xi. 25); thus pointedly referring to two of its principal features,

couched too in the same words. The apostle St. Peter seems to make the same allusion when he says, “If ye call on the FATHER,” &c. (1 Pet. i. 17.)

Some have argued that this prayer is to be considered as temporary only, and not of perpetual obligation, because we do not in it ask in the name of CHRIST, according to his direction; but a transaction may be opposed to this, recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, (iv. 24,) in which it is seen, unless the apostles and disciples had so quickly forgotten the direction of their LORD, that prayers may be considered as offered up in the name of CHRIST, though addressed to GOD; for there the disciples, on the liberation of Peter and John by the Jewish council, lift up their voice and say, “LORD, thou art GOD, which hast made heaven and earth, and the sea, and all that in them is;” and they mention CHRIST as his holy child JESUS. In our addresses to GOD, our heavenly FATHER, we cannot forget him through whom we have access as to a father, being “joint-heirs with him.”

Another objection is made, that it does not appear in Scripture that the apostles used this prayer; but to this it may be remarked, that neither does it appear they used any other form, and yet some form of words must have been generally known and used by them, or how could “they lift up their voice with one accord.” (Acts iv. 24; i. 14.)

Bishop Jeremy Taylor justly says, “That the apostles did use the prayer their LORD taught them, I think need not much to be questioned; they could have no other end of their desire; and it had been a strange boldness to ask for a form which they intended not to use, or a strange levity not to do what they intended.”

The learned Bingham observes, that if there were no other argument to prove the lawfulness of set forms of prayer in the judgment of the ancients, the opinion which they had of the LORD’S Prayer, and their practice pursuant to this opinion, would sufficiently do it; and he remarks that they unequivocally looked upon it as a settled form: for Tertullian says expressly that “our LORD prescribed a new form of prayer for the new disciples of the New Testament, and that though John had taught his disciples a form, yet that he did this only as a forerunner of CHRIST, so that when CHRIST was increased, (‘he must increase, but I must decrease,’) then the work of the servant passed over to the LORD. Thus the prayer of John is lost, while that of our LORD remains, that earthly things may give way to heavenly.”

In similar terms speaks Irenæus, (who had himself heard Polycarp, the disciple of St. John,) Origen, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, St. Cyril, St. Jerome, St. Chrysostom, and St. Augustine. The last says expressly, that as the Church always used this prayer, she did it at the commandment of CHRIST. “He said to his disciples—he said to his apostles and to us, pray thus.” St. Chrysostom refers continually to the LORD’S Prayer, as in common use among them by the express commandment of CHRIST, and observes, “that the FATHER well knows the words and meaning of his SON.” St. Cyprian says, “Let the FATHER recognise in your prayers the words of the SON;” and he considers it as a peculiar instance of mercy, “that he who made us taught us how to pray; that whilst we speak unto the FATHER in that prayer and address which the SON taught us, we may the more easily be heard.” He adds, “Since we have an Advocate with the FATHER for our sins, we should, whenever we pray for pardon, allege unto GOD the very words which our Advocate has taught us. We have his promise, that whatever we shall ask in his name we shall receive: and must we not more readily obtain our desires, when we not only use his name in asking, but in his very words, present our request unto GOD. Our Advocate in heaven has taught us to say this prayer upon earth, that between his intercession and our supplications the most perfect harmony may subsist.” The judicious Hooker observes, that “should men speak with the tongues of angels, yet words so pleasing to the ears of GOD, as those which the SON of GOD himself has composed, it were not possible for man to frame.”

There was, indeed, hardly any office in the primitive Church in which the celebration of this prayer did not make a solemn part; so that at length it was called the _Oratio quotidiana_, the daily, the common prayer; the _Oratio legitima_ the established prayer, or the prayer of the Christian law; the “epitome of the gospel:” and St. Augustine even terms it, “the daily baptism,” and a “daily purification,” “for,” says he, “we are absolved once by baptism, but by this prayer daily.” When in succeeding ages some of the clergy in Spain occasionally omitted it in the daily service, they were censured by a council, as “proud contemners of the LORD’S injunction; and it was enacted, that every clergyman omitting it either in private or public prayer should be degraded from the dignity of his office.” It is worthy of remark, that the heathen writer Lucian, nearly contemporary with the apostles, makes a Christian, in one of his dialogues, speak of the prayer which began, “Our FATHER.”

The early Fathers were even of opinion, that the making use of this prayer was of vast efficacy to incline GOD to pardon sins of infirmity, especially those committed through want of fervour and sufficient attention in our other prayers. “As for our daily and slight sins,” says St. Augustine, “without which no one can live, the daily prayer will be accepted by GOD for pardon of them;” and the fourth Council of Toledo enjoins it for this among other reasons. This doctrine the Papists afterwards perverted, by their distinction of sins into venial and mortal, and by the pure _opus operatum_ of repeating the LORD’S Prayer. Of this abuse there is happily no shadow in the present service of our Church, our reformers having wholly rejected and abolished the technical repetition of it (the _Paternoster_) with chaplets and rosaries, to which truly “vain repetitions” the Church of Rome had annexed indulgences.

In conclusion, in whatever else the various liturgies differ, they all agree in the constant and frequent use of this prayer. Dr. Featly says, “the reformed Churches generally conclude their prayers before sermon with the LORD’S Prayer, partly in opposition to the Papists, who close up their devotions with an _Ave Maria_, partly to supply all the defects and imperfections of their own.” And the learned Bingham pointedly declares, “I dare undertake to prove, that for 1500 years together, none ever disliked the use of the LORD’S Prayer, but only the Pelagians; and they did not wholly reject the use of it neither, nor dislike it because it was a form, but for another reason, because it contradicted one of their principal tenets, which was, that some men were so perfect in this world, that they needed not to pray to GOD for the forgiveness of their own sins, but only for those of others.”

For these reasons we cannot but protest against the conclusion of the following paragraph taken from the works of Mr. Boston, a man of exemplary piety, but, as it would seem, of strong prejudices: “From the whole, I think it is evident, that a prayer formed upon the model of this excellent pattern, having the substance of the several petitions interspersed through it, though expressed in other words, is a true Scriptural prayer” (granted, it must be so); “and that there is no necessity to conclude with the LORD’S Prayer” (this is less certain). “And, therefore, I cannot but think that Papists, and many Protestants who conclude their prayers with the very words of the LORD’S Prayer, make a very superstitious use of it, causing people to imagine that the bare recital of the words of the LORD’S Prayer sanctifies their other prayers; and that no prayer can be accepted of GOD where this, I cannot but call it vain, repetition is omitted.” It is confidently hoped that, if what is collected in the present article be perused with attention, the members of the Church of England will be led to exclaim, “We ‘have not so learned CHRIST.’”

_The_ LORD’S _Prayer is to be said with an audible voice_.—It was an ancient custom for the priest to say some parts of the liturgy internally, (_secreto_, ἐν ἑαυτῷ, or μυστικῶς,) in an unintelligible whisper; and in some instances the people joined in this manner, as was the case with respect to the LORD’S Prayer and the creed. This unreasonable practice was put an end to at the Reformation, and the LORD’S Prayer in particular was directed to be said “with an audible voice,” “with a loud voice;” probably that the people might sooner learn this most essential prayer; a practice from which the ignorant may even now find benefit.

The flaming ardency of the seven spirits, and of all the heavenly choir, appears in the intenseness and loudness of their songs, “To him all angels cry aloud!” They do not breathe out faint or forced hallelujahs; their songs resemble, as St. John describes them, “the voice of many waters,” and “the voice of mighty thunderings.” (Rev. xix. 6.) But where are the least tokens of this seraphic ardency in our worship here on earth? The sacrifice of this our public service, like Elijah’s, is put in excellent order, but we ourselves “put no fire under!” On the contrary, a voluntary coldness runs through all the parts and offices of it, like the water poured on by Elijah, which “ran round the altar and filled all the trenches.” And it is next to a miracle if God accepts such cold offerings, or answers us from heaven, unless with the fire, not of acceptance, but of vengeance.—_Bisse on the Lord’s Prayer._

_The people are to repeat it with the priest._—When the LORD’S Prayer was directed to be said with an audible voice, it was, in the Romish Church, said by the priest alone; but in the Greek and ancient Gallican Churches, by the priest and people together—a custom which the Church of England has adopted in preference to the Roman. Until the review of 1661, the minister began the prayer, and went through it alone to the conclusion of the last petition, “but deliver us from evil,” which the people said; in order, as Bishop Sparrow remarks, that they might not be interrupted from bearing a part in so divine a prayer. In a rubric in the Communion Service, near the conclusion, the manner in which the LORD’S Prayer should be used is clearly laid down. “Then shall the priest say the LORD’S Prayer, the people repeating after him every petition.”

In none of the successive editions of the Prayer Book till the last review, was there any direction for the people prefixed to the first occurrence of the LORD’S Prayer. In King Edward’s First Book at its second recurrence, after the creed, the latter clause, “but deliver us from evil,” was inserted. This was altered in the Second Book of King Edward; and the direction, “Then the minister, clerks, and people,” &c., inserted, as we have it now. In the Litany, the two last clauses were marked as verse and response, till the last review. In the Communion no direction was given for the people;—at its second occurrence, the verse and response were marked, as in the Litany: but in the Second Book, the people were directed to repeat after him every petition, as now. The Scotch Prayer Book (temp. K. Chas. I.) first inserted the doxology, at both its occurrence in Morning and Evening Prayer, and at its last in the Communion. At the last review the doxology was inserted at its first occurrence in the Morning and Evening Prayer, and at the end of the Communion; and the versicular arrangement in the Litany was altered. The notation of the verse and response, with their proper cadences, is retained in the old choral manuals.

Wheatly remarks that “the doxology was appointed by the last review to be used in this place, partly, he supposes, because many copies of St. Matthew have it, and the Greek Fathers expound it; and partly because the office here is a matter of praise, it being used immediately after the absolution.” And again, in the Post Communion, “the doxology is here annexed, because all these devotions are designed for an act of praise, for the benefits received in the holy sacrament.” And in the Churching of Women, “the doxology was added to the LORD’S Prayer at the last review, by reason of its being an office of thanksgiving.”

In the Romish service, except in the Mass, the priest speaks the words, “_Et ne nos_,” &c., “Lead us not into temptation,” in a peculiar tone of voice, by which the people are apprized of its being the time for them to answer, “But deliver us from evil.” This also is a custom at the end of every prayer, that the people may know when to say “Amen.” In the Mosarabic liturgy the priest says the prayer by himself, and the people answer “Amen” to each petition.

The catechumens and the energumens, or those possessed with evil spirits, were not suffered in the primitive Church to join in the tremendous cry sent up by the people, but only bowed their heads in token of assent.

It may be observed that the several paragraphs of the LORD’S Prayer are made to begin, in our Church Prayer Book, with a capital letter, in order, most probably, to mark accurately the places where the people should take up their parts; and this method is adopted in the confession in the daily service, in the creeds, the _Gloria in excelsis_, in the Communion Service, and in the confession and deprecation in the Commination Service on Ash Wednesday.

But it must likewise be observed, that this method does not seem to be so closely followed in the Cambridge as in the Oxford books, the former combining the fourth and fifth paragraphs, the seventh and eighth, and the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth in the LORD’S Prayer; and yet in these copies the word “and” is retained before “the power,” &c., but dropped in the latter.

To make this matter clear, however, we subjoin the prayer as printed and pointed in the sealed books, at the beginning of Morning and Evening Prayer.

Our Father, which art in Heaven, Hallowed be thy Name. Thy Kingdom come. Thy will be done in Earth, As it is in Heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, As we forgive them, that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation; But deliver us from evil: For thine is the Kingdom, the Power, And the Glory, For ever and ever. Amen.

Here _and_ before _the Power_ is, in all the collated copies of sealed books, crossed out with a pen, both in the Morning and Evening Prayer.

In the Post Communion Service, there is some difference of punctuation and of type: e.g.

Our Father which art in heaven; Hallowed be thy Name. Thy Kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, As it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, As we forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation: But deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, The power and the glory, For ever and ever. Amen.

Here _and_ was never inserted before _The power_.

After the Creed, the punctuation is as in the first specimen, except a colon after _temptation_, and a full stop with “Amen” after _evil_. _Heaven_ and _Earth_ do not begin with capitals. The same in the Litany, except there is a semicolon after _temptation_. At its first occurrence in the Communion, the punctuation, &c. is the same as in the Post Communion, except that there is a comma after _temptation_. A full stop and “Amen” after _evil_.

Demosthenes said, when he was reproved for studying his orations, that it argued his reverence for the people of Athens. So doth our study, in making exact forms, declare our esteem for Almighty GOD.—_Comber._ And we have this sacred form from the Wonderful Counsellor, who came out of the bosom of his FATHER, and knew his treasures, as well as our wants; he best could inform us what was fit for us to ask, and what most likely for him to grant: he was to go to heaven to be our advocate there, and he hath taught us to use this here, that there may be a harmony between our requests and his. For which cause it ought to be united to all our offices to make up their defects, and recommend them to “Our heavenly FATHER,” who cannot deny us when we speak the very same words which his dear SON hath put in our mouths, if we use them with understanding and devotion.—_Ibid._

LORD’S SUPPER. An ancient name for the sacrament of the holy eucharist. The name occurs in 1 Cor. xi. 20; but in that passage it is generally supposed by the most learned divines, that reference is made to the love-feast, kept in imitation of our LORD’S last supper, which was previous to the original eucharist. Thus much, however, says Dr. Waterland, is certain, that in the apostolical times the love-feast and the eucharist, though distinct, went together, and were nearly allied to each other, and were both of them celebrated at one meeting. (See _Eucharist_, _Agapæ_, and _Communion_.)

As by the sacrament of baptism we enter into the Christian covenant, so by that of the LORD’S supper we profess our thankful continuance in it: and therefore the first answer of our catechism concerning this ordinance tells us, that it was appointed “for the continual remembrance of the sacrifice of the death of CHRIST, and of the benefits which we receive thereby.”—_Abp. Secker._

It is called the LORD’S supper because it was both instituted by our LORD at supper, and was designed to succeed into the place of the paschal supper of the Jews. (Matt. xxvi. 26, &c.; Mark xiv. 22; 1 Cor. xi. 23–25, &c.)—_Abp. Wake._

LORD’S TABLE. One of the names given to the altar in Christian churches. (See _Altar_.)

LOUD VOICE. A term in our liturgy which may be considered technical; as not merely meaning _audible_, (though this expression is also used,) but as being a contradistinction to the _secretò_ of the unreformed service, and the _mystic_ voice (μυστικῶς) of the Greek Church: certain prayers and part of the service having been repeated in an inaudible whisper. (See _Secretò_, and _Mystic Voice_, also _Lord’s Prayer_.)

LOVE-FEASTS. (See _Agapæ_.) Feasts held in the apostolic age before the celebration of the eucharist, and discontinued on account of the abuse of them.

LOVE, THE FAMILY OF. A sect of enthusiasts, which arose in Holland, and being propagated across the Channel, appeared in England about the year 1580.

These sectaries pretended to a more than ordinary sanctity, which gained upon the affections of the common people. They affirmed, that none were of the number of the elect, but such as were admitted into their family, and that all the rest were reprobate, and consigned over to eternal damnation. They held, likewise, that it was lawful for them to swear to an untruth before a magistrate, for their own convenience, or before any person, who was not of their society. In order to propagate their opinions, they dispersed books, translated out of Dutch into English, entitled, _The Gospel of the Kingdom_. _Documental Sentences._ _The Prophecy of the Spirit of Love._ _The Publishing of Peace upon Earth, &c._

These _Familists_ could by no means be prevailed upon to discover their author: nevertheless it was afterwards found to be Henry Nicholas of Leyden, who blasphemously pretended that he partook of the Divinity of GOD, and GOD of his humanity. Queen Elizabeth issued a proclamation against these impious sectaries, and ordered their books to be publicly burnt.

LOW SUNDAY. Upon the octave of the first Sunday after Easter day, it was the custom of the ancients to repeat some part of the solemnity which was used upon Easter day; whence this Sunday took the name of Low Sunday, being celebrated as a feast, though of a lower degree than Easter day itself.

It was also called _Dominica in albis_, [or rather, _post albas depositas_, according to some ritualists, as Wheatly remarks,] because it was the day on which those who had been baptized on Easter eve put off their white garments.

LUCIFERIANS, in ecclesiastical antiquity, is the name of those Christians who persisted in the schism of _Lucifer_, bishop of Cagliari, the capital of Sardinia.

Lucifer lived in the fourth century, and was famous for his extraordinary virtues and abilities. He was deputed by the pope to the emperor Constantius, and procured the calling of a council at Milan in the year 355, by which he himself, and the rest of the orthodox prelates, who defended Athanasius, were condemned to banishment. He was recalled from his exile by the emperor Julian, in 361, when, coming to Antioch, where the church was extremely divided between the followers of Euzoius the Arian, and of Meletius and Eustathius, orthodox bishops, he, to put an end to the schism, ordained Paulinus bishop, whom neither of the orthodox parties approved. Eusebius of Vercelli, whom the Council of Alexandria had sent to heal the divisions, extremely disapproved this ordination; whereupon Lucifer, who was of an inflexible spirit, broke off communion with him and the other prelates, and retired to Sardinia, where to his death he persisted in his separation, and, by this means, gave birth to a schism, which caused a great deal of mischief to the Church. It continued to the end of the reign of Theodosius the Great, after which time authors make little or no mention of it.

LUKE, ST., THE EVANGELIST’S DAY. A festival of the Christian Church, observed on the 18th of October.

St. Luke was born at Antioch, and professed physic. It is not agreed whether he was, by birth, a Jew, or a heathen. Epiphanius, who makes him to be one of the seventy disciples, and consequently a Jew, thinks he was one of those who left JESUS CHRIST upon hearing these words, “He who eateth not my flesh, and drinketh not my blood, is not worthy of me;” but that he returned to the faith upon hearing St. Paul’s sermons at Antioch. Some authors suppose he was Cleopas’s companion, and went with him to Emmaus, when JESUS CHRIST joined them.

St. Luke accompanied St. Paul in his several journeys; but at what time they first came together is uncertain. Some think he met St. Paul at Antioch, and from that time never forsook him. Others believe they met at Troas, because St. Luke himself says, “immediately we endeavoured to go into Macedonia, from Troas.”

Some think he survived St. Paul many years, and that he died at eighty-four years of age: but where, authors are not agreed. Achaia, Thebes in Bœotia, Elea in the Peloponnesus, Ephesus, and Bithynia, are severally named as the place of his death. Nor are authors better agreed as to the manner of it. Some believe he suffered martyrdom; and the modern Greeks affirm he was crucified on an olive-tree. Others, on the contrary, and among them many of the moderns, think he died a natural death.

LUKE’S, ST., GOSPEL. A canonical book of the New Testament. Some think it was properly St. Paul’s Gospel, and that when St. Paul speaks of his Gospel, he means what is called St. Luke’s Gospel. Irenæus says only, that St. Luke digested into writing what St. Paul preached to the Gentiles; and Gregory Nazianzen tells us, that St. Luke wrote with the assistance of St. Paul.

This evangelist addresses his Gospel, and the Acts of the Apostles, to one Theophilus, of whom we have no knowledge; many of the ancients have taken this name, in an appellative sense, for any one who loves GOD.

LUTHERANS. Those Christians who follow the opinions of Martin Luther.

This sect took its rise from the just offence which was taken at the indulgences (see _Indulgences_) which, in 1517, were granted by Pope Leo X., to those who contributed towards the finishing St. Peter’s church, at Rome. It is said, the pope at first gave the princess Cibo, his sister, that branch of the revenue of indulgences which were collected in Saxony; that afterwards these indulgences were farmed out to those who would give most for them; and that these purchasers, to make the most of their bargain, pitched upon such preachers, receivers, and collectors of indulgences, as they thought proper for their purpose, who managed their business in a scandalous manner. The pope had sent these indulgences to Prince Albert, archbishop of Mentz, and brother to the Elector of Brandenburg, to publish them in Germany. This prelate put his commission into the hands of John Tetzel, a Dominican, and an inquisitor, who employed several of his own order to preach up and recommend these indulgences to the people. These Dominicans managed the matter so well, that the people eagerly bought up all the indulgences. And the farmers, finding money come in very plentifully, spent it publicly in a luxurious and libertine manner.

John Staupitz, vicar-general of the Augustines in Germany, was the first who took occasion to declare against these abuses; for which purpose he made use of Martin Luther, the most learned of all the Augustines. He was a native of Eisleben, a town of the county of Mansfeld, in Saxony; and he taught divinity at the university of Wittemberg. This learned Augustine mounted the pulpit, and declaimed vehemently against the abuse of indulgences. Nor did he stop here; he fixed ninety-five propositions upon the church doors of Wittemberg, not as dogmatical points which he himself held, but in order to be considered and examined in a public conference. John Tetzel, the Dominican, immediately published 106 propositions against them, at Frankfort upon the Oder; and, by virtue of the office of inquisitor, ordered those of Luther to be burnt; whose adherents, to revenge the affront offered to Luther, publicly burnt those of Tetzel at Wittemberg. Thus war was declared between the Dominicans and Augustines, and soon after between the Roman Catholics and the Lutheran party, which from that time began to appear openly against the Western Church.

In the year 1518, Eckius, professor of divinity at Ingolstadt, and Silvester Prierius, a Dominican, and master of the sacred palace, wrote against Luther’s _Theses_, who answered them in a tract, which he sent to the pope and the bishop of Brandenburg, his diocesan, offering to submit to the Holy See in the points contested. But Prierius having published a discourse full of extravagant amplifications of the pope’s power, Luther took occasion from thence to make the papal authority appear odious to the Germans. In the mean time, the process against Luther going on at Rome, the pope summoned him to appear there within sixty days: but, at the instance of the duke of Saxony, his Holiness consented that the cause should be examined in Germany, and delegated his legate, Cardinal Cajetan, to try it. This cardinal gave Luther a peremptory order to recant, and not to appear any more before him unless he complied; upon which Luther, in the night-time, posted up an appeal to the pope, and retired to Wittemberg. Afterwards, fearing he should be condemned at Rome, he published a protestation in form of law, and appealed to a general council.

In the beginning of the next year, 1519, the emperor Maximilian dying, and the Elector of Saxony, who protected Luther, being vicar of the empire during the interregnum, that reformer’s interest and character were greatly raised, and he was generally looked upon as a man sent from GOD to correct the abuses which had crept into the Roman Church. In June, the same year, there was a famous conference between Luther, Eckius, and Carolostadius, at Leipsic; in which they agreed to refer themselves to the universities of Erfurt and Paris. The points debated upon were, free-will, purgatory, indulgences, penance, and the pope’s supremacy.

In 1520, Luther sent his book _De Libertate Christianâ_ to the pope; in which he grounds justification upon faith alone, without the assistance of good works; and asserts, that Christian liberty rescues us from the bondage of human traditions, and particularly the slavery of papal impositions. Afterwards, in a remonstrance written in High Dutch, he proceeded to deny the authority of the Church of Rome.

In June the same year, the pope resolved to apply the last remedies which the Church makes use of against her enemies, and began with condemning in writing forty-one propositions extracted from Luther’s writings, giving him sixty days to recant: but Luther refusing to comply, the pope declared him excommunicated, and sent the bull by Eckius to the Elector of Saxony and the university of Wittemberg, who agreed to defer the publication of it. In the mean time Luther wrote against the bull with great warmth and freedom, and appealed once more from the pope to a general council. Besides which, he caused a large bonfire to be made without the walls of Wittemberg, and threw into it with his own hands the pope’s bull, together with the decretals, extravagants, and Clementines. This example was followed by his disciples in several other towns.

The emperor Charles V. declared against Luther, and ordered his books to be burnt. Upon the opening of the Diet of Worms, in 1521, Luther, with the emperor’s permission, appeared there, and made a speech in defence of himself and his opinions. But, when the diet found that he would neither stand to the decisions of councils nor the decrees of popes, the emperor gave him twenty days to retire to a place of security, and, a month after, published his imperial edict, by which Luther was put under the ban of the empire, as an heretic and schismatic. But the duke of Saxony gave private orders to convey Luther to the castle of Wartburg, where he was concealed three quarters of a year. He worked hard in this retirement, which he called his _Isle of Patmos_, and kept up the spirit of his party by writing new books; among which were his “Tracts” against auricular confession, private masses, monastic vows, and the celibacy of the clergy. About this time the university of Paris, to which he had appealed, condemned a hundred propositions extracted out of his books; and King Henry VIII. of England wrote against him in defence of the seven sacraments. Luther replied both to the _Sorbonne_ and to the king of England, but in a very rude and unmannerly way.

Soon after he broke out of his retirement, and was so hardy as to publish a bull against the pope’s bull _In cœna Domini_, calling it the Bull and Reformation of Doctor Luther. About this time he published part of his translation of the Bible, in which he departed from the _Vulgate_, so long authorized and received by the Church.

The Elector of Saxony, who all along favoured and protected Luther, now gave him leave to reform the churches of Wirtemberg as he thought fit. The reformer proposed likewise a regulation concerning the patrimony of the Church; which was, that the bishops, abbots, and monks should be expelled, and all the lands and revenues of the bishoprics, abbeys, and monasteries, should _escheat_ to the respective princes; and that all the convents of Mendicant friars should be turned into public schools or hospitals. This project pleased the princes and magistrates, who began to relish Luther’s doctrine extremely; insomuch that, at the Diet of Wirtemberg in 1523, when Pope Adrian VI. insisted upon the bull of Leo X. and the Edict of Worms against Luther, he could not prevail with the princes to put them in execution, but was answered, that a general council ought to be called, and that there ought to be a reformation of the ecclesiastics, and especially of the court of Rome. This year, Luther had the satisfaction to see a league contracted between Gustavus, king of Sweden, and Frederick, king of Denmark, who both agreed to establish Lutheranism in their dominions. And now Luther’s persuasion, which, from the Upper Saxony, had spread itself into the northern provinces, began to be perfectly settled in the duchies of Lunenburg, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, and Pomerania; and in the archbishoprics of Magdeburg and Bremen; and in the towns of Hamburg, Wismar, Rostock; and all along the Baltic, as far as Livonia and Prussia.

About this time Luther left off the habit of a monk, and dressed himself like a doctor, refusing to be saluted with the title of _reverend father_. Erasmus having written a book concerning free-will, (_De Libero Arbitrio_,) Luther answered it in another, entitled _De Servo Arbitrio_. In 1525, Thomas Münzer and Nicholas Storc, taking their leave of Luther, put themselves at the head of the _Anabaptists_ and _Fanatics_. About this time Luther married a nun, called Catharine Boren, exhorting all the ecclesiastics and monks to follow his example. In 1526, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, turned Lutheran, who gave great life and spirit to that party.

In March, 1529, the Diet of Spire decreed that the Catholics should not have the liberty to change their religion; that the Lutherans should be tolerated till the meeting of a council, but not allowed to molest the Catholics; and that the preachers should deliver nothing in their sermons contrary to the received doctrines of the Church. The Lutheran princes entered a solemn _protestation_ against this decree, from whence came the name of _Protestants_, taken up first by the Lutherans, and afterwards received among the Calvinists.

The beginning of October, this year, was held at Marburg the conference between Luther and Zwinglius, in relation to the eucharist; the latter affirming that there is nothing more than bread and wine in the LORD’S supper, which elements are the figure and representation of his body and blood; and Luther asserting that his body and blood are really present, but under the substance of bread and wine, and that only in the act of receiving the sacrament; after which he did not acknowledge the continuance of this presence. This conference broke up without coming to any accommodation.

In 1530, the Lutherans or Protestants drew up a Confession of Faith, which they presented to the Diet of Augsburg. (See _Augsburg, Confession of_.)

The year after, the Protestant princes made the famous league of _Smalcalde_, which obliged the emperor to grant the Lutherans a toleration, till the differences in religion were settled by a council, which he engaged himself to call in six months.

The Lutheran party gaining strength every day, and having refused the bull for convening a council at Mantua, the emperor summoned a general diet at Ratisbon, where a scheme of religion for reconciling the two parties was examined: but, after they had examined and disputed for a month together, the divines could agree upon no more than five or six articles, concerning justification, free-will, original sin, baptism, good works, and episcopacy; for, when they came to other points, and especially the eucharist, the Lutherans would by no means yield to the other party. The diet ended with a decree of the emperor, strictly forbidding the Lutherans to tamper with any person to make them quit their old religion, and at the same time suspending all the edicts published against them.

Martin Luther lived to see the opening of the famous Council of Trent, for accommodating the differences in religion; which put him upon acting with more vigour and warmth against the Church of Rome, as foreseeing that his opinions would be condemned there. In short, he left no stone unturned to engage the Protestant princes to act against the council; which measures he continued to pursue until his death, which happened in February, 1546.

Maurice, the Elector of Saxony, having taken the field against the emperor, and concluded a peace with him at Passaw, in 1552, it was stipulated that the exercise of Lutheranism, as stated by the Confession of Augsburg, should be tolerated all over the empire; which toleration was to last for ever, in case the differences in religion could not be accommodated within six months. And thus Lutheranism was perfectly settled in Germany.

The Lutherans are generally divided into the _moderate_ and the _rigid_. The _moderate Lutherans_ are those who submitted to the _Interim_, published by the emperor Charles V. Melancthon was the head of this party. (See _Interim_.)

The _rigid Lutherans_ are those who would not endure any alteration in any of Luther’s opinions. The head of this party was Matthias Flacius, famous for writing the _Centuries of Magdeburg_, in which he had three other Lutheran ministers for his assistants.

To these are added another division, called _Luthero-Zwinglians_, because they held some of Luther’s tenets and some of Zwinglius, yielding something to each side, to prevent the ill consequence of disunion in the _Reformation_.

The Lutherans retain the use of the altar for the celebration of the holy communion, some of the ancient vestments, and the mitre and pastoral staff for their bishops, at least in Sweden. They likewise make use of lighted tapers in their churches, of incense, and a crucifix on the altar, of the sign of the cross, and of images, &c. Several of their doctors acknowledge that such materials add a lustre and majesty to Divine worship, and fix at the same time the attention of the people.

The Lutherans retain the observance of several solemn festivals after their reformation. They keep three solemn days of festivity at Christmas. In some Lutheran countries, the people go to church on the night of the nativity of our blessed SAVIOUR with lighted candles or wax tapers in their hands; and the faithful, who meet in the church, spend the whole night there in singing and saying their prayers by the light of them. Sometimes they burn such a large quantity of incense, that the smoke of it ascends like a whirlwind, and their devotees may properly enough be said to be wrapped up in it. It is customary, likewise, in Germany, to give entertainments at such times to friends and relations, and to send presents to each other, especially to the young people, whom they amuse with very idle and romantic stories, telling them that our blessed SAVIOUR descends from heaven on the night of his nativity, and brings with him all kinds of playthings.

They have three holidays at Easter, and three at Whitsuntide, as well as those before mentioned at Christmas. These festivals have nothing peculiar in them with respect to the ceremonies observed at those times; but with regard to some particular superstitions, they are remarkable enough; as, for instance, that of the paschal water, which is looked on as a sovereign remedy for sore eyes, and very serviceable in uniting broken limbs. This paschal water is nothing more than common river water, taken up on Easter Day, before the rising of the sun. They have another superstitious notion with respect to their horses: they imagine that the swimming them in the river on Easter Day, before the sun rises, preserves them from lameness.

The other festivals observed by the Lutherans are, New Year’s Day, or the Circumcision, a festival not near so ancient as the four above mentioned; the festival of the Three Kings, or, otherwise, the Epiphany; the Purification of the Blessed Virgin, or Candlemas; and Lady Day, or the Annunciation. There is no public work nor service devoted to the Blessed Virgin, nor are there any processions, or other ceremonies, which are observed by the Roman Catholics on the two latter festivals. The festival of the Sacred Trinity is solemnized on the Sunday after Whitsunday; that of St. John Baptist, on the 24th of June; and that of the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin, on the 2nd of July, as it is by the Roman Catholics. To conclude, the festival of St. Michael the Archangel, or rather the ceremonies observed by the Lutherans on that day, are the remains only of an ancient custom, which has been preserved amongst them, although somewhat extraordinary, as the members of their communion retain no manner of veneration for angels.

In 1523, Luther drew up a formulary of the mass and communion for the particular service of the church of Wittemberg. Without attempting to particularize the various parts of it, it may be observed that all the churches where Lutheranism prevailed were obliged entirely to conform to it. However, those orders were never punctually obeyed. Some Lutheran countries have one ritual, and some another. There is a difference, likewise, in their liturgies, though, as to the fundamental articles, they all agree.—_Broughton._

LYCH-GATE, or CORPSE-GATE. From _leich_, “a dead body”—(hence Leitchfield). A gate at the entrance of the churchyard, where the body was placed before burial. These are of frequent occurrence in ancient churchyards.

LYCHNOSCOPE. A narrow window near the ground, very frequently found at the south-west end of a chancel, not infrequently at the north-west, and sometimes, though seldom, in other parts of the church. The name was given on the assumption, (which is now, perhaps, universally abandoned,) that its use was to watch the pasch-light from without the church. The theory now commonly adopted, and at least in part proved, is, that lychnoscopes were confessionals. The last and fullest exposition and examination of the various theories of the use of these windows may be found in a paper by Mr. Lowe, in the first volume of the “Transactions of the Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, and other Architectural Societies.” In this paper their use as ventilators is suggested.

MACCABEES. There are two books of this name in the Apocrypha, both of an uncertain order. They are called Maccabees, because they relate the patriotic and gallant exploits of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren. The _first_ book, which is a most valuable and authentic history, contains the history of the Jews from the beginning of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death of Simon, a period of about thirty-four years. The _second_ book, which is far less valuable, and less to be depended upon, and which is in some places at variance with canonical Scripture, contains the history of about fifteen years, A. M. 3828 to 3843, from the commission of Heliodorus to pillage the temple, to the victory of Judas Maccabeus over Nicanor. These two books are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholics; but there are besides two other books, called the _third_ and _fourth_ books of Maccabees, of very little authority, and which were never admitted into the canon by any Church. The Books of Maccabees are not read in the service of the Church of England.

MACEDONIANS. So called from Macedonius, a bishop of Constantinople, deposed from his see by a council of 360, and also _Pneumatomachians_, from πνεῦμα, (_Spiritus_,) and μάχομαι, (_pugno_,) from their distinctive error: a sect of heretics who arose in the fourth century, who denied the separate personality of the HOLY GHOST. They were condemned by the second general council, (of Constantinople,) anno 381, and against their errors the expansion of the latter portion of the Nicene Creed was directed: “I believe in the HOLY GHOST, the LORD and giver of life, who proceedeth from the FATHER and the SON, who with the FATHER and the SON together is worshipped and glorified, who spake by the prophets.”

MAGDEBURG CENTURIES. (See _Centuries_.)

MAGISTRAL. An officer in cathedral and collegiate churches and royal chapels in Spain, generally a canon, whose duty it was to preach a certain course of sermons. He was so called, as it was necessary for him to be a master (or, as we should call it, bachelor) in theology. This was a _prebenda de oppositione_, that is, it was conferred upon the successful candidate in a public disputation so called.

MAGNIFICAT. The song of the blessed Virgin Mary, which is appointed to be said or sung in English after the first lesson at Evening Prayer, unless the 90th Psalm, called _Cantate Domino_, is used.

MALACHI, THE PROPHECY OF. A canonical book of the Old Testament.

The author of the Lives of the Prophets, and the Alexandrian Chronicle, say, that Malachi was of the tribe of Zebulun, and a native of Sapha, and that the name of Malachi was given him because of his _angelical_ mildness; which made Origen and Tertullian believe, that he was an “angel incarnate.” He is called an “angel” by most of the Fathers, and in the version of the Septuagint. Some think that Malachi is no other than Ezra, or Esdras, and this is the opinion of the ancient Hebrews, of the Chaldee Paraphrast, and of St. Jerome.

Malachi is the last of the twelve lesser prophets. He prophesied about three hundred years before CHRIST, reproving the Jews for their wickedness after their return from Babylon, charging them with rebellion, sacrilege, adultery, profaneness, and infidelity, and condemning the priests for being careless and scandalous in their ministry. At the same time, he forgets not to encourage the “pious remnant,” who, in that corrupt age, “feared the LORD, and thought upon his name.”

This prophet distinctly points at the MESSIAH, who was “suddenly to come to his temple,” and to be introduced by Elijah the prophet, that is, by John the Baptist, who came “in the spirit and power of Elias,” or Elijah.

The Jews pretend that, in the time of Darius, son of Hystaspis, there was held a general assembly of the heads of their nation, to settle the canon of their Scriptures; that Daniel, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi presided in this council, and that Esdras was their secretary. But it is certain Daniel did not live at that time. They add, that in the last year of Darius, died the prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, and with them ceased the spirit of prophecy among the Israelites; and that this was the sealing up of vision and prophecy, spoken of by Daniel.

The death of the prophet Malachi is placed, in the Roman martyrology, on the 14th of January.

MANASSES, PRAYER OF. One of the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, which is rejected as spurious even by the Church of Rome; and though in the list of the apocryphal books contained in the sixth Article, is not read in the service of the Church of England. It cannot be traced to a higher source than the Vulgate version; and is evidently not the prayer of King Munasseh, mentioned in 2 Chron. xxxiii. 18, 19, as it never was extant in the Hebrew.—_Horne’s Introd._

MANICHEANS. Christian heretics, who took their name from one Manes. The ancients do not well agree as to the time of this heretic’s first appearance. But Spanheim says, it was in the time of Probus, a little before Diocletian, and that his heresy was a compound of the Pythagorean, Gnostic, and Marcionite opinions. According to the accounts given by the Greeks, (from whom, however, the Oriental writers differ considerably,) one Terebinthus, disciple to Scythianus, a magician, finding that in Persia, whither he was forced to retire out of Palestine, the priests and learned men of the country did strongly oppose his errors and designs, retired into a widow’s house, where (it is said) he was killed, either by angels or by demons, as he was engaged in incantations. This woman, being heiress to the money and books of Terebinthus, bought a slave named Cubricus, whom she afterwards adopted, and caused to be instructed in all the sciences of Persia. This man, after the woman’s death, changed his name, to obliterate the memory of his first condition, and assumed that of Manes. He pretended to be the apostle of CHRIST, and that he was the Comforter our SAVIOUR promised to send. He promised the king of Persia that he would cure his son; whereupon the father sent away all the physicians, and the patient died soon after: whereupon Manes was imprisoned, but made his escape; but being soon apprehended again, was flayed alive, and his carcass thrown to the wild beasts.

Manes held that there were two principles, the one good, from whence proceeded the good soul of man, and the other bad, from whence proceeded the evil soul, and likewise the body with all corporeal creatures. He taught his disciples to profess a great severity of life, notwithstanding which they were able to wallow in all impurity, and he forbade to give alms to any that were not of his own sect. He attributed the motions of concupiscence to the evil soul; he gave out that the souls of his followers went through the elements to the moon, and afterwards to the sun, to be purified, and then to GOD, in whom they did rejoin; and those of other men, he alleged, went to hell, to be sent into other bodies. He alleged, that CHRIST had his residence in the sun; the HOLY GHOST in the air; wisdom in the moon; and the FATHER in the abyss of light: he denied the resurrection, and condemned marriage; he held Pythagoras’s transmigration of souls; that CHRIST had no real body; that he was neither dead nor risen, and that he was the Serpent that tempted Eve. He forbade the use of eggs, cheese, milk, and wine, as creatures proceeding from a bad principle; he used a form of baptism different from that of the Church. He taught that magistrates were not to be obeyed, and condemned the most lawful wars. It were next to impossible to recount all the impious and damnable tenets of this heresiarch, insomuch that Leo the Great said of him, that the devil reigned in all other heresies, but he had built a fortress and raised his throne in that of the Manicheans, who embraced all the errors and impieties that the spirit of man was capable of; for whatever profanation was in Paganism, carnal blindness in Judaism, unlawful curiosity in magic, or sacrilegious in other heresies, did all centre in that of the Manicheans.

The Manicheans were divided into hearers and the elect: of the elect, twelve were called masters, in imitation of the twelve apostles; and there was a thirteenth, who was a kind of pope amongst them. Authors charge them with ascribing a body to GOD, and alleging that he was substantially in everything, though never so base as mire, dirt, &c., but was separated from them by the coming of CHRIST, and by the Manicheans eating the fruits of the earth. They likewise maintained, that there had been a great combat between the princes of darkness and light, wherein they who held for GOD were taken prisoners, and that he laboured still for their redemption. Moreover, he held that the sun and the moon were ships, that the soul of a man and of a tree were of the same substance, and both of them a part of GOD; that sin was a substance, and not a quality or affection, and therefore natural, and that acquired by the fall; he likewise held a fatality, and denied free-will. The emperors, in the fourth century, made laws against these heretics, who renewed their opinions in Africa, Gaul, and Rome, where a council was held against them.—But Manicheism continued to exist among the heretics of the middle ages.—See _Burton_. _Augusti._

MANIPLE, or MANUPLE. Originally a narrow strip of linen suspended from the left arm of the priest, and used to wipe away the perspiration from the face: gradually it received embellishments, it was bordered by a fringe, and decorated with needle-work. It is not improbable that its use might be to clean the sacred vessels, as has been supposed by some, for in the eleventh century it was given to the subdeacons as the badge of their order. It is distinguished from the _epigonaton_ by being worn on the left side. The maniple is not retained among the ecclesiastical vestments of the Church of England.

MANSE. _Mansio._ The ancient name (as appears from old records) for an ecclesiastical residence, whether parochial or collegiate. In Scotland it was peculiarly appropriated to parsonage houses; and now designates the residences of the ministers of the Presbyterian establishment. It was anciently applied also to the prebendal houses there.—See _M’Ure’s History of Glasgow_.

MANSIONARIES. The permanently resident canons in some Italian cathedrals: in others of the same country the term was applied to certain of the inferior clergy.

MANUDUCTOR, (_Lat._,) in the ancient Christian Church, was an officer, who, from the middle of the choir, where he was placed, gave the signal to the choristers to sing, marked the measure, beat the time, and regulated the music. He was so called, because he led or guided the choir by the motions and gesture of the hand.

The Greeks called the same kind of officer _Mesochoros_, because he was seated in the middle of the choir.

MARANATHA. On this word, which is added by St. Paul to the word _Anathema_, in 1 Cor. xvi. 22, Bingham, who has collected the authorities of the Fathers, tells us that St. Chrysostom says it is a Hebrew word, signifying _The_ LORD _is come_: and he particularly applies it to the confusion of those who still abused the privileges of the gospel, notwithstanding that the LORD was come among them. “This word,” says he, “speaks terror to those who make their members the members of an harlot, who offend their brethren by eating things offered to idols, who name themselves by the names of men, who deny the resurrection. The LORD of all is come down among us; and yet ye continue the same men ye were before, and persevere in your sins.” St. Jerome says, it was more a Syriac than a Hebrew word, though it had something in it of both languages, signifying _Our_ LORD _is come_. But he applies it against the perverseness of the Jews, and others who denied the coming of CHRIST: making this the sense of the apostle, “If any man love not the LORD JESUS CHRIST, let him be _Anathema, the_ LORD _is come_; wherefore it is superfluous for any to contend with pertinacious hatred against him, of the truth of whose coming there is such apparent demonstration.” The same sense is given by Theodoret, by Hilary the deacon, and Pelagius, whose writings have passed under the names of St. Ambrose and St. Jerome respectively. And it is received by Estius and Dr. Lightfoot as the truest interpretation. So that, according to this sense, _Maranatha_ could not be any part of the form of excommunication, but only a reason for pronouncing _Anathema_ against those who expressed their hatred against CHRIST, by denying his coming; either in words, as the Jews did, who blasphemed CHRIST, and called JESUS _Anathema_ or accursed; or else by wicked works, as those who lived profanely under the name of Christian. But Parkhurst is rather inclined to derive it from the Hebrew, _miharem atha_, signifying _cursed art thou_; the _m_ being changed into _n_, as was frequent among Hellenizing Jews.

MARCIONITES. Heretics of the second century, so called from Marcion. He was born at Sinope, in Paphlagonia or Helenopontus, on the coast of the _Pontus Euxinus_, or Black Sea, and for that reason is sometimes called _Ponticus_. He studied the Stoic philosophy in his younger years, and was a lover of solitude and poverty; but being convicted of uncleanness with a virgin, he was, by his father, who was a bishop, expelled from the Church. After this he went to Rome, where being not admitted into Church communion, because his father had not consented to it, he in spite embraced Cerdon’s heresy, and became the author of new heresies, about A. D. 134. He held with Cerdon two gods, the one good, the other bad: the latter, he said, was the author of the world, and of the law; but the good, he said, was the author of the gospel and redeemer of the world. He said that Christ was sent on purpose to abolish the law, as being bad. Origen affirms, that he supposed there was a GOD of the Jews, a GOD of the Christians, and a GOD of the Gentiles. Tertullian wrote against him, and, more curiously than anybody else, observes the rest of his opinions, as that he denied the resurrection of the body, condemned marriage, excluding married people from salvation, whom he would not baptize, though he allowed of three sorts, and that the living were sometimes baptized for the dead. In his sect, the women commonly administered the sacraments. Rhodon, a Greek author, quoted by Eusebius, says, the disciples of this heresiarch added many other errors to his tenets; that the heresiarch meeting Polycarp in the streets of Rome, asked him whether he knew him. “Very well,” answered the good bishop, “I know you very well to be the first-born of Satan.” Constantine the Great published an edict against the Marcionites and the other heretics, in 366; and Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus, converted 10,000 of them in 420.

MARIOLATRY. (See _Angels_, _Idolatry_, _Popery_, _Virgin Mary_, _Mother of God_.) The worship of the Virgin Mary: one of the sins of the Church of Rome, for defending which her theologians are guilty of heresy. The fact of the Romanists praying to the Virgin Mary is not denied. Their manner of doing so, not merely seeking her intercession, but actually addressing her in terms which sound very like blasphemy to those whose religion is catholic and Scriptural, may be seen from the following extracts made from the Psalter of Bonaventure.

Extract from the “Crown of the Blessed Virgin:”[8]

“O thou, our governor, and most benignant Lady, in right of being his mother, command your most beloved SON, our LORD JESUS CHRIST, that he deign to raise our minds from longing after earthly things to the contemplation of heavenly things.”

Extract from a serious parody on the To Deum, by the same writer:

“We praise thee, Mother of GOD; we acknowledge thee to be a virgin. All the earth doth worship thee, the spouse of the eternal FATHER. All the angels and archangels, all thrones and powers, do faithfully serve thee. To thee all angels cry aloud, with a never-ceasing voice. Holy, holy, holy, Mary, mother of GOD.... The whole court of heaven doth honour thee as queen. The holy Church throughout all the world doth invoke and praise thee, the mother of Divine majesty.... Thou sittest with thy SON on the right hand of the FATHER.... In thee, sweet Mary, is our hope; defend us for evermore. Praise becometh thee; empire becometh thee; virtue and glory be unto thee for ever and ever.”

Extract from a parody on the Athanasian Creed, by the same writer:

“Whosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the right faith concerning Mary; which faith, except every one do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.... He (JESUS CHRIST) sent the HOLY SPIRIT upon his disciples, and upon his mother, and at last took her up into heaven, where she sitteth on the right hand of her SON, and never ceaseth to make intercession with him for us.

“This is the faith concerning the Virgin Mary, which, except every one do believe faithfully and firmly, he cannot be saved.”

Extract from a work by Alphonso Liguori, called “The Glories of Mary:”[9]

“During the pontificate of Gregory the Great, the people of Rome experienced in a most striking manner the protection of the Blessed Virgin. A frightful pestilence raged in the city to such an extent, that thousands were carried off, and so suddenly, that they had not time to make the least preparation. It could not be arrested by the vows and prayers which the holy pope caused to be offered in all quarters, until he resolved on having recourse to the Mother of GOD. Having commanded the clergy and people to go in procession to the church of our lady, called St. Mary Major, carrying the picture of the holy Virgin, painted by St. Luke, the miraculous effects of her intercession were soon experienced: in every street as they passed the plague ceased, and before the end of the procession an angel in human form was seen on the tower of Adrian, named ever since the castle of St. Angelo, sheathing a bloody sabre. At the same moment the angels were heard singing the anthem, ‘Regina Cœli,’ ‘Triumph, O Queen,’ Hallelujah. The holy pope added, ‘Ora pro nobis Deum,’ ‘Pray for us,’ &c. The Church has since used this anthem to salute the Blessed Virgin in Easter time.”—_True Devotion to the Blessed Virgin_, p. 21.

Extract from the Encyclical Letter of Pope Gregory XVI.:

“Having at length taken possession of our see in the Lateran Basilica, according to the custom and institution of our predecessors, we turn to you without delay, venerable brethren; and in testimony of our feeling towards you, we select for the date of our letter this most joyful day, on which we celebrate the solemn festival of the most Blessed Virgin’s triumphant assumption into heaven; that she, who has been through every great calamity our patroness and protectress, may watch over us writing to you, and lead our mind by her heavenly influence to those counsels which may prove most salutary to CHRIST’S flock.... But that all may have a successful and happy issue, let us raise our eyes to the most Blessed Virgin Mary, who alone destroys heresies, who is our greatest hope, yea, the entire ground of our hope.”

For other quotations to the same purpose, see the very useful and learned volume “On Roman Fallacies and Catholic Truths,” by the Rev. H. T. Powell.

The adoration of the Virgin was first introduced in the fourth century, and was regarded as a heresy by the Catholic Church. It commenced in Arabia, about the year 373, and seems to have given rise to the opposite heresy, that of the Antidicomarians, who spoke irreverently of the Blessed Virgin. We learn that the simple and misguided persons who adopted this new worship, made offerings of cakes to the Virgin, from which they were called Collyridians (a word which signified the nature of the offering). There is no evidence that they separated from the Church or its worship, or refused to worship GOD, or regarded the Virgin as equal with GOD. They, however, offered external worship to the Virgin, and were, therefore, regarded as heretics. In the following century, a reaction against the Nestorian refusal of the title _Theotokos_ (Mother of God) to the Blessed Virgin, tended greatly to pave the way for the Mariolatry of later times. (See _Nestorians_, _Mother of God_.) Our great Bishop Bull observes, “We abominate the impious imposture of those who have translated the most humble and holy Virgin into an idol of pride and vanity, and represented her as a vain-glorious and aspiring creature; like Lucifer, (I tremble at the comparison,) thirsting after Divine worship and honour, and seeking out superstitious men and women, whom she may oblige to her more especial service, and make them her perpetual votaries. For what greater affront than this could they have offered to her humility and sanctity? How fulsome, yea, how perfectly loathsome to us, are the tales of those that have had the assurance to tell us of the amorous addresses of the Blessed Virgin to certain persons, her devout worshippers; choosing them for her husbands, bestowing her kisses liberally on them, giving them her breasts to suck, and presenting them with bracelets and rings of her hair as lovetokens! The fables of the Jewish Talmudists, yea, of Mahomet, may seem grave, serious, and sober histories, compared to these and other such like impudent fictions. Insomuch that wise men have thought that the authors of these romances in religion were no better than the tools and instruments of Satan, used by him to expose the Christian religion, and render it ridiculous, and thereby to introduce atheism. And indeed we are sure, that the wits of Italy, where these abominable deceits have been and are chiefly countenanced, were the first broachers and patrons of infidelity and atheism in Europe, since the time that Christianity obtained in it.”

In a word, such is the worship given to the Blessed Virgin by many in the Church of Rome, that they deserve to be called _Mariani_, rather than _Christiani_, &c.

MARK, ST., THE EVANGELIST’S DAY. A festival of the Christian Church, observed on the 25th of April.

St. Mark was, by birth, a Jew, and descended of the tribe of Levi. He was converted by some of the apostles, probably by St. Peter, to whom he was a constant companion in all his travels, supplying the place of an amanuensis and interpreter. He was by St. Peter sent into Egypt, fixing his chief residence at Alexandria, and the places thereabout: where he was so successful in his ministry, that he converted multitudes both of men and women. He afterwards removed westward, toward the parts of Libya, going through the countries of Marmorica, Pentapolis, and others thereabouts; where, notwithstanding the barbarity and idolatry of the inhabitants, he planted the gospel. Upon his return to Alexandria, he ordered the affairs of that Church, and there suffered martyrdom in the following manner. About Easter, at the time the solemnities of Serapis were celebrated, the idolatrous people, being excited to vindicate the honour of their deity, broke in upon St. Mark, while he was performing Divine service, and, binding him with cords, dragged him through the streets, and thrust him into prison, where in the night he had the comfort of a Divine vision. Next day, the enraged multitude used him in the same manner, till, his spirits failing, he expired under their hands. Some add, that they burnt his body, and that the Christians decently interred his bones and ashes near the place where he used to preach. This happened in the year of Christ 68.

MARK’S, ST., GOSPEL. A canonical book of the New Testament. (See the preceding article.)

This evangelist wrote his Gospel at Rome, whither he accompanied St. Peter in the year of CHRIST 44. Tertullian, and others, pretend, that St. Mark was no more than an amanuensis to St. Peter, who dictated this Gospel to him. Others affirm that he wrote it after St. Peter’s death.

MARONITES. Certain Eastern Christians, so called, who inhabit near Mount Lebanon, in Syria. The name is derived either from a town in the country called _Maronia_, or from _St. Maron_, who built a monastery there in the fifth century.

The _Maronites_ hold communion with the Romish Church. Pope Gregory XIII. founded a college at Rome, where their youth are educated by the Jesuits, and then sent to their own country. They formerly followed the errors of the Jacobites, Nestorians, and Monothelites; but these they renounced for the errors of the Roman Church in the time of Gregory XIII. and Clement VIII. The patriarch of the _Maronites_ was present in the fourth Lateran Council, under Innocent III., in 1215.

The _Maronites_ have their patriarch, archbishops, bishops, and about 150 inferior clergy, who are so oppressed by the Turks, that they are reduced to work for their living. They keep Lent according to the ancient rigour, eating but one meal a day, and that after mass, which is said at four o’clock in the afternoon. Their priests are distinguished by a blue scarf, which they wear about their caps. Married men may become priests, but none may marry after he is in orders. They wear no surplices, observe particular fasts and feasts, and differ in many other things from the Church of Rome.

The patriarch of the _Maronites_ is a monk of St. Anthony, claims the title of patriarch of Antioch, and is always called _Peter_. He has about nine bishops under him, and resides at _Edem Canobin_, a monastery built on a rock. They read their service both in the vulgar language and in Latin, and, while they perform it, turn their heads sometimes on one side, and sometimes on the other, pronouncing the word _Num_ or _Eynam_ softly, which signifies _yes_ or _yes verily_, by which they express their assent to what they read. They have so great a veneration for their bishops, that they often prostrate themselves before them.

As to the particular tenets of the _Maronites_, before their adhesion to the Church of Rome, it is said, they denied the procession of the HOLY GHOST, observed Saturday as well as the LORD’S day, condemned fourth marriages as unlawful; held that all souls were created together, and that those of good men do not enter into heaven till after the resurrection; that they administered the eucharist to children, and communicated in both kinds.

In 1180, the _Maronites_ were above 40,000 in number, and very valiant. They did the kings of Jerusalem great service against the Saracens.

Besides several convents of _Maronite_ monks, there is one of nuns, who are highly esteemed for their sanctity. This edifice is no more than a church, in which the nuns are shut up close, like pigeons in their holes, in little corners or cells, which are so low, that few of them can stand upright, or turn themselves round in them.

MARRIAGE. (See _Matrimony_.)

MARTINMAS. A festival formerly kept on the 11th of November, in honour of St. Martin, bishop of Tours, in France, who, after distinguishing himself by destroying the heathen altars and images remaining in his day, died in the year 400, having been bishop about twenty-six years.

MARTYR. One who lays down his life, or suffers death, for the sake of religion. The word is Greek, and properly signifies a “witness.” It is applied, by way of eminence, to those who suffer in witness of the truth of the gospel.

The Christian Church has abounded with martyrs, and history is filled with surprising accounts of their singular constancy and fortitude under the most cruel torments human nature was capable of suffering. The primitive Christians were falsely accused by their enemies of paying a sort of Divine worship to martyrs. Of this we have an instance in the answer of the Church of Smyrna to the suggestion of the Jews, who, at the martyrdom of Polycarp, desired the heathen judge not to suffer the Christians to carry off his body, lest they should leave their crucified master, and worship him in his stead. To which they answered, “We can neither forsake CHRIST, nor worship any other: for we worship him as the SON of GOD, but love the martyrs as the disciples and followers of the LORD, for the great affection they have shown to their King and Master.” A like answer was given at the martyrdom of Fructuosus, in Spain; for when the judge asked Eulogius, his deacon, whether he would not worship Fructuosus, as thinking that, though he refused to worship heathen idols, he might yet be inclined to worship a Christian martyr, Eulogius replied, “I do not worship Fructuosus, but him whom Fructuosus worships.”

The first martyr in the Christian Church was St. Stephen. His memory is celebrated on the day which bears his name. In the collect for that day, he is expressly named the “first Martyr St. Stephen,” and we are there taught to pray GOD, that we may “learn to love and bless our persecutors, by following this blessed martyr’s example.” The Church loves to dwell on the memory of those who have yielded up even their lives in a faithful attachment to their Redeemer, and who, from the midst of the fires, could rejoice in GOD, and trust in his grace. In that beautiful hymn, the _Te Deum_, their memory is celebrated in the words,—“The noble army of martyrs praise thee.” And well may they be counted “an _army_,” whether we consider their numbers or their valour; and a “_noble_ army,” because, as true soldiers of CHRIST, these have fought against sin with their lives in their hands, and, in the apostolic phrase, “have resisted unto blood.”

The Church of England can boast of the only royal martyr. Our glorious martyr, King Charles I., having been dethroned by the Presbyterians, was murdered by the Independents.—_Broughton._

MARTYRDOM. The death of a martyr.

The same name is sometimes given to a church erected over the spot where a martyr has suffered.

MARTYROLOGY, in the Church of Rome, is a catalogue or list of martyrs, including the history of their lives and sufferings for the sake of religion.

The _Martyrologies_ draw their materials from the calendars of particular churches, in which the several festivals, dedicated to them, are marked. They seem to be derived from the practice of the ancient Romans, who inserted the names of heroes and great men in their _Fasti_, or public registers.

The _Martyrologies_ are very numerous. Those ascribed to Eusebius and St. Jerome are reckoned spurious. Bede is the first who, in the eighth century, composed two Martyrologies, one in prose, and the other in verse. Florus, the deacon of Lyons, in the ninth century, enlarged Bede’s “Martyrology,” and put it almost in the condition it is at present. Valdelbertus, a monk of the diocese of Treves, in the same century, wrote a martyrology in verse, extracted from Bede and Florus, and now extant in Ducherius’s _Spicilegium_. About the same time, Rabanus Maurus, archbishop of Mentz, drew up a martyrology, published by Canisius, in his _Antiquæ Lectiones_. After these, Ado, archbishop of Vienne, compiled a new Martyrology, while he was travelling in Italy, where, in a journey from Rome to Ravenna, A. D. 857, he saw a manuscript of an ancient martyrology, which had been brought thither from Aquileia.

In the year 870, Usuardus, a monk of St. Germain des Près, drew up a much larger and more correct martyrology than those above mentioned. This performance was well received, and began to be made use of in the offices of the Western Church. About the beginning of the next century, Notkerus, a monk of Switzerland, drew up another martyrology from Ado’s materials. This martyrology, published by Canisius, had not the same success with that of Usuardus. The churches and monasteries, which used this last, made a great many additions and alterations in it. This gave rise to a vast number of different martyrologies during the six following centuries.

The moderns, at last, desirous to rectify the errors and defects of the old martyrologies, compiled new ones. Augustinus Belinus, of Padua, began this reform in the fifteenth century. After him, Francis Maruli or Maurolycus, abbot of Messina, in Sicily, drew up a martyrology, in which he has entirely changed Usuardus’s text. John Vander Meulen, known by the name of Molanus, a doctor of Louvain, restored it, with alterations and very learned notes. About the same time, Galesinus, apostolic prothonotary, drew up a martyrology, and dedicated it to Gregory XIII.; but this was not approved at Rome. Baronius’s “Martyrology,” written some time after, with notes, was better received, being approved by Pope Sixtus Quintus, and has since passed for the modern martyrology of the Roman Church. It has been several times corrected, and was translated into French by the Abbot Chatlain, canon of Notre Dame at Paris, with notes, in the year 1709.

There are very ridiculous and even contradictory narratives, in these several martyrologies; which is easily accounted for, if we consider how many forged and spurious accounts of the lives of saints and martyrs, from whence the martyrologies were compiled, appeared in the first ages of the Church; and which the legendary writers of those times adopted without examining into the truth of them. Those of later ages, who have written the lives of saints and martyrs, either through prepossession, or want of courage to contradict received opinions, have made use of a great part of this fabulous stuff, and passed it off for genuine history. However, some good critics of late years have gone a great way towards clearing the lives of the saints and martyrs from the monstrous heap of fiction they laboured under. Of this number are M. de Launoy, of Paris, M. Baillot, in his “Lives of the Saints,” M. le Nain de Tillemont, and others.—_Broughton._

MARY. (See _Virgin Mary_ and _Mariolatry_.)

MASORA. A term in Jewish theology, signifying tradition. It includes notes of all the variations of words, letters, and points which occur in the Hebrew Scriptures; an enumeration of all the letters, &c.; in short, the minutest points of verbal criticism, and pretends to an immaculate accuracy. The authors of it are unknown. Some attribute it to Moses; others to Ezra; others to the Masorites of Tiberias. The probability is, according to Bishop Walton, that the Masora was begun about the time of the Maccabees, and was continued for many ages.—See _Bishop Walton’s Prolegomena to his Polyglott Bible_.

MASORITES. A society of learned Jews, who had a school or college at Tiberias. They paid great attention to the critical study of the Hebrew Scriptures; and to them by many able scholars, as Walton, Capellus, &c., is attributed the invention of the vowel points now used for the guidance of the pronunciation in reading Hebrew.

MASS. In Latin, _Missa_. This word at first imported nothing more than the _dismissal_ of a Church assembly. By degrees it came to be used for an _assembly_ and for Church service; and from signifying Church service in general, it came at length to denote the _Communion Service_ in particular, and so that most emphatically came to be called Mass. Since the Reformation, the word has been generally confined to express the form of celebrating the holy communion in the Romish Church. But in the First Book of King Edward VI., the Communion Service is thus headed: “The Supper of the Lord, and the Holy Communion, commonly called the Mass.”

Formerly there was the _missa catechumenorum_ and the _missa fidelium_, not because they had two kinds of communion, but because the primitive Christians dismissed their congregations at different times, first sending away the heathens and heretics, then the catechumens and public penitents, after having prayed; the faithful alone being suffered to remain during the celebration of the holy communion. The practice of the modern Romish Church contrasts strikingly with this: they not only allow catechumens to be present at their _missa fidelium_, but also heretics and unbelievers, and make a profit by the exhibition: in this again the English Church more nearly resembles the primitive Church, retaining her sensitive seclusion during the solemn service.

The mass, almost universally adopted in the churches of the Roman obedience, is contained in the Roman Missal, and a description of this will be now presented to the reader. Unless in very particular circumstances, such as times of persecution, &c., mass is not said anywhere but in a church, or place set aside for public worship. It can be said only from morning dawn till mid-day, at least in ordinary cases, as at Christmas, &c. The priest who says it must be fasting from the midnight before, “out of respect for the victim of which he is to partake;” and, in general, no priest can say more than one mass on one day. When the priest officiates, he is attired in sacred vestments, which are understood “to represent those with which CHRIST was clothed in the course of his bitter passion;” and also to be the emblems of those virtues with which the soul of a priest ought to be adorned. These garments are intended to hide the littleness of man; to make him forget himself while clothed in the robes of a superior character; to gain the respect of the people, who no longer consider on that occasion what he is, as a man, but lose sight of the individual, who is lost in the character of JESUS CHRIST, which he represents. Mass is never said except on an altar, fixed or portable, set aside for that particular purpose by the solemn prayer and benediction of a bishop. The altar is always covered with linen cloths, and generally contains relics of saints. As the mass is commemorative of our SAVIOUR’S passion and death upon the cross; to put the priest and people in mind of these, there is always an image of CHRIST crucified upon the altar. There are also two or more lighted candles, as tokens of joy, “and to denote the light of faith.” In solemn masses incense is used, as an emblem of prayer ascending to GOD, as the smoke ascends from the censer. Incense is also used as a token of honour to the thing incensed. Masses are divided into solemn or high mass, and plain or low mass; mass sung, or said; public mass, or private mass. A _solemn_ mass, is mass offered up with all the due solemnities, by the bishop or priest, attended by a deacon, subdeacon, and other ministers, each officiating in his part. Such a mass is always sung; and hence a choir of singers accompanies it, with an organ, if possible; and, at times, other instrumental music. Mass, when divested of all these solemnities, and in which only the priest officiates, is a plain or _low mass_. The priest, however, may either sing the mass, attended by the choir, or say it. Hence the difference between mass _sung_ and _said_. Mass may be attended by a crowd of people, or it may be said with few or none present, except the clerk, to attend the officiating priest. When the mass is numerously attended, all, or many, of those present may partake of the sacrifice, by communion, or none may communicate with the priest. These differences make the mass _public_ or _private_, and it is admitted that private masses have become more common in latter ages. The priest who is to celebrate, after some time previously spent in prayer and meditation, by way of preparation for the solemn mystery, as well to recollect his thoughts, as to specify the intention with which he offers up the mass, whether it be for any individual, living or dead, for the whole Church, for himself, or for the necessities of the congregation present, proceeds, with the deacon, subdeacon, and other ministers, to put on the sacred vestment. He then goes in procession with them from the vestry to the altar, the acolytes carrying incense and lights, while the choir sing the anthem and psalm, which, for this reason, is called the _introit_. The priest, being come before the altar, stops at the foot of it, bows, confesses generally to the Almighty GOD, and to all the saints, that he has sinned most grievously, and that in every way, both by thoughts, words, and deeds, and through his own most grievous fault. This being the case, he begs all the saints of heaven, whom he has called as the witnesses of his sins, to be also intercessors for his pardon, and to pray to the LORD our GOD for him. The minister and assistants then, in like manner, on behalf of the people, repeat the same confession after the priest, acknowledging that they are altogether an assembly of sinners, who have come to implore the Divine mercy, because they stand in need of it. This confession is to beg of GOD pardon for daily and unknown faults, that the awful mystery may be celebrated with all imaginable purity. For the same reason _Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison_, are several times repeated; being addressed three times to GOD the FATHER, as our creator, as our protector, and as our parent: thrice to GOD the SON, as our high priest, as our victim of atonement, and as our brother; and, lastly, to the HOLY GHOST, as the author of grace, the inspirer of prayer, and the sanctifier of our souls. This being finished, the priest, without moving from his place, begins the _Gloria in excelsis_, which is called the Hymn of the Angels, because the first words of it were sung by the angels at our SAVIOUR’S birth. As this is a canticle of joy and gladness, the Church, when in mourning, in Lent, in Advent, and in masses for the dead, forbids the use of this hymn, even in the time of mass, because the minds of the congregation should then be wholly occupied with affections of grief, melancholy, or sorrow, for our Saviour’s passion, for our own sins, or the sufferings of the souls for whom she is praying. The _Gloria_ being ended, the priest, kissing the altar, and turning towards the people with extended arms, salutes them in these words: “_Dominus vobiscum_,” “The LORD be with you.” The people answer, by applying the same earnest wish to him, saying, “And with thy spirit.” The arms are extended, and then closed, to express, by that gesture, the affection with which he embraces his flock. The priest then goes up to the altar; bows down in the posture of humiliation; kisses it with respect; makes mention of the saint whose relics are there; incenses it; and having saluted the people, immediately turns to the book, and reads the prayer of the day. On great festivals there is only one prayer, which has always reference to the solemnity then celebrating. Thus, at Easter, allusion is made to the resurrection of our SAVIOUR; at Christmas, to his nativity; in masses for the dead, mention is made of the souls prayed for; and on the feasts of saints, we commemorate the particular virtues for which they were each distinguished. In Lent, and penitentiary times, there are other prayers beside that of the day, still bearing some allusion to the circumstances of the times. The subdeacon then sings (or, in low masses, the priest himself reads) a lesson of the Old or New Testament, called the Epistle, because commonly taken from the Epistles of St. Paul, or of the other apostles. This is followed by the singing of Alleluias, or some verses of the Psalms, called the _Gradual_ or _Tract_.

In Lent, and penitential times, instead of these expressions of joy, strains of the deepest compunction and regret only are used. These being concluded, the book is removed to the other side of the altar, when all the people rise up, to show, by their postures of standing, their eagerness to hear the gospel; the priest also, as he passes from one side of the altar to the other, bows down in the middle, and the deacon prays on his knees that GOD would make him worthy to announce the gospel; and, after having received the priest’s blessing, proceeds to the place appointed for the solemn recitation of it accompanied by the acolytes, with lights and incense. As soon as the book of the Gospel appears, all rise up, and continue standing while it is read, to show their readiness to perform what is there taught. In naming the evangelist from which the Gospel is taken, the reader signs the cross upon his forehead, his mouth, and his breast. On his forehead, to show that he is not ashamed of CHRIST’S doctrine; on his mouth, to show his readiness to proclaim it to others; and on his breast, to show that he entertains a sincere affection for it in his heart. When the Gospel is finished, the book is conveyed to the priest, who kisses it as a token of respect. After the Gospel, follows the Nicene Creed, which is immediately recited at the altar, while it is sung by the choir; it is omitted on some days, particularly in masses for the dead. In low masses, the priest himself reads the Gospel. At this part of the mass, in parish churches, and sometimes in other places, a discourse, or exhortation, drawn from the Gospel, is delivered to the people. Here ends the first part of the mass.

The second part commences by the priest, from the altar, again saluting the people, and then making an oblation to GOD, of bread and wine, which are the matters of the sacrifice. The wine is first mixed with a little water, to represent the water which flowed, with blood, from the side of CHRIST,—to signify the union of the Divine and human nature in him, and of the faithful with JESUS CHRIST. Being now about to bless these offerings, the priest bows down his head, in a spirit of humility, then lifts up his hands to heaven, whence every blessing must come, and makes the sign of the cross upon the offerings, and says, “Come, thou Sanctifier, and bless this sacrifice, which is prepared for thy holy name.” The priest, in high masses, then incenses the oblation. After this he proceeds to receive the offerings of the people, where the custom of receiving offerings from them prevails: the priest then proceeds to wash his hands, begging of GOD the necessary purity. In this ceremony, the priest only washes the tips of his fingers, not his whole hands, to signify, that the purity with which he ought to approach the altar should be not only from larger and mortal sins, but even from the most trivial offences or affections to sin, which are properly enough represented by the extremities of the fingers; then, turning about, the priest recommends himself to the prayers of the people. This is the last time that the priest turns to the people, till the sacrifice is accomplished, and the communion received. The reason of this is, that he is now entering upon the most solemn part of the mass, which requires his utmost attention, which must not, henceforward, be distracted by turning away from the object; nor does the priