}. 第八 {t}í‘ pah, {the eighth}. 提拔 {t}í bah, {to save}. 大細 {t}ú‘ sí‘, {young son}. 圖死 {t}ú ’sí, {wish to die}. 勿通 veh t’óng, {without reason or proof}. 勿懂 veh ’tóng, {not to understand}. 勿同 veh dóng, {not the same}. 勿動 veh ’dóng, {not moving}.

Note. For some words of constant occurrence, the following contractions will in future be used. C. or S.C. Shánghái, colloquial form. M. Northern mandarin pronunciation, R. or S.R. Shánghái reading sound.

{Section} 4. {Alphabetical form of the Shánghái sounds}.

i. {Initials}.

60. In grammatical works on other languages, more or less is said on orthography, or orthography according as the alphabetical symbols are controlled by more or fewer laws. The Chinese sounds are few, and regulated by laws which are easily laid down. A section therefore may properly be devoted to the romanized form of the sounds.

From the time that the Buddhist priests introduced the Sanscrit system, and the initials and finals, the Chinese have had an imperfect method of spelling words. The division of each sound into two parts, represented by two characters, the initial 毋 ’mú, and the final 韻 yün‘, constitutes the method.

The 字彙 zz‘ {w}e‘, a Dictionary of the Ming dynasty, says 韻學自沈 約始, 而釋神琪, 繼以等韻, 列爲三十六毋, 分爲平仄四聲, yün‘ {y}áh, zz‘ sun‘ {y}ah ’sz, rh suh zun kóng, kí ’í ’tung yün‘, lih {w}é sa{n} {s}eh lóh ’mú’, fun {w}é {p}ing tsuh sz‘ sung. “{The doctrine of arranging sounds by their rhymes began with Shin-yoh, and the Buddhist priests Shin-k’ong continued it, forming the rhymes into classes, and the initials into thirty six divisions, and placing them all under the four tones.}”

61. From the sixth century of our era, the system whose origin is thus recorded, has been preserved in the Dictionaries successively made, with apparently few variations. The thirty six initials referred to are contained in the following table:—

{Native table of Initials.} k 見 kíen k’ 溪 k’í g 郡 giun ng 疑 ngi t 端 twan t’ 透 t’eú d 定 ding’ n 泥 ní ch 知 ch ch’ 徹 ch’eh j 澄 jing ni 娘 niáng p 幫 páng p’ 滂 p’áng b 並 bing m 明 ming f 非 fí f’ 敷 f’ú v 奉 vóng w 微 ví ts 精 tsing ts’ 淸 ts’ing dz 從 dzóng s 心 sin z 邪 zié tsh 照 tshaú t’sh 穿 t’shuen dj 狀 jwang sh 審 shin zh 禪 zhen y 影 ying h 曉 hiáu {y} 喩 {y}ü {h} 匣 {h}iáh l 來 lái rh 日 jih

62. From the table it will be seen, that the division into an upper and lower series of initial consonants, the one embracing thin and clear sounds, with strong aspirates, the other including the broader consonants with the liquids and nasals, meets us not only in the study of the tones of a dialect as shewn in the former section, but in the accredited Dictionaries of the general language. This may be readily accounted for from the Kiáng provinces having been the chief seat of literature and political power, when the sounds of the language were first represented by double characters. Since the growth of the modern pronunciation there has been no attempt in any imperial work to form a new system of spelling.[1] The difference of the old system and the new will be understood if it be mentioned that 魚 ü, is spelt ngü, and that 外, 月, wái‘, yöh, are also in the column headed NG. More details on this subject will be found in the appendix. In the 五方元音 a small portable Dictionary on the alphabetic plan, and containing about 10,000 characters, the modern mandarin is followed in the initials and finals.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. In Káng-hí’s Dictionary many words in the lower first tone, formerly in the g, d, b, columns, have been transferred to the aspirate column, to be in conformity with northern pronunciation. Words in the short tone having k, t, p, as finals in the old system, have also been classed as terminating in {vowels}, for the same reason. These changes however are only found in Káng-hí’s {second} table, and the older classification, denoted by a circle round the examples placed where they formerly stood, is retained with the new. -----------------------------------------------------------------

63. In eight of the nine divisions above, the second initial is the strong aspirate either alone or following, the letters k, t, ch, p, f, ts and tsh. Of these the palatal ch, and sibilant tsh, are not needed in Shánghái pronunciation. Ts takes their place. In double initials the aspirate is between t and s, or t and sh.

