Part 10

_Problems.--(a) How molds and other saprophytic fungi do harm to man._ _(b) What yeasts do for mankind._ _(c) A study of bacteria with reference to_ _(1) Conditions favorable and unfavorable to growth._ _(2) Their relations to mankind._ _(3) Some methods of fighting harmful bacteria and diseases caused by them._

LABORATORY SUGGESTIONS

_Field work._--Presence of bracket fungi and chestnut canker. _Home experiment._--Conditions favorable to growth of mold. _Laboratory demonstration._--Growth of mold, structure, drawing. _Home experiment or laboratory demonstration._--Conditions unfavorable for growth of molds. _Demonstration._--Process of fermentation. _Microscopic demonstration._--Growing yeast cells. Drawing. _Home experiment._--Conditions favorable for growth of yeast. _Home experiment._--Conditions favorable for growth of yeast in bread. _Demonstration and experiment._--Where bacteria may be found. _Demonstration._--Methods of growth of bacteria, pure cultures and colonies shown. _Demonstration._--Foods preferred by bacteria. _Demonstration._--Conditions favorable for growth of bacteria. _Demonstration._--Conditions unfavorable for growth of bacteria. _Demonstration by charts, diagrams, etc._--The relation of bacteria to disease in a large city.

COLORLESS PLANTS ARE USEFUL AND HARMFUL TO MAN

The Fungi.--We have found that green plants on the whole are useful to mankind. But not all plants are green. Most of us are familiar with the edible mushroom sold in the markets or the so-called "toadstools" found in parks or lawns. These plants contain no chlorophyll and hence do not make their own food. They are members of the plant group called _fungi_. Such plants are almost as much dependent upon the green plants for food as are animals. But the fungi require for the most part dead organic matter for their food. This may be obtained from decayed vegetable or animal material in soil, from the bodies of dead plants and animals, or even from foods prepared for man. Fungi which feed upon _dead_ organic material are known as _saprophytes_. Examples are the mushrooms, the yeasts, molds, and some bacteria, of which more will be learned later.

Some Parasitic Fungi.--Other fungi (and we will find this applies to some animals as well) prefer _living_ plants or animals for their food. Thus a tiny plant, recently introduced into this country, known as the chestnut canker, is killing our chestnut trees by the thousands in the eastern part of the United States. It produces millions of tiny reproductive cells known as _spores_; these spores, blown about by the wind, light on the trees, sprout, and send in under the bark a threadlike structure which sucks in the food circulating in the living cells, eventually causing the death of the tree. _A plant or animal which lives at the expense of another living plant or animal is called a parasite._ The chestnut canker is a dangerous parasite. Later we shall see that animal and plant parasites destroy yearly crops and trees valued at hundreds of millions of dollars and cause untold misery and suffering to humanity.

Another fungus which does much harm to the few trees found in large towns and cities is the shelf or bracket fungus. The part of the body visible on the tree looks like a shelf or bracket, hence the name. This bracket is in reality the reproductive part of the plant; on its lower surface are formed millions of little bodies called _spores_. These spores are capable, under favorable conditions, of reproducing new plants. The true body of the plant, a network of threads, is found under the bark. This fungus begins its life as a spore in some part of the tree which has become _diseased_ or _broken_. Once established, it spreads rapidly. There is no remedy except to kill the tree and burn it, so as to destroy the spores. Many fine trees, sound except for a slight bruise or other injury, are annually infected and eventually killed. In cities thousands of trees become infected through careless hitching of horses so that the horse may gnaw the tree, thus exposing a fresh surface on which spores may obtain lodgment and grow (see page 115).

Suggestions for Field Work.--A field trip to a park or grove near home may show the great destruction of timber by this means. Count the number of perfect trees in a given area. Compare it with the number of trees attacked by the fungus. Does the fungus appear to be transmitted from one tree to another near at hand? In how many instances can you discover the point where the fungus first attacked the tree?

