CHAPTER IX

SOURCES OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY

=The English Vocabulary.=—The enormous treasure of English speech contains something like 200,000 words.[33] Most of these were once foreigners to the language. To tell how each came to be English would be like telling the personal romances of all the foreign-born citizens of these United States.

England was once inhabited by Celts, the ancestors of the Scotch, Welsh, and Irish. The Romans under Cæsar possessed the island, and for five hundred years held the country, but they left us, from this period of their occupation, only half a dozen words: the names of the camp (_castra_), the paved road (_strata_), the settlement (_colonia_), the trench (_fossa_), the harbor (_portus_), the rampart (_vallum_). These words remain chiefly in the names of places. A sharp eye sees them in Lancaster, Leicester, Manchester, etc.; Stratford, street, etc.; Lincoln, etc.; Fossway, etc.; Portsmouth, etc.; wall, bailey, bailiff (these three words being derived from _vallum_).

In the fifth century, however, Teutonic tribes began to cross the sea and invade the land. The Celts were driven north and west into the mountains, and the newcomers stayed permanently. Although these Teutons—the Anglo-Saxons—called the Celts _Welsh_, that is, strangers, they took up a good many of the strangers’ words. They called many a river of the land _Avon_, water, as the Celts had done,—there are fourteen Avons to-day,—and they kept many such words as _inch_, an island (in Inchcape), and _kill_, a church (in Kildare). Indeed, for centuries the Celts kept on lending words to the English: _bargain_, _bodkin_, _brogue_, _clan_, _crag_, _dagger_, _glen_, _gown_, _mitten_, _rogue_, _whiskey_, are familiar examples of these permanent loans.

The Old English language itself was a Germanic dialect. Like Latin and German, it was inflected,—a fact that we see to-day in the presence of such forms as _him_, the old dative case for _he_. The inflectional endings nearly all disappeared before Shakespeare’s time. The vocabulary of this Old English has given us most of the words that we use as children. For example, household names—_home_, _friends_, _father_, _mother_, etc.; names of many emotions—_gladness_, _sorrow_, _love_, _hate_, _fear_, etc.; names of most objects in the landscape—_tree_, _bush_, _stone_, _hill_, _woods_, _stream_, _sun_, _moon_, etc.; common names of animals—_horse_, _cow_, _dog_, _cat_, etc.; parts of the body—_head_, _eye_, etc. Our household proverbs are in these Anglo-Saxon words. “Fast bind, fast find,” is an example of a thousand similar saws that embody the practical common sense of the people. The loves and hates, the hopes and fears, the wit and rude wisdom of our forefathers, have gone into Saxon words. These are not merely the words of childhood; in hours of deep feeling, in moments when the natural disposition demands expression, the grown man speaks in Saxon. These strong, forcible old words are to be prized and cherished as carefully as are those of less emotional suggestion,—the exact, discriminative Latin words.

In the ninth and tenth centuries the Norse vikings, who sailed everywhere, sailed also to England, and for a time got the upper hand of the Saxons. From 1013 to 1042 there were Scandinavian kings on the English throne. But these Norse were not able to impose much of their own language upon the country. Their settlements were named in Norse, and the word _by_, a town, remains in hundreds of such places, as _Whitby_, the _white town_ (from the white cliffs). From these great seamen our Saxon ancestors learned some new nautical dialect—words like _bow_, _bowline_, _crew_, _harbor_, _hawser_, _lee_, _stern_.

In 1066 the Normans conquered the land. These were Frenchmen whose fathers had been Norse. They brought the French language into their English court, and for two or three hundred years there were two languages in England,—French on the lips of the nobles, Saxon on the lips of the peasants. But the Saxon race was too strong to remain an underling. Gradually it mingled with the Norman race, picking up hundreds, even thousands of French words from the latter, but keeping its own ways of putting words together.

By 1400, when Chaucer died, there was a new English language, almost as much French as Saxon in vocabulary, but far less French than Saxon in grammar. Since French is largely derived from Latin, it is clear that the total Latin element in the vocabulary was already very great.

After Chaucer there came a general awakening of interest in ancient civilization; and in the Revival of Learning a great many words were adopted directly from Latin and Greek. In the sixteenth century followed the Renaissance of literature, art, and the sciences. This made its way to England from Italy, and naturally Englishmen caught up many new words from Italians. For example: _alert_, _bankrupt_, _brigade_, _bust_, _cameo_, _caricature_, _cascade_, _domino_, _fresco_, _granite_, _influenza_, _malaria_, _niche_, _oratorio_, _pianoforte_, _ruffian_, _studio_, _tirade_, _umbrella_, _vista_. The Spaniards, too, whom Englishmen met in those days on the sea and at courts, have lent our language such words as _barricade_, _bravado_, _cigar_, _desperado_, _flotilla_, _guerilla_, _merino_, _mosquito_, _mulatto_, _renegade_, _sherry_, _tornado_, _vanilla_.

