Chapter 5

Mars appears to the naked eye as a bright red star, and when at a favorable opposition to the earth (which occurs only once in every fifteen years) it rivals Jupiter in splendor.

The planet may be mistaken for the first magnitude stars, Antares in Scorpius, and Aldebaran in Taurus, near which it frequently passes.

The fixed stars, however, twinkle, while Mars glows steadily. If there is any doubt in the student's mind as to the identity of the planet, a few nights of observation, noting the changes in the planet's position, will decide the point. It takes Mars about fifty-seven days to pass through one constellation in the Zodiac.

JUPITER.

Jupiter is the largest of all the planets in the solar system, and it is easily distinguished from the fixed stars because of its brilliancy and splendor, exceeding in brightness all the planets excepting Venus, and casting a perceptible shadow.

It moves slowly and majestically across the sky, advancing through the Zodiac at the rate of one constellation yearly. It is therefore a simple matter to forecast its position, for, in whatever constellation it is seen to-day, one year hence it will be seen equally advanced in the next constellation.

Although Jupiter appears to move slowly, it really travels at the incomprehensible rate of five hundred miles a minute.

The most interesting feature about Jupiter for the amateur astronomer consists in observing four of its moons, which are visible with a small telescope. They appear like mere dots of light, and their transit of or occultation with the planet (that is, their disappearance before or behind its disk) can be watched, and is a never failing source of pleasure. A large telescope alone reveals Jupiter's four other moons.

SATURN.

Saturn is farther removed from the earth than any of the planets in the solar system, visible to the naked eye. It is distinguished from the fixed stars by the steadiness of its light, which is dull and of a yellow hue, though to some it appears to be of a greenish tinge. It seems barely to move, so slow is its motion among the stars, for it takes two and one half years to pass through a single constellation of the Zodiac.

Saturn has eight moons. Titan, its largest one, can be seen with a 3" glass. Its celebrated rings are telescopic objects but a small glass reveals them.

URANUS.

The student will hardly mistake Uranus for a fixed star, as it is only under the most favorable circumstances that it can be seen with the naked eye.

At its nearest approach to the earth, it is as bright as a sixth-magnitude star. Uranus is accompanied by four moons, and takes seven years to pass through a constellation of the Zodiac.

NEPTUNE.

Neptune is the most distant of the planets in the solar system, and is never visible to the naked eye.

The earth comes properly under a discussion of the planets, but a description of it is hardly within the scope of this work.

Confusion in identifying the planets is really confined to Mars and Saturn, for Venus and Jupiter are much brighter than any of the fixed stars, and their position in the heavens identifies them, as we have seen before.

The following table of first-magnitude stars in the Zodiacal constellations confines the question of identifying the planets to a comparison of the unknown star with the following-named stars:

Castor and Pollux in Gemini. Spica " Virgo. Regulus " Leo. Aldebaran " Taurus. Antares " Scorpius.

The first four stars named above are white in color, so that either Mars or Saturn is readily distinguished from them.

As for Aldebaran and Antares, which are both red stars, not unlike Mars and Saturn in color and magnitude, the fact that the latter do not twinkle, and that they do not appear in the diagrams, should satisfy the observer of their identity. Reference to an almanac, or a few nights of observation, will in any case set at rest any doubt in the matter.

THE MILKY WAY.

The Milky Way, or Galaxy as it is sometimes called, is a great band of light that stretches across the heavens. Certain portions of it are worthy of being viewed with an opera-glass, which separates this seemingly confused and hazy stream into numberless points of light, emanating from myriads of suns.

This wonderful feature of the heavens is seen to best advantage during the months of July, August, September, and October. Beginning near the head of Cepheus, about thirty degrees from the North Pole, it passes through Cassiopeia, Perseus, Auriga, part of Orion, and the feet of Gemini, where it crosses the Ecliptic, and thence continues into the southern hemisphere, beyond our ken in these latitudes.

It reappears in two branches in the region of Ophiuchus, one running through the tail of Scorpius, the bow of Sagittarius, Aquila, Delphinus, and Cygnus; the other above and almost parallel to it, uniting with the first branch in Cygnus, and passing to Cepheus, the place of beginning.

The student should note especially the strange gap between [a], [g], and [e] Cygni. This dark space has been called the "Coal Sack."

The Milky Way in the vicinity of Cassiopeia is particularly rich, and well repays a search with an opera-glass.