Fungi of our Homes.--But not all fungi are wild. Some have become introduced into our homes and these live on food or other materials. _These plants are very important because of their relation to life in a town or crowded city._[17]

Footnote 17: Experiments on conditions favorable to growth of mold should be introduced here.

The Growth of Bread Mold.--If a piece of moist bread is exposed to the air of the schoolroom, or in your own kitchen for a few minutes and then covered with a glass tumbler and kept in a warm place, in a day or two a fuzzy whitish growth will appear on the surface of the bread. This growth shortly turns black. If we now examine a little piece of the bread with a lens or low-powered microscope, we find a tangled mass of threads (the _mycelium_) covering the surface of the bread. From this mass of threads project tiny upright stalks bearing round black bodies, the fruit. Little rootlike structures known as _rhizoids_ dip down into the bread, and absorb food for its threadlike body. The upright threads with the balls at the end contain many tiny bodies called _spores_. These spores have been formed by the division of the protoplasm making up the fruiting bodies into many separate cells. When grown under favorable conditions, the spores will produce more mycelia, which in turn bear fruiting bodies.

Physiology of the Growth of Mold.--Molds, in order to grow rapidly, need oxygen, moisture, and moderate heat. They seem to prefer dark, damp places where there is not a free circulation of air, for if the bell jar is removed from growing mold for even a short time, the mold wilts. Too great or very little heat will prevent growth and kill everything except the spores. They obtain their food from the material on which they live. This they are able to do by means of digestive enzymes given out by the rootlike parts, by means of which the molds cling to the bread. These digestive enzymes change the starch of the bread to sugar and the protein to a soluble form which will pass by osmosis into cells of the mold. Thus the mold is able to absorb food material. These foods are then used to supply energy and make protoplasm. This seems to be the usual method by which saprophytes make use of the materials on which they live.

What can Molds live On?--We have seen that black mold lives upon bread. We would find that it or some other mold (_e.g._ green or blue mold) live upon decaying or overripe fruit,--apples, peaches, and plums being especially susceptible to their growth. Molds feed upon all cakes or breads, upon meat, cheese, and many raw vegetables. They are almost sure to grow upon flour if it is allowed to get damp. Moisture seems necessary for their growth. Jelly is a substance particularly favorable to molds for this reason. Shoes, leather, cloth, paper, or even moist wood will give food enough to support their growth. At least one troublesome disease, _ringworm_, is due to the growth of molds in the skin.

What Mold does to Foods.--Mold usually changes the taste of the material it grows upon, rendering it "musty" and sometimes unfit to eat. Eventually it will spoil food completely because decay sets in. Decay, as we will see later, is not entirely due to mold growth, but is usually caused by another group of organisms, the _bacteria_. Molds, however, in feeding _do_ cause chemical changes which result in decay or putrefaction. Some molds are useful. They give the flavor to Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Camembert, and Brie cheeses. But on the whole molds are pests which the housekeeper wishes to get rid of.

How to prevent Molds.[18]--As we have seen, moisture is favorable for mold growth; conversely, dryness is unfavorable. Inasmuch as the spores of mold abound in the air, materials which cannot be kept dry should be covered. Jelly after it is made should at once be tightly covered with a thin layer of paraffin, which excludes the air and possible mold spores. Or waxed paper may be fastened over the surface of the jelly so as to exclude the spores. To prevent molds from attacking fresh fruit, the surface of the fruit should be kept dry and, if possible, each piece of fruit should be wrapped in paper. Why? Heating with dry heat to 212 deg. for a few moments will kill any mold spores that happen to be in food. Moldy food, if heated after removing surface on which the mold grew, is perfectly good to eat.

Footnote 18: An experiment to show conditions unfavorable for growth of molds should be shown at this point.

Dry dusting or sweeping will raise dust, which usually contains mold spores. Use a dampened broom or dust cloth frequently in the kitchen if you wish to preserve foods from molds.