(ch) 知道 M. ch táú‘ S. tsz dau‘, {to know}. (tsh) 出來 M. ch’uh lái S. ts’eh lé, {come out}.

F‘ is the same as f. In other instances the aspirate is always preserved.

吹進吹出 t’sz tsing‘ t’sz t’séh, {blow in and out}. 看歇戲否 k’ö{n}‘ h’ih h’í‘ ’vá, {have you seen the play}? 開口 k’é ’k’eu, {begin speaking}.

In other cases, all these letters with and without aspirates, are the same with mandarin.

64. The third initial of the same eight divisions is wanting for Shánghái, only in the case of those headed ch and tsh. Their place is supplied by z. 形狀 {y}uug zong‘, {visible form}. Sh and zh in the seventh, are replaced by s and z.

一隻手 M. ih chih ’sheú S. ih tsáh ’seu, {one hand}. 時物 M. sh wúh S. zz veh, {things in season}. 扇子 M. shen‘ tsz S. sé{n}‘ tsz, {fan}. 受領 M. sheú ling S. ’zeu ’ling, {receive}.

65. The h of mandarin is never heard before w or y in the lower tones:—

三魂六魄 sa{n} {w}ung lóh p’áh, {three mental, and six physical principles of human life}. 無形無像 vú {y}ung vú ziáng‘, {invisible}. 縣分꜄ {y}ö{n}‘ vun‘, {what belongs to a district city}. 效法別人 {y}iau‘ fah {p}ih niun, {imitate others}.

In other examples among the lower tones, a slight aspirate is retained for the strong hissing sound of mandarin.

紅格紙頭, {h}óng kák ’tsz deu, {red ruled paper}. 閒書 {h}a{n} sû, {light reading}, 鞋子 {h}á ’tsz, {shoes}.

This slight aspirate is lost in a word standing last in a combination.

那能修行 ’ná nung sieu {a}ng? {how shall I grow virtuous?} 幾許闊狹 ’kí hau‘ kweh {a}h? {how wide?}

The English aspirate is between the two aspirates here distinguished, and is the same as that of Fúh-kien. We have no parallel in our pronunciation, to that hissing guttural sound, which in the mandarin provinces, belongs to all the five tones, and in Kiáng-nán to the upper series. Hence Morrison speaks of it as SH. Nor can the weak aspirate of the Kiáng-nán lower series, disappearing as it does so frequently, be regarded an equivalent to the English H.

66. With regard to the thick mutes and sibilants (g, d, b, v, z,) in the lower tones, it may be remarked generally, that foreigners in learning colloquial phrases, usually acquire the habit of pronouncing these consonants thin, when first in a combination, and broad, when some word precedes. This is so frequently true, that no further proof is needed of the pronunciation being variable.

第個 {t}í‘ kú‘, {this}. 次第 t’sz‘ dí‘, {good order}. 提拔 {t}í bah, {rescue}. 拔草 {p}ah ’ts’au, {to weed}. 罷勿得 {p}á‘ veh tuh, {indispensable}. 勿罷拉 veh ’bá ’lá, {more than that}. 大同小異 {t}á‘ dóng ’siau {í}, {differing but little} 勿大好 veh dá‘ ’hau, {not good}.

For {t} and {p}, there is no difficulty in spelling as is here done, but {k}, {s}, {f}, are not so easily disposed of. The initial {k} or g is enunciated thickly before the vowels i and ü, though according to the system of the Dictionaries, the initial is the same in all cases. Some foreign students regard it as an aspirated consonant. Others write it dj or d. This anomaly of pronunciation, so difficult to express, does not occur before w, a and é. Limited thus to í and ü, it is thought preferable not to depart from the analogy, by inventing a new symbol for the few words in use that contain this unmanageable consonant.

插旗 t’sah gí, {set up a flag}. 顯轎 ’h’ie{n} giau‘, {mountain chair}. 葵花 {k}wé hwó, {sunflower}. 求告 {k}ieu kau‘, {pray}.

67. The lower f and s, are often heard v, z, even without a word preceding. Thus the actual pronunciation cannot be fairly represented by the law that answers for the other letters, and the only resource is to follow the natives in each case. This v, as well as that from w (M.) are pronounced w on the eastern side of the Hwáng-p’ú.