The bold English seamen of the sixteenth century sailed back even from America with new things and new names—like _tobacco_. In the next century the commerce which followed hard upon the voyages of discovery was the means of bringing to the British island many new words. Here it may be said that the Dutch, who have rivalled the English in commerce, and who have taught the English some tricks of seamanship,—as did the vikings before them,—are represented in English by words like _ballast_, _boom_, _boor_, _skipper_, _sloop_, _smack_, _trigger_, _yacht_. English merchantmen of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries sailed to ports Oriental and Occidental. Returning, they brought from Africa canaries and gorillas, with the words _canary_ and _gorilla_, and told of _oases_; from Arabia they fetched such names as _admiral_, _alcohol_, _alcove_, _alkali_, _arsenal_, _azure_, _chemistry_, _coffee_, _cotton_, _lute_, _magazine_, _nabob_, _naphtha_, _sherbet_, _sofa_, _syrup_, _zenith_; indeed, some of these words had got into English through earlier English travellers—chiefly crusaders. English sailors and travellers have brought from China _silk_, _tea_, etc.; from India, _banyan_, _calico_, _mullagatawny_, _musk_, _punch_, _sugar_, _thug_, etc.; from Malayan ports, _bantam_, _cockatoo_, _gong_, _rattan_, _sago_, etc.; from Persia, _awning_, _caravan_, _chess_, _hazard_, _horde_, _lemon_, _orange_, _paradise_, _sash_, _shawl_, etc. Few are the languages from which a British ear has not caught and kept a new term.

In America we have many Indian names of places and things. We have _hominy_, _moose_, _opossum_, _raccoon_, _toboggan_, and other words from North American tribes. Mexico gave us _chocolate_, _tomato_, etc.; the West Indies, _potato_, _canoe_, _hurricane_; South America, _alpaca_, _quinine_, _tapioca_, etc.

In the present century, science, both practical and pure, has discovered thousands of facts and invented thousands of contrivances. Consequently thousands of words have been coined, mostly from Greek, to name modern inventions and the facts of science. A recent dictionary found it necessary to codify 4000 technical terms that had sprung up within the last few years.

=Anglo-Saxon Prefixes and Suffixes.=—The following prefixes are Anglo-Saxon. Think of words made with each.

1. _A-_ = in, on.

2. _Be-._ What grammatical effect has this prefix on _moan_, _daub_, _friend_?

3. _For-._ What effect has this on _bid_, _lorn_? Compare Latin _per_, in _perfect_.

4. _Fore-._

5. _Gain-_ = against.

6. _Mis-_ (A.-S. _mis_ = wrong). What effect on _deed_, _lead_? A French prefix from Latin _minus_ occurs in _mischief_, etc.

7. _Th-._

8. _Un-._

9. _With-_ (A.-S. _wither_ = back).

Similarly think of words made with each of the following _noun_ suffixes and explain the force of each suffix.

1. _-ard_ = habitual.

2. _-craft._

3. _-dom._

4. _-en._

5. _-er._

6. _-hood._

7. _-ing_ = son of, part. Meaning of _Browning_? _lording_? _tithing_? There is an older suffix which appears in the gerund—_taking_, _hunting._

8. _-kin._

9. _-ling._

10. _-ness._

11. _-ock._

12. _-ric_ = power.

13. _-ship._

14. _-stead_ = place.

15. _-ster._

16. _-wright._

17. _-ward._

Think of words made with the following _adjective_ suffixes.

1. _-ed._

2. _-en._

3. _-ern._

4. _-fast._

5. _-fold._

6. _-ful._

7. _-ish._

8. _-less._

9. _-like_ (_lic_ = body, form).

10. _-right._

11. _-some_ = same.

12. _-y._

Think of words made with the following _adverb_ suffixes.

1. _-es_ (the old genitive ending).

2. _-ly_ (_lic_ = body, form).

3. _-ling_, _-long_.

4. _-meal._

5. _-om_ (old dative plural).

6. _-ward._

7. _-wise_ = manner.

=The Latin Element.=—The Latin element is numerically the larger part of the language. It is therefore impossible to know well the English vocabulary except by knowing a considerable part of the Latin language. Whether our Latin words come directly through the ancient classics, or through the Romance tongues, such as French, Italian, and Spanish, to know their full force one must know the original meaning of them, as used by the ancient race of world-conquerors. Every instructor in English watches with keen interest the progress made by his students in their Latin studies. Of course, the mere knowledge that a given word is derived from a given Latin word does not necessarily give the student practical command of it in his writing; but usually such knowledge does help to a better understanding of the meaning the word has to-day, and so tends both to fix it in memory and to insure exact use of it.