Other Moldlike Fungi.--Mildews are near relatives of the molds found in our homes. They may attack leather, cloth, etc., in a damp house. Other allied forms may do damage to living plants. Some of these live upon the lilac, rose, or willow. These fungi do not penetrate the host plant to any depth, for they obtain their food from the outer layer of cells in the leaf of their host and cover the leaves with the whitish threads of the mycelium. Hence they may be killed by means of applications of some fungus-killing fluid, as Bordeaux mixture.[19] Among the useful plants preyed upon by mildews are the plum, cherry, and peach trees. (The diseases known as black knot and peach curl are thus caused.) Another important member of this group is the tiny parasite found on rye and other grains, which gives us the drug ergot.

Footnote 19: See Goff and Mayne, _First Principles of Agriculture_, page 59, for formula of Bordeaux mixture.

Among other parasitic fungi are rusts and smuts. Wheat rust is probably the most destructive parasitic fungus. Indirectly this parasite is of considerable importance to the citizen of a great city because of its effect upon the price of wheat.

YEASTS IN THEIR RELATION TO MAN

Fermentation.--It is of common knowledge to country boys or girls that the juice of fresh apples, grapes, and some other fruits, if allowed to stand exposed to the air for a short time will _ferment_. That is, the sweet juice will begin to taste sour and to have a peculiar odor, which we recognize as that of alcohol. The fermenting juice appears to be full of bubbles which rise to the surface. If we collect enough of these bubbles of gas to make a test, we find it to be carbon dioxide.

Evidently something changed some part of the apple or grape, the sugar, (C{6}H{12}O{6}), into alcohol, 2(C{2}H{6}O), and carbon dioxide, 2(CO{2}). This chemical process is known as _fermentation_.

Yeast causes Fermentation.--Let us now take a compressed yeast cake, shake up a small portion of it in a solution of molasses and water, and fill a fermentation tube with the mixture. Leave the tube in a warm place overnight. In the morning a gas will be found to have been collected in the closed end of the tube (see Figure on page 138). The taste and odor of the liquid shows alcohol to be present, and the gas, if tested, is proven carbon dioxide. Evidently yeast causes fermentation.

What are Yeasts?--If now part of the liquid from the fermentation tube which contains the settlings be drawn off, a drop placed on a slide and a little weak iodine added and the mixture examined under the compound microscope, two kinds of structures will be found (see Figure below), starch grains which are stained deep blue, and other smaller ovoid structures of a brownish yellow color. The latter are yeast plants.

Size and Shape, Manner of Growth, etc.--The common compressed yeast cake contains millions of these tiny plants. In its simplest form a yeast plant is a single cell. The shape of such a plant is ovoid, each cell showing under the microscope the granular appearance of the protoplasm of which it is formed. Look for tiny clear areas in the cells; these are vacuoles, or spaces filled with fluid. The nucleus is hard to find in a yeast cell. Many of the cells seem to have others attached to them, sometimes there being several in a row. Yeast cells reproduce very rapidly by a process of budding, a part of the parent cell forming one or more smaller daughter cells which eventually become free from the parent.

Conditions favorable to growth of Yeast.--_Experiment._--Label three pint fruit jars A, B, and C. Add one fourth of a compressed yeast cake to two cups of water containing two tablespoonfuls of molasses or sugar. Stir the mixture well and divide it into three equal parts and pour them into the jars. Place covers on the jars. Put jar A in the ice box on the ice, and jar B over the kitchen stove or near a radiator; pour the contents of jar C into a small pan and boil for a few minutes. Pour back into C, cover and place it next to B. After forty-eight hours, look to see if any bubbles have made their appearance in any of the jars. If the experiment has been successful, only jar B will show bubbles. After bubbles have begun to appear at the surface, the fluid in jar B will be found to have a sour taste and will smell unpleasantly. The gas which rises to the surface, if collected and tested, will be found to be carbon dioxide. The contents of jar B have fermented. Evidently, the growth of yeast will take place only under conditions of moderate warmth and moisture.