服事 {f}oh zz‘, {to serve}. 牢實 lau zeh, {honesty}. 謝謝 {s}iá‘ ziá‘, {I thank you}. 俗字眼 {s}óh zz‘ nga{n}, {colloquial expressions}. 尙書 zong‘ sû, {the Historical Classic}. 飯吃曼 va{n}‘ k’iuh ma{n}‘, {have you dined?} 邪派 siá p’á‘, {depraved customs}. 罰咒 vah tseu‘, {to swear}. 實在 {s}eh zé‘, {truly}.

68. The initials z and dz correspond, though somewhat irregularly, to the tabular initials z, zh, and j, dz, dj.

樹丫枝 zû‘ au tsz, {branches of trees}. 若使 zák sz‘, {if}. 炰茶 p’au‘ dzó {make tea}. 傳下來 dzé{n} ’{a}u lé, {deliver down}. 聚攏來 dzü‘ ’lóng lé, {collect}.

The d is often dropped, both, in reading and in the conversational form.

勿會寫字 veh {w}é‘ siá zz‘, {cannot write} (M. tsz‘). 擺渡船 ’pá dú‘ zé{n},[1] {ferry-boat} (M. ch’uen). 養蠶 yáng‘ zé{n}, {keep silkworms}, (M. t‘sán).

The d is in some words retained in reading, when dropped in the colloquial form.

豺狼虎豹 zá (R. dzé) long ’hu pau‘, {wolves and tigers}. 稻柴 {t}au zá (C.) {rice straw}. 柴門 dzé (R.) mun, {wooden gate}. 造完 ’zau (R. dzau) wé{n}, {finish building}.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. 船 The Dictionary pronunciation is 食川切 zhuen. -----------------------------------------------------------------

69. Words beginning with a vowel, belong to the thirty-first or thirty-third initials (y, {y},) according as they are high or low in tone. In giving the romanized form, a more extended subdivision of the vowels must of necessity be adopted. In the present work, the initial vowel is italicized, when its word belongs to the lower series.

遠來死 ’{y}ö{n} lé ’sí, {very far off}. 寃枉 yö{n} ’wong, {falsely accuse}.

Those words in the dialect that begin with n, m, v, while in northern mandarin they have only a vowel as their initial, are placed in the Dictionary system under those consonants, and they are all in the lower tones.

原是 ’niö{n} ’zz, {well then it is}— 千山萬水 t’síe{n} sa{n} va{n}‘ ’ss, {a long distance} 一百萬 ih páh ma{n}‘, {a million}.

Words in the upper series beginning with a vowel, which in northern mandarin take the sound {ng} before them, never have it in the Shánghái dialect, nor in the Dictionary system. E.g.[1] 愛 ngái‘, 惡 ngóh,[2] are pronounced é‘ and oh.

愛伊樣物事 é‘ í {y}áng‘ meh zz‘, {love that thing}.

In the lower tones the initial ng is always preserved.

勿碍啥 veh ngé‘ sá‘, {no matter}. 一眼勿硬 ih ’nga{n} veh ngáng‘, {not in the least hard}. 咬牙切齒 ’ngaú ngá t’sih ’t’sz, {grind teeth with rage}. 我勿餓 ’ngú veh ngú‘ {I am not hungry}.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. 安 M. ngan, S. ö{n}, 恩 ngun, S. un, 哀 ngai, S. é, 暗 ngán‘, S. én‘. The true sound as heard in the provinces where mandarin is spoken, is a guttural to which the English alphabet has no equivalent. NG is employed for want of a better symbol.

2. In the mandarin Dictionary 五方元音, the initial NG is placed with U and A under W; I is placed with ǔ under Y. -----------------------------------------------------------------

70. The remaining initials are ng, n, ni, m, v, l, and j. They belong with few exceptions to the lower tones.

NG, I. Many words classed in the Dictionaries under this initial are pronounced differently in this dialect. Thus 堯 {y}au, 言 {í}en, have no initial consonant, 疑 ní, 爾 ’nü, 義 ní‘, belong to the tooth nasal (N), 午五魚 are read {ü}, ú, but spoken {ng}. Ng precedes a, e, o, ö, u, but not i, ü.

II. Other words as 月 niöh, 牛 nieu, 願 niö{n}, belong more properly to the class headed ni, or the Spanish circumflexed n. The Sú-cheú dialect agrees better with the Dictionaries in this class of words, than that of Shánghái.