"The Galaxy covers more than one tenth of the visible heavens, contains nine-tenths of the visible stars, and seems a vast zone-shaped nebula, nearly a great circle of the sphere, the poles being at Coma and Cetus."

THE MOTIONS OF THE STARS.

It may be that the student desires to proceed in this conquest of the sky at a more rapid pace than the scheme of study permits. To assist such, it should be borne in mind that the circumpolar constellations, as Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Draco, Cepheus, and Cassiopeia, are designated,--are visible in our latitude in the northern sky every night.

A reference to their diagrams, and a glance at any of the large plates showing the entire group in their respective positions, will suffice for the student to identify them.

The hours of darkness alone limit the speed with which a knowledge of the constellations can be acquired.

Let us suppose that the student begins his search for the constellations on the night of April 1st, at nine P.M. He has for his guide the large plate, and the spring group of eleven constellations set forth in the diagrams. The remaining three constellations of the circumpolar group are, as we have seen before, visible in the north.

If he faces the western sky, he will see Andromeda just setting, and Perseus, Taurus, Orion, Lepus, and Canis Major but a short distance above the horizon. If he is so fortunate as to be able to identify these, and the spring group, he may turn his attention wholly to the eastern sky, where new constellations await him.

In the southeast he may see Virgo. In the east well up blazes Arcturus, the gem of Bo[:o]tes, below which is the beautiful Northern Crown, with the diamond in the head of Serpens beneath it. Hercules is rising, and Vega in the Lyre should be seen just flashing on the view in the northeast.

This completes the list of wonders visible at this precise time, but the stars apparently are never still, and doubtless, while the student has been passing from one constellation to another in the western and southern skies, others have been rising in the east and northeast.

At ten P.M. the Lyre is well up, and Ophiuchus and Libra can be discerned. At midnight Scorpius and Cygnus are ready to claim the attention. By two o'clock A.M., Aquila, Delphinus, and Sagittarius have risen, and at break of day Andromeda, Pegasus, and Capricornus can be seen if the student has had the courage to remain awake this length of time.

In no way can the seeming movement of the stars be better understood than by actual observation. The observer must bear in mind that the movement is an apparent one: that it is the earth that is moving and not the stars. He has only to think of the analogy of the moving train beside the one that is standing still, and the true state of affairs will at once be evident.

To further appreciate this apparent change in the situation of the constellations, the student should refer to the large plates successively. In each successive one he will note the advancement westward of the constellations mentioned above, rising in the east late at night.

The student can best get an idea of this westward apparent movement of the stars by noting the position of some bright first-magnitude star from night to night. He will soon be able to calculate the position of this star a month or more ahead, and this calculation applies to all the constellations and stars.

It is not within the scope of this work to go into this matter in detail. The author merely desires to mention this fact of apparent change of position in the stars, a fact that will be noticeable to the observer in a short time, and a fact that it is hoped he will be able to explain to his own satisfaction with the aid of the foregoing remarks.

It will be noticed that the stars on the diagrams are all numbered and lettered. The numbers refer to the magnitude of the star,--that is, the brightness of it, the first-magnitude stars being the brightest, the second-magnitude stars two-and-a-half times less bright, etc.

The letters are those of the Greek alphabet, and the student if not familiar with it is advised to consult a Greek grammar.

In the text, in referring to certain stars in the constellations, the genitive case of the Latin name of the constellation is given; for example, Vega is known as [a] Lyrae, meaning alpha of Lyra, Aldebaran as [a] Tauri, alpha of Taurus, etc.

The twilight hour affords an excellent opportunity of fixing the relative positions of the first-magnitude stars in the mind, for at that time they alone, save the planets, are visible.

METEORS, OR SHOOTING-STARS.

As this work is designed primarily to cover what is observable in the starlit heavens with the naked eye, the subject of meteors, or shooting-stars, comes properly within its scope.

There are few persons, if any, who have not witnessed the sight of a splendid meteor speeding across the sky, and such a sight always calls forth exclamations of wonder and delight.

Apparently these evanescent wanderers in space are without distinctive features, and baffle classification; but, like all that nature reveals to us, they have been found, for the most part, to conform to certain laws, and to bear certain marks of resemblance that permit of their identification and classification.

By careful observation for over fifty years the meteors, generally speaking, have been so arranged that they come under the head of one of the nearly three hundred distinct showers which are now recognized by astronomers.

Many of these showers are too feeble and faint to be worthy of the attention of one not especially interested in the subject, but certain ones are well worth observing. There is always a pleasure in being able to recognize at a glance a certain definite manifestation of nature, be it a rare flower or a flashing meteor.