Carbohydrates necessary to Fermentation.--Sugar must be present in order for fermentation to take place. The wild yeasts cause fermentation of the apple or grape juice because they live on the skin of the apple or grape. Various peoples recognize this when they collect the juice of certain fruits and, exposing it to the air, allow it to ferment. Such is the _saki_ or rice wine of the Japanese, the _tuba_ or sap of the coconut palm of the Filipinos and the _pulque_ of the Mexicans.

Beer and Wine Making.--Brewers' yeasts are cultivated with the greatest care; for the different flavors of beer seem to depend largely upon the condition of the yeast plants. Beer is made in the following manner. Sprouted barley, called malt, in which the starch of the grain has been changed to grape sugar by digestion, is killed by drying in a hot kiln. The malt is dissolved in water, and hops are added to give the mixture a bitter taste. Now comes the addition of the yeast plants, which multiply rapidly under the favorable conditions of food and heat. Fermentation results on a large scale from the breaking down of the grape sugar, the alcohol remaining in the fluid, and the carbon dioxide passing off into the air. At the right time the beer is stored either in bottles or casks, but fermentation slowly continues, forming carbon dioxide in the bottles. This gives the sparkle to beer when it is poured from the bottle.

In wine making the wild yeasts growing on the skin of the grapes set up a slow fermentation. It takes several weeks before the wine is ready to bottle. In sparkling wines a second fermentation in the bottles gives rise to carbon dioxide in such quantity as to cause a decided frothing when the bottle is opened.

Commercial Yeast.--Cultivated yeasts are now supplied in the home as compressed or dried yeast cakes. In both cases the yeast plants are mixed with starch and other substances and pressed into a cake. But the compressed yeast cake must be used fresh, as the yeast plants begin to die rapidly after two or three days. The dried yeast cake, while it contains a much smaller number of yeast plants, is nevertheless probably more reliable if the yeast cannot be obtained fresh.

The cut illustrates an experiment that shows how yeast plants depend upon food in order to grow. In each of three fermentation tubes were placed an equal amount of a compressed yeast cake. Then tube _a_ was filled with distilled water, tube _b_ with a solution of glucose and water, and tube _c_ with a nutrient solution containing nitrogenous matter as well as glucose. The quantity of gas (CO{2}) in each tube is an index of the amount of growth of the yeast cells. In which tube did the greatest growth take place?

Bread Making.--Most of us are familiar with the process of bread making. The materials used are flour, milk or water or both, salt, a little sugar to hasten the process of fermentation, or "_rising_," as it is called, some butter or lard, and yeast.

After mixing the materials thoroughly by a process called "kneading," the bread is put aside in a warm place (about 75 deg. Fahrenheit) to "rise." If we examine the dough at this time, we find it filled with holes, which give the mass a spongy appearance. The yeast plants, owing to favorable conditions, have grown rapidly and filled the cavities with carbon dioxide. Alcohol is present, too, but this is evaporated when the dough is baked. The baking cooks the starch of the bread, drives off the carbon dioxide and alcohol, and kills the yeast plants, besides forming a protective crust on the loaf.

Sour Bread.--If yeast cakes are not fresh, sour bread may result from their use. In such yeast cakes there are apt to be present other tiny one-celled plants, known as _bacteria_. Certain of these plants form acids after fermentation takes place. The sour taste of the bread is usually due to this cause. The remedy would be to have fresh yeast, to have good and fresh flour, and to have clean vessels with which to work.

Importance of Yeasts.--Yeasts in their relation to man are thus seen to be for the most part useful. They may get into canned substances put up in sugar and cause them to "work," giving them a peculiar flavor. But they can be easily killed by heating to the temperature of boiling. On the other hand, yeast plants are necessary for the existence of all the great industries which depend upon fermentation. And best of all they give us leavened bread, which has become a necessity to most of mankind.

BACTERIA IN THEIR RELATION TO MAN

What Bacteria do and Where They May be Found.--A walk through a crowded city street on any warm day makes one fully alive to odors which pervade the atmosphere. Some of these unpleasant odors, if traced, are found to come from garbage pails, from piles of decaying fruit or vegetables, or from some butcher shop in which decayed meat is allowed to stand. This characteristic phenomena of decay is one of the numerous ways in which we can detect the presence of bacteria. These tiny plants, "man's invisible friends and foes," are to be found "anywhere, but not everywhere," in nature. They swarm in stale milk, in impure water, in soil, in the living bodies of plants and animals and in their dead bodies as well. Most "catching" diseases we know to be caused directly by them; the processes of decay, souring of milk, acid fermentation, the manufacture of nitrogen for plants are directly or indirectly due to their presence. It will be the purpose of the next paragraphs to find some of the places where bacteria may be found and how we may know of their presence.

How we catch Bacteria to Study Them.--To study bacteria it is first necessary to find some material in which they will grow, then kill all living matter in this food material by heating to boiling point (212 deg.) for half an hour or more (this is called _sterilization_), and finally protect the _culture medium_, as this food is called, from other living things that might grow upon it.

One material in which bacteria seem to thrive is a mixture of beef extract, digested protein and gelatine or agar-agar, the latter a preparation derived from seaweed. This mixture, after sterilization, is poured into flat dishes with loose-fitting covers. These _petri_ dishes, so called after their inventor, are the traps in which we collect and study bacteria.

Where Bacteria might Grow.--Expose a number of these sterilized dishes, each for the same length of time, to some of the following conditions:

(_a_) exposed to the air of the schoolroom. (_b_) exposed in the halls of the school while pupils are passing. (_c_) exposed in the halls of the school when pupils are not moving. (_d_) exposed at the level of a dirty and much-used city street. (_e_) exposed at the level of a well-swept and little-used city street. (_f_) exposed in a city park. (_g_) exposed in a factory building. (_h_) dirt from hands placed in dish. (_i_) rub interior of mouth with finger and touch surface of dish. (_j_) touch surface of dish with decayed vegetable or meat. (_k_) touch surface of dish with dirty coin or bill. (_l_) place in dish two or three hairs from boy's head.

This list might be prolonged indefinitely.

Now let us place all of the dishes together in a moderately warm place (a closet in the schoolroom will do) and watch for results. After a day or two little spots, brown, yellow, white, or red, will begin to appear. These spots, which grow larger day by day, are _colonies_ made up of millions of bacteria. But probably each colony arose from a single bacterium which got into the dish when it was exposed to the air.

How we may isolate Bacteria of Certain Kinds from Others.--In order to get a number of bacteria of a given kind to study, it becomes necessary to grow them in what is known as a pure culture. This is done by first growing the bacteria in some medium such as beef broth, gelatin, or on potato.[20] Then as growth follows the colonies of bacteria appear in the culture media or the beef broth becomes cloudy. If now we wish to study one given form, it becomes necessary to isolate them from the others. This is done by the following process: a platinum needle is first passed through a flame to _sterilize_ it; that is, to kill all living things that may be on the needle point. Then the needle, which cools very quickly, is dipped in a colony containing the bacteria we wish to study. This mass of bacteria is quickly transferred to another sterilized plate, and this plate is immediately covered to prevent any other forms of bacteria from entering. When we have succeeded in isolating a certain kind of bacterium in a given dish, we are said to have a _pure culture_. Having obtained a pure culture of bacteria, they may easily be studied under the compound microscope.

Footnote 20: For directions for making a culture medium, see Hunter, _Laboratory Problems in Civic Biology_. Culture tubes may be obtained, already prepared, from Parke, Davis, and Company or other good chemists.