III. All the words in Morrison with the initial G belong to this class, except such as are in the upper tones. Such words as he writes aou, ae, yae, follow the same rule.

71. N, NI. These though distinguished in some alphabets as in Sanscrit and Spanish, may be for our purpose more usefully regarded as identical, the i being considered to belong to the final. Accordingly such words as 女 ’nü 你 ’né, 鈕 nieu, though placed under the palatal nasal NI in the native system, will be regarded as belonging to the tooth nasal N, and the remainder of the sound reckoned as the final. Even in the tables, these two consonants are in intentional juxtaposition. The consonants T, CH, to which they respectively belong are also naturally allied, as may be illustrated from our dialect, where CH becomes TS.

Many words written by Morrison yǔh, yin, yen, ying, yŏ, yu, yuen, yuĕ, take this initial, when they are in the lower tones. N, when thus prefixed, precedes no vowel but i, ü. The following are examples:—

玉 niók, 硯 níe{n}‘, 獄 niók, 源 niö{n}, 銀 niun, 騐 nie{n}‘, 語 ’nü, 願 niön‘, 諺 níe{n}‘, 迎 niung, 愚 nü, 月 niöh, R. yöh.

72. M. V. The class headed M includes not only the mandarin words in m, but some that in mandarin begin with W. They are therefore placed together in the Dictionary system. Words thus transformed have V in reading as an intermediate sound, and often retain that form in the colloquial. If they are not words in very common use, they do not assume M as their initial. The following are examples:—

夫 mí and ví, C. ví, R. 襪 mah, 蚊 mun, C. and R. 萬 ma{n}‘ and va{n}‘, C. va{n}‘, R. 文, 武 vun, ’vú, C. and R.

Also 問忘網望味物 are spoken mun‘, &c., and read vun‘, etc. In early Chinese these words all began with b.

73. L. J. The former of these, as used in our dialect, agrees with the native system, and with the northern mandarin, and calls for no remark except that a very few words as before noted belong to the upper series. See Art. 56.

Under the initial j, are found all the Shánghái words in ni (C), and z (R), which are j, in Mandarin. E.g. 譆饒熱染日忍軟閏絨認撚 are spoken niáng, &c., and read záng, &c.

Thus,

人 niun, C. zun, R. jin, M. {a man}. 肉 nióh, C. zóh, R. júh, M. {flesh}.

Words that are {semi-colloquial}, or only used in combination retain z. E.g. 惹仁仍弱乳 are read and spoken ’zá, zun, etc.

Thus,

自然 zz‘ zé{n}, C. and R. tsz‘ jen, M.

⁂ Words in z from sh, or s in mandarin, never change into ni. Thus, the natural separation between distinct classes of words is maintained, when their reading sounds are identical.

74. This class also includes R.H. The native tables make no difference between J and RH, and in some parts of China the initial J is in jih, {sun}, and some other words pronounced like R.

而且 rh ’t’siá, {perhaps}.

When thoroughly colloquialized, however, these words pass into ní, and must be placed under n or ng.

二 ní‘, C. rh‘ R. {two}. 兒子 ní ’tsz, or {ng} ’tsz, C. rh, R. {son}. 耳朶 ’ní ’tú, C. rh tó, R. {ears}.

ii. {Finals}.

75. The Shánghái finals are about 60 in number. According to the native system, the whole of a word except the initial letter and the aspirate if there be one, is included in the final. In the Dictionaries, the finals, which unlike the initials differ but slightly from modern mandarin pronunciation, are less numerous. The 字彙 tsz‘ hwei‘ has 44. The short tones which should be considered independent rhymes are counted with the corresponding long ones, and thus the number is diminished. The first table in K’áng-hí has sixteen, and the second, twelve. Under each are several subdivisions. Another small and very convenient Dictionary, the 五方元音 ’Wú fáng yuen yin, taking the five tone mandarin dialect for its guide both in initials and finals, adopts twenty of the one, and twelve of the other, and arranges them under five tones. In reducing them to this small number, some violence is done to the sounds. All words beginning with a vowel, or NG are arranged under W and Y. In the finals, expedients are also employed to diminish the number of headings.

76. In the finals, the departures from the mandarin type are numerous, but they are according to system, and the knowledge of one variation is usually a key to the pronunciation of many tens of other words. The variations are usually the same for one long tone as for all.