The generally accepted theory respecting the meteors is that they were all originally parts of comets now disintegrated, and the four well-known showers of April 20th, August 10th and 14th, and November 27th, bear testimony to this theory.

The apparent velocity of the meteors is between ten and forty-five miles a second, and their average height is about seventy-six miles at first appearance, and fifty-one miles at disappearance. Occasionally a meteor is so large and compact as to escape total destruction, and falls to the earth. Specimens of these meteorites are to be found in our best museums.

I have seen fit to divide the principal meteor showers into four groups, according to the seasons in which they appear, and have placed them respectively at the conclusion of each season's work on the constellations.

By radiant point is meant the point from which the meteors start on their flight. This point is an apparent one, however, due to an illusion of perspective, for the meteors really approach the earth in parallel paths.

The dates given for these showers are those of the maxima, and the meteors should be looked for several nights before and after the dates specified.

The showers that are to be seen after midnight are, unless of special note, omitted.

There are, besides the meteors that have been classified, certain shooting-stars that apparently have no determined radiant point. These are called sporadic meteors.

In these lists of meteors, the radiant point is only approximately given; for scientific purposes a far more exact position is required in terms of right ascension and declination. There are several good lists of meteoric showers to be obtained, which afford this information for those who care to pursue the matter more in detail. See the Rev. T.W. Webb's book, entitled _Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes_. For purposes of identification, the radiant points here given will be found for the most part sufficient.

NOTE.

Many readers of this book may be the fortunate possessors of small telescopes. It may be that they have observed the heavens from time to time in a desultory way and have no notion that valuable and practical scientific research work can be accomplished with a small glass. If those who are willing to aid in the great work of astrophysical research will communicate with the author he will be pleased to outline for them a most practical and fascinating line of observational work that will enable them to share in the advance of our knowledge respecting the stars. It is work that involves no mathematics, and its details are easily mastered.

THE NAMES OF THE STARS AND THEIR MEANINGS.

ACUBENS, [a] _Cancri_, "the claws."

Situated in one of the Crab's claws. It is white in color and culminates[1] March 18th.

A-DAR'-A, [e] _Canis Majoris_, "the virgins," a name for four stars, of which Adara is brightest.

Situated in the Dog's right thigh. It is pale orange in color, and culminates Feb. 11th.

ADHIL, [e] _Andromedae_, "the train of a garment."

Situated in the left shoulder of the chained lady.

ALADFAR (al-ad-f[:a]r), [m] _Lyrae_, "the talons" (of the falling eagle)

AL BALI, [e] _Aquarii_, "the good fortune of the swallower."

AL-BI'-REO, or AL-BIR'[:E]-O [b] _Cygni_, origin doubtful. Means the beak of the hen.

Situated in the beak of the Swan and the base of the Cross. Its color is topaz yellow, and it culminates Aug. 28th.

ALCAID, [[^e]] _Ursae Majoris_. _See_ Benetnasch.

ALCHIBA (al-k[=e]-b[:a]'), [a] _Corvi_, "the tent," the desert title for the constellation.

Situated in the eye of the Crow. Orange in color.

ALCOR (al'-k[^o]r), g _Ursae Majoris_, "the cavalier" or "the rider."

Situated close to Mizar in the handle of the "Dipper." Silver white in color. The Arabs called this star "Saidak," meaning "the proof," because they used it to test a good eye.

AL-CY'-O-NE, [[^e]] _Tauri_.

Greenish yellow in color. The brightest of the Pleiades. Situated in the neck of the Bull.

AL-DEB'-A-RAN, [a] _Tauri_, "the hindmost" or the "follower," _i.e._ of the Pleiades.

Situated in the eye of the Bull. Pale rose in color. It is receding from the earth at the rate of thirty miles per second, and culminates Jan. 10.

[a] Tauri is sometimes called Palilicium.

ALDERAMIN (Al-der-am'-in), [a] _Cephei_ "the right arm." It now marks the shoulder of Cepheus.

White in color. It culminates Sept. 27th.

ALDHAFERA, [z] _Leonis_.

Situated in the "Sickle," and the neck of the Lion. It culminates April 8th.

ALFIRK (al-ferk'), or ALPHIRK, "stars of the flock," [b] _Cephei_.

The Arab name for the constellation. Situated in the girdle of Cepheus. White in color. It culminates Oct. 2d.