=Latin Words transferred to English.=—Some Latin words have been transferred bodily into English. Discuss with the instructor the derivation of the present meanings of the following:—

_Alias_ = otherwise; _album_ = white; _amanuensis_ = hand-writer; _animus_ = mind; _arena_ = sand; _boa_ = great serpent; _camera_ = chamber; _cornucopia_ = horn of plenty; _extra_ = beyond; _focus_ = hearth; _gratis_ = for nothing; _item_ = also; _memento_ = remember (imperative); _nostrum_ = our own; _omnibus_ = for all; _posse_ = to be able; _quorum_ = of whom; _rebus_ = by things; _rostrum_ = beak; _torpedo_ = numbness; _vagary_ = to wander; _videlicet_ = it can be seen; _virago_ = a mannish woman.

=Latin Prefixes and Suffixes.=—Recall English words having the following prefixes, and explain the effect of the prefix on each.

_A-_, _ab-_, _abs-_ = from; _ad-_ = to; _amb-_ = about; _ante-_ = before; _bis-_, _bi-_ = twice; _circum-_ = around; _cum-_ (found in French _col-_, _com-_, _cor-_, _coun-_) = with; _contra-_ = against; _de-_ = down, from; _dis-_ (Fr. _des-_, _de-_) = asunder; _ex-_ (Fr. _es-_, _e-_) = from; _extra-_ = beyond; _in-_ (Fr. _en-_, _em-_) = in, into; _in-_ (_il-_, _im-_, _ir-_, _ig-_) = not; _inter-_ = between, among; _non-_ = not; _ob-_ = against; _pene-_ = almost; _per-_ = through; _post-_ = after; _præ-_, _pre-_ = before; _præter-_ = beyond; _pro-_ (Fr. _pour_ = _pol-_, _por-_, _pur-_) = for; _re-_ = back; _retro-_ = backwards; _se-_ = apart; _sub-_ (_suc-_, _suf-_, _sum-_, _sup-_, _sur-_, _sus-_) = under; _super-_ = above; _trans-_ = across; _vice-_ = in place of.

Recall words having the following Latin or Latin-French suffixes, and explain each in terms of the meaning of the suffix.

_-Aceous_ (Lat. _-aceus_) = made of; _-al_ (Latin _-alis_) = pertaining to; _-able_ (_-ible_), Lat. (_h_)_abilis_ = capable of being; _-ple_, _-ble_ (Latin _-plex_) = fold; _-plex_ = fold; _-lent_ (Lat. _-lentus_) = full of; _-ose_ (Lat. _-osus_) = full of; _-und_ (Lat. _-undus_) = full of; _-ulous_ (Lat. _-ulus_)= full of.

=Latin Roots in English.=—Below are listed a few of the many Latin words that have given us English words. Recall as many as possible of their derivatives, and define each in terms of the original meaning. Thus _acer_, sharp, gives us _acrimony_, sharpness, _acrid_, sour. Some member of the class may know that through the French it gives us _vinegar_, sharp wine. Make notes in your note-book of any derivatives that are new to you. _Ædes_, a building; _æquus_, equal; _ager_, a field; _agere_, to do; _alere_, to nourish—perfect participle _altus_, nourished, therefore high; _amare_, to love; _anima_, life; _animus_, mind; _annus_, a year; _aqua_, water; _arcus_, a bow; _ardere_ (pf. ptc. _arsus_), to burn; _audire_, to hear; _augere_ (pf. ptc. _auctus_), to increase; _brevis_, brief; _cadere_ (pf. ptc. _casus_), to fall; _candere_, to shine; _capere_, to take; _caput_, a head; _cavus_, hollow; _cernere_ (pf. ptc. _cretus_), to distinguish; _clarus_, clear; _cor_, heart; _corona_, crown; _credere_, to believe; _crescere_ (pf. ptc. _cretus_), to grow; _crudus_, raw; _cura_, care; _deus_, god; _dicere_, to say; _docere_, to teach; _dominus_, lord (Fr. _damsel_, _dame_, _madame_); _domus_, a house; _ducere_, to lead; _errare_, to wander; _facere_, to make; _filum_, a thread; _finis_, the end; _flos_, a flower; _frangere_ (stems, _frag_, _fract_), to break; _fortis_, strong; _fundere_, to pour; _gradus_, a step; _gravis_, heavy; _homo_, a man; _imperare_, to command; _jus_, right; _legere_ (_lect_), to read; _ligo_, to bind; _litera_, a letter; _loqui_, to speak; _lumen_, light; _luna_, the moon; _magnus_, great; _manus_, a hand; _maturus_, ripe; _mittere_ (_missere_), to send; _mors_, death; _novus_, new; _nox_, night; _omnis_, all; _ordo_, order; _pascere_ (pf. ptc. _pastus_), to feed; _pati_ (pf. ptc. _passus_), to suffer; _petere_, to seek; _portare_, to carry; _radix_, a root; _regere_ (pf. ptc. _rectus_), to rule; _scire_, to know; _sequi_ (pf. ptc. _secutus_), to follow; _socius_, a companion; _spirare_, to breathe; _tangere_, to touch; _texere_, to weave; _vanus_, empty; _videre_, to see; _vincere_ (pf. ptc. _victus_), to conquer; _vulgus_, the crowd.