In the following table which consists of words without a diphthong, the first column contains the final according to Shánghái pronunciation; the second, all the examples of it having different rhymes in mandarin; the third, the mandarin spelling; and the fourth, the Shánghái reading sound.

P. I. S. IV. TABLE OF FINALS. Finals. Shánghái colloquial. Mandarin. Shánghái reading sound. ----------------------------------------------------------------- á 拉 lá (upper series) lá 拜 pá‘ pái pé 家 ká kiá kiá 解 ’ká kiái, kiè kiá 快 k’á k‘wai k‘wé 惹 ’zá jé ah 法 fah fáh, fá 瞎 hah hiáh, hiá 隔 kah kuh, kó kuh ák 百 pák puh, ’pá puh 若 zák jóh, jó‘ 目 mák, mok múh, mú‘ mok 石 zák shǐh,[1] sh a{n} 但 {t}an‘ tán 簡 ’ka{n} kian kíe{n} áng 張 tsáng cháng 生 sáng sung sung 宕 {t}áng‘ táng {t}ong 行 {h}áng, {y}ung hing, háng au 好 ’hau háú 下 ’{h}au, {h}ó hiá‘ {y}á 呌 kau‘ kiáú kiau é 海 ’hé hái 雷 lé lei, lui 衰 sé shwái 倍 {p}é‘ pei eh 雜 dzeh tsáh, [1]tsá 實 zeh shih, [1]sh 沒 meh múh, [1]mú 說 seh shwoh söh 活 {w}eh hwóh, [1]hwó é{n} 半 pé{n}‘ pwán 船 zé{n} ch’uen 善 ’zé{n} shen eu 溝 keu keú í 理 ’lí lí 非 fí fei 去 k’í‘ k’ü k’ü 死 ’si sz sz 些 sí sie ih 立 lih lih, lí‘ 切 ts’ih ts’ieh, t’sié 雪 sih siöh, ’sió 恤 sih siuh, sió ing 循 dzing siün 心 sing sin 信 sing‘ sing ó 怕 p’ó‘ p’á 遮 tsó ché tsó 赦 só‘ shé sé öh 奪 {t}öh tóh, [1]tó ók 獨 {t}óh túh, [1]tú 木 móh, mok múh, mú 國 kóh, kweh kwóh, [1]kwó ok 薄 {p}ók, {p}ok póh,[1] pó 樂 lok lóh, ló‘ 角 kok, kók kióh, chió kiák ö{n} 端 dö{n} (upper series) twán 岸 ngö{n}‘ ngán óng 松 sóng, súng sóng, súng ong 喪 song sáng 雙 song shwáng 夢 mong‘ móng, múng móng 紅 ’kong kiáng kiáng ú 所 ’sú só 大 {t}ú‘ tá {t}á 古 ’kú kú ü 句 kü‘ kü 歸 kü kwei kwé û (ü) 主 ’tsû tsü chú uk 直 dzuk chih, [1]ch ûe (üe) 雖 sûe (ü) súi un (ng) 根 kun (g) kun 身 sun (g) shin (un) 尊 tsun (g) tsün û{n} 杆 kû{n} kán 算 sû{n}‘ swán óng (ú) 龍 lóng (ú) lóng (ú) ung 亨 hung hung 門 mung (n) mun {m} 無 vú, {m} wú vú {ng} 恒 {h}ng hung rh 而 rh rh sz 思 詩 sz sz, sh and shí 鼠 ’sz shú sû 水 ’sz shúi sûe -----------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. When there are two modes of spelling in the column of mandarin pronunciation, the second is taken from the work 小氏音鑑 which contains the Peking pronunciation of words in the short tone, spelled according to the syllabic system. Those to which on asterisk is prefixed are all in the lower first tone. -----------------------------------------------------------------

76. The intermediate vowel i forms the following finals:—

-------------------------------------------------------- iá 邪 {s}iá sié {s}ié iah 甲 kah kiáh, kiá kiah iák 畧 liah lióh, liáú‘ ia{n} 念 nian‘ nien iau 教 kiau‘ kiáu iáng 强 ’k’iang k’iáng ié 且 ’t’siá t’sié t’síe íe{n} 選 síe{n} siuen 田 {t}íe{n} t’ien 全 dze{n} t’siuen dzíe{n} ieu 求 {k}ieu k‘ieú 宿 sieu süh iih 熱 nyih jeh zeh ióh 曲 k’óh k’iúh, ’k’ü iöh 月 niöh yueh yöh iö{n} 權 {k}iö{n} k’iuen ióng 窮 {k}ióng k’iong (ú) 官 kióng kúng kóng iú 靴 hiú hiö iuk 逆 niuk nih iun (ng) 勤 {k}iun (ng) k’in iung (n) 今 kiung (n) kin 京 kiung king iúng 兄 h’iúng h’iung iün 訓 h’iün‘ h’iün --------------------------------------------------------