ALGEIBA (al-j[=e]'-b[:a]), [g] _Leonis_, "the mane."

Situated in the "Sickle," and the shoulder of the Lion. It is approaching the earth at the rate of twenty-four miles per second, and culminates April 9th.

AL'-GE-NIB, [g] _Pegasi_, "the wing," possibly the "flank" or "side."

Situated in the wing of the Horse. White in color, and culminates Nov. 14th.

AL'-GE-NIB, [a] _Persei_, "the side," or Mirfak, "the elbow."

Situated in the right side of Perseus. Lilac in color and approaching the earth at the rate of six miles per second. It culminates Jan. 1st. This star is also called Alchemb.

ALGENUBI (al-je-n[:o]'-bi), [e] _Leonis_, "the head of the Lion."

A yellow star situated in the Lion's mouth.

AL'-GOL, [b] _Persei_, "the ghoul" or "demon."

Situated in the head of the Medusa held in the Hero's left hand. White in color. It is approaching the earth at the rate of one mile per second, and culminates Dec. 23d.

ALGORAB (al-go-r[:a]b'), or ALGORES, ([d]) _Corvi_, "the raven."

Situated on the right wing of the Crow. Pale yellow in color. It culminates May 14th.

ALHENA (al-hen'-a), [g] _Geminorum_, "a brand on the right side of the camel's neck," or a "ring" or "circlet."

Situated in the left foot of Pollux. White in color, and culminates Feb. 8th. Alhena is sometimes called Almeisam.

AL-I-OTH, [e] _Ursae Majoris_, disputed derivation.

Situated in the tail of the Great Bear. It is approaching the earth at the rate of nineteen miles per second. It culminates May 20th. Alioth, the name sometimes given to [a] and [th] Serpentis.

AL-KAID (al-k[=a]d), _See_ ALCAID.

ALKALUROPS (al-ka-l[=u]'-rops), [m] _Bo[:o]tis_, "a herdsman's club, crook, or staff."

Situated near the right shoulder of the Herdsman. Its color is flushed white.

ALKES (al'-kes), [a] _Crateris_, from Al Kas, "the cup," the Arab name for the constellation.

Situated in the base of the Cup. Orange in color, and culminates April 20th.

ALMAC, [g] _Andromedae_, "a badger," possibly "the boot."

Situated in the left foot of Andromeda. Orange in color, and culminates Dec. 8th.

AL NAAIM, [t] and [n] Pegasi, "the cross bars over a well."

AL NASL (al-nas'l), or ELNASL (el-nas'-l), [g] _Sagittarii_, "the point head of the arrow."

Situated in the arrow's tip. It is yellow in color, and culminates Aug. 4th. This star sometimes called Nushaba and Warida.

AL NATH, or NATH [g] _Aurigae_, and [b] _Tauri_, "the heel of the rein-holder," the "butter" _i.e._ the "horn."

Situated in the right foot of the Charioteer, and the tip of the northern horn of the Bull. Brilliant white in color, and culminates Dec. 11th.

ALNILAM (al-ni-lam'), [e] _Orionis_, "a belt of spheres or pearls."

Situated in Orion's belt. It is bright white in color, and is receding from the earth at the rate of sixteen miles per second. It culminates Jan. 25th.

ALNITAK (al-ni-tak'), [z] _Orionis_, "the girdle."

Situated in Orion's belt. Topaz yellow in color. It is receding from the earth at the rate of nine miles per second, and culminates Jan. 26th.

AL-NIYAT, [s] _Scorpii_, "the outworks of the heart."

Situated near the Scorpion's heart. It is creamy white in color.

AL'-PHARD or (al-f[:a]rd'), [a] _Hydrae_, "the solitary one in the serpent."

Situated in the heart of Hydra. Orange in color, and culminates Mar. 26th. The Chinese called this star "the Red Bird."

AL-PHEC'-CA, [a] _Coronae Borealis_, "the bright one of the dish." _See_ Gemma. Century Dictionary gives meaning "the cup or platter of a dervish."

AL'-PHE-RATZ, or (al-fe-rats'), [a] _Andromedae_, "the head of the woman in chains." "The navel of the horse."

Situated in the head of Andromeda. White and purplish in color. It culminates Nov. 10th. Alpheratz is some times called Sirrah.

AL-PHIRK, [b] _Cephei_, from al-Firk, the flock.

AL RAKIS, [m] _Draconis_, "the dancer."

Situated in the Dragon's nose. Brilliant white in color. The Century Dictionary gives for this star Arrakis, "The trotting camel."