=Greek Roots in English.=—Recall English words made from the following Greek roots, and explain each. Make notes in your note-book of those derivatives that are new to you. _Anthropos_, a man; _aster_, _astron_, a star; _autos_, self; _biblos_, a book; _bios_, life; _deka_, ten; _dokein_, to think; _dunamis_, power; _eu_, well; _ge_, the earth; _graphein_, to write; _hemi_, half; _hippos_, a horse; _homos_, the same; _kuklos_, a circle; _monos_, alone; _orthos_, right; _pan_, all; _petra_, a rock; _philein_, to love; _phone_, a sound; _poiein_, to make;[34] _skopein_, to see; _sophia_, wisdom; _tele_, distant; _theos_, a god.

=Curious Words.=—Look up and copy into your note-book the origin of the following words. _Assassin_, _august_, _dahlia_, _dunce_, _epicure_, _galvanic_, _guillotine_, _hermetically_, _January_, _jovial_, _July_, _lynch_, _March_, _mentor_, _panic_, _phaeton_, _quixotic_, _stentorian_, _tantalize_, _tawdry_. _Bayonet_, _bedlam_, _copper_, _damask_, _dollar_, _gasconade_, _gipsy_, _laconic_, _lumber_, _meander_, _milliner_, _palace_, _utopian_. _Abominate_, _adieu_, _amethyst_, _apothecary_, _beldam_, _capricious_, _cemetery_, _cheap_, _checkmate_, _cobalt_, _curmudgeon_, _dainty_, _daisy_, _dismal_, _emolument_, _salary_, _fanatic_, _gentleman_, _heretic_, _inculcate_, _infant_, _intoxicated_, _maidenhair_ (fern), _maxim_, _nausea_, _onyx_, _parlor_, _Porte_ (the Sublime Porte), _pupil_, _silly_, _sincere_, _tariff_, _trump_ (card). _Atonement_, _belfry_, _brimstone_, _carouse_, _counterpane_, _coward_, _crayfish_, _dandelion_, _dirge_, _drawing-room_, _easel_, _gospel-grove_, _harbinger_, _Jerusalem artichoke_, _line_ (garments), _licorice_, _nostril_, _porpoise_, _quinsy_, _squirrel_, _summerset_, _surgeon_, _thorough_, _treacle_, _trifle_, _wassail_, _whole_.

=Written Exercise.=—Examine the following passages separately. Classify all the words in two columns, one giving those of Saxon derivation, the other those of Latin derivation. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt. Then compare the English of Dr. Johnson with that of Dr. Blackmore. The former is writing in his own person as an eighteenth century scholar; the latter in the person of the stout John Ridd, a seventeenth century youth.

No degree of knowledge attainable by man is able to set him above the want of hourly assistance, or to extinguish the desire of fond endearments, and tender officiousness; and therefore, no one should think it unnecessary to learn those arts by which friendship may be gained. Kindness is preserved by a constant reciprocation of benefits or interchange of pleasures; but such benefits only can be bestowed, as others are capable to receive, and such pleasures only imparted, as others are qualified to enjoy.—DR. JOHNSON, _Rambler for July 9, 1751_.

When I had travelled two miles or so, conquered now and then with cold, and coming out to rub my legs into a lively friction, and only fishing here and there because of the tumbling water, suddenly, in an open space, where meadows spread about it, I found a good stream flowing softly into the body of our brook. And it brought, so far as I could guess by the sweep of it under my knee-caps, a larger power of clear water than the Lynn itself had; only it came more quietly down, not being troubled with stairs and steps, as the fortune of the Lynn is, but gliding smoothly and forcibly, as if upon some set purpose.—R. D. BLACKMORE, _Lorna Doone_.