77. The other intermediate vowels u, occurring only after k, g, forms the following finals:—

-------------------------------------------------------- uá 乖 kwá kwái kwé uah 括 kwah kwáh na{n} 關 kwa{n} kwán wé{n} 官 kwé{n} kwán wó 瓜 kwó kwá wok 槨 kwok kwóh, ’kwó wong 光 kwong kwáng wun (ng) 滾 kwun (ng) kwun --------------------------------------------------------

Obs. i. For {óng} and {úng}, Morrison writes úng; Prémare óng. It will be seen that in our dialect they are both in use. When a word is pronounced alone, or when last in order, ó is more common, while ú prefers the first place in combination; 松紅 Súng-kong, {Súng-kiáng}; 吳淞 {Ng sóng, Wú-súng}; 中國人 tsúng kóh niun, {Chinaman}; 勿拉當中 veh ’lá tong tsóng, {not in the centre}.

Obs. ii. Words in é from M. ái have two sounds. Some employ the Scotch {ae} in {sae}, {nae}, etc. nearly like e before r in the English words {there}, {where}. Others pronounce the English {a} in {cake}, {same}, i.e. in our orthography é. Ex. 來海 lé, ’hé, are constantly heard with both these sounds.

Obs. iii. Words in é{n}, beyond 黃渡 {W}ong dú‘, and 朱家閣 Tsû ká koh, 25 and 30 miles to the west of Shánghái, change into ö{n}.

Obs. iv. On {án}, {wán}. The second of these mandarin finals passes into é{n} or ö{n}. The former retains a for á. Ex. 滿洲 Mé{n} tseu, {Manchu}; 五六萬 ’{ng} lóh ma{n}, 50,000 or 60,000.

78. If the old native tables of finals could be reduced to a fixed Roman orthography, our dialect would be found to bear more similarity to that pronunciation as its maternal stem, than to its northern relative the modern mandarin. The final k in the short tone was recognized, and many sub-divisions of a final into two or more branches agree with our usage; i.e. kwán into kwön and kwan. Some southern dialects preserve some parts and some others parts of this traditional pronunciation. The work before referred to, Lé‘ sh‘ yin kíen‘ says, in the 凡例 Fán lieh, {Introductory Notes}, 南音於剜彎, 官關, 般班, 分之甚細。

北或合面爲一, Né{n} yun ü wé{n} wa{n}, kwé{n} kwa{n} pé{n} pa{n}, fun tsz zun‘ sí‘. Poh {w}óh {h}eh rh wé ih. “In the south (Kiáng-nán. etc.), the pronunciation of the words pé{n} pa{n}, etc. is carefully separated, while in the north, they combine in one (á) sound.”

Another instance there given, of difference between the north and south in the final, is in such words as 銀盈, 勤檠, 神繩, 林靈, 貧平, 金京, M. yin ying, k’in k’ing, shin shing, lin ling, p’in p’ing, kin king. These the author says, are carefully distinguished in the north, while in the south they are identical in sound.

The rule of Shánghái pronunciation is this. Those words that end in NG in mandarin keep it. Those words that end in UN change N into NG, while such as terminate in UN take N or NG indifferently. Thus the above examples are read niun (g) yung, {k}iun (g) {k}iung, zun (g) zung, ling ling, {p}ing {p}ing, kiun (g) kiung.

Both of this writer’s observations are exemplified in the table. It is there shewn how far precisely this coalescing and subdividing of rhymes extends. One rhyme in either of the dialects, may branch off in the other into four or even six independent finals.

79. The most curious fact deducible from the table is, the affinity of certain vowels for the terminating consonant k (g before words in the lower tones) found in the short tone; a peculiarity which disappears a little south-west of Shánghái, and is not noticed at Ningpo.

The principal forms of words in the short tone in mandarin, according to different systems of orthography in common use are as follow:—

--------------------------------------------------- Morrison & Medhurst ă ĕ eĕ eǐh ih uĕ ǐh ǔh ŏ Prémare ă ĕ iĕ ĭ uĕ ĕ ǔh ŏ Williams áh eh ieh ih ueh eh uh óh This work áh eh ieh ih iöh uh úh óh ---------------------------------------------------

Most words in the short tone ending in k, are of the last three of these finals u, ú, ó. Of the others, those in ih if they take k often insert a short u. E.g. 力 is heard lik or liuk. Similarly when words in úh and óh do not take k, they change úh and óh into eh. Thus, 末 móh becomes meh, Many words in conformity with this law, change their places among the finals, and the collocation of a and e, with k is carefully avoided, while u, ú, ó, retain it with equal consistency.[1] It should be observed however, that the á of mandarin becomes a in the short tone, and the longer a is only used as the colloquialized form of u. E.g. 百 C. pák, R. puk. Thus in Shánghái usage, á, u, ó, o take k in the short tone, a, e, ö, admit m terminating consonant, while i remains common.

This law is much simpler than that of the Fúh-kien and other dialects of the south of China. But while in those dialects, there are found as in the dictionaries three terminating consonants, k, t, p, similar affinities to vowels are traceable. In Fúh-kien with the exception of á, which, all three share between them, k usually prefers one set of vowels, and t and p another.

The native rule in the southern dialects, that k, t, p, are merely the form assumed by the final letters ng, n, m, in the short tone, is inapplicable to dialects, so far north as this. In the native system of finals, this limitation is found indeed, but is not rigidly adhered to. Some words in t are placed under ng as well as n. Others in k occur under vowel finals. The cases of conformity however, are so much more numerous than the exceptions, that the rule is indubitable. Since here only k is in use, the modern seat of the old pronunciation of the dictionaries must lie in part farther south. It embraces indeed the seaboard provinces, from Shánghái to Canton with parts of Kiang-si and Hu-nan.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Words in k frequently interchange. Uk and ák do so throughout, while ók, ok are often both in use for the same words.

Ex. 木行 moh {h}ong or móh {h}ong, {a timber yard}. -----------------------------------------------------------------

80. The letter n is also affected by the preceding vowel. After a, e, ö, û, it is almost unheard when no word follows, and though a well-defined consonant in the next word brings it into notice, it is still only audible as a slight nasal sound. The vowels i, o, refuse to be associated with it, and when u precedes, it only holds its position in common with ng. After ü it is as in mandarin.

81. Out of 63 finals, there are twenty that vary their sound in reading. In all these, there is an approach to the mandarin pronunciation, and they are therefore employed, by those born within the limits of the dialect, when they wish to make themselves intelligible to strangers. In such cases, they are usually under the delusive impression that it is mandarin they speak. Such is the advantage of the alphabetic system, with its all-versatile and exhaustive applicability, that a foreigner can pass from one dialect to another so far as sound is concerned, with much greater quickness than a native. The latter has no ready method of writing new sounds down, nor is he practised in the art of separating them into their alphabetical elements. No thing but a long residence in the region of another pronunciation, and some natural flexibility of organs, can give him a different set of tones, and a new arrangement of vowels and consonants. The sight of a character suggests to him the sound, that he learnt in his childhood, and having always regarded each, sound as a unity not separable into alphabetic parts, any variation is too confusing and difficult of appreciation to be readily adopted.

The total number of sounds in our dialect independent of tones, is about 570. Morrison counts those of mandarin at 411, The difference is due to the broad initials B, G, D, V, Z.

82. {Irregularities of Pronunciation}. Words that do not conform in sound to the rules given in this section are few.

十五 só‘ ’{ng}, (for seh ng), {fifteen}. 錢 dzíe{n}, R. is pronounced díe{n}‘, C. 逐軸 dióh, R. They should be dzóh. 打 ’tá, to {strike}, in reading and colloquial is ’táng.[1] 那 R. ná, C. {á} in {á lí}, {where.} 所在 R. ’sú ’dzé, C. ’sû zé, {a house}.

To these may be added the tendency of the initial K to be pronounced, when standing before I, like T in the upper series, and like D or DJ in the lower.

----------------------------------------------------------------- 1. The sound tang is the older. The phonetic 丁 ting points to a final ng as having formerly existed, -----------------------------------------------------------------