AL RESCHA, [a] _Piscium_, "the cord or knot."

Situated in the knot joining the ribbons that hold the Fishes together. Pale green in color, and culminates Dec. 7th.

ALSAFI [s] _Draconis_.

ALSCHAIN (al-sh[=a]n'), [b] _Aquilae_, part of the Arab name for the constellation.

Situated in the head of Antino[:u]s. Pale orange in color, and culminates Sept. 3d.

AL SHAT, [n] _Capricorni_, "the sheep."

AL'-TAIR, or ATAIR, [a] _Aquilae_, "the flying eagle," part of the Arab name for the constellation.

Situated in the neck of the Eagle. Yellow in color, and culminates Sept. 1st.

ALTERF (al-terf'), [l] _Leonis_, "the glance," _i.e._ the Lion's eye.

Situated in the Lion's mouth, the point of the Sickle. Red in color.

ALUDRA (al-[:o]'-dra), [[^e]] _Canis Majoris_, "the virgins." The four stars near each other in Canis Major.

Situated in the Great Dog's tail. Pale red in color, and culminates Feb. 21st.

ALULA BOREALIS, [n] _Ursae Majoris_.

ALULA AUSTRALIS, [z] _Ursae Majoris_ The "northern and southern wing."

Situated in the Southern hind foot of the Great Bear. The latter star is sometimes called El Acola.

AL'-YA, [th] _Serpentis_.

Situated in the tip of the Serpent's tail. Pale yellow in color. It culminates Aug. 18th.

ANCHA, [th] _Aquarii_, "the hip."

Situated in the right hip of Aquarius.

ANT-[=A]R-ES, or AN-TA'-REZ, [a] _Scorpii_, "the rival of Mars."

Situated in the heart of the Scorpion. Fiery red and emerald green in color. It culminates July 11th.

ARC-T[=U]-RUS, [a] _Bo[:o]tis_, "the leg of the lance-bearer," or "the bear-keeper."

Situated in the left knee of the Herdsman. Golden yellow in color. It culminates June 8th.

ARIDED, _See_ DENEB.

ARNEB ([:a]r'-neb), [a] _Leporis_, "the hare," the Arab name for the constellation.

Situated in the heart of the Hare. Pale yellow in color. It culminates Jan. 24th. [a] _Leporis_ is sometimes called Arsh.

ARKAB ([:a]r'-kab), [b] _Sagittarii_, "the tendon uniting the calf of the leg to the heel."

Situated in the Archer's left fore leg.

ASHFAR, [m] and [e] _Leonis_, "the eyebrows."

Situated close to the Lion's right eye. [m] orange in color, sometimes called Alshemali or Asmidiske.

ASPIDISKI (as-pi-dis'ke) or ASMIDISKE, [i] _Argus_, "in the gunwale."

Situated in the shield which ornaments the vessel's stern. Pale yellow in color. The Century Dictionary gives "a little shield" as the meaning for this star name.

ASCELLA, [z] _Sagittarii_, "the armpit."

Situated near the Archer's left armpit. It culminates Aug. 19th.

ASCELLUS, [th] _Bo[:o]tis_.

It marks the finger tips of the Herdsman's upraised hand.

ASCELLUS BOREALIS, [n] _Cancri_, "northern ass."

Straw color.

ASCELLUS AUSTRALIS, [d] _Cancri_, "the southern ass."

Situated on the back of the Crab. Straw color.

ATIK, [o] _Persei_.

Situated in the wing on the right foot of Perseus.

AZELFAFAGE, [p] _Cygni_, "the horse's foot or track."

AZHA, [[^e]] _Eridani_, "the ostrich's nest."

Pale yellow in color.

BAHAM, [th] _Pegasi_, "the young of domestic animals."

Situated near the left eye of Pegasus.

BAT'EN KAITOS, [z] _Ceti_, "the whale's belly."

A topaz-yellow-colored star, which culminates Dec. 5th.

BEID (b[=a]'-id), [o] _Eridani_, "the egg."

A very white star.

BEL'-LA-TRIX, [g] _Orionis_, "the female warrior." The Amazon star.

Situated in the left shoulder of Orion. Pale yellow in color. It is receding from the earth at the rate of six miles per second, and culminates Jan. 22d. The Century Dictionary gives the color as very white.

BE-NET'-NASCH, [[^e]] _Ursae Majoris_, "the chief or governor of the mourners" (alluding to the fancied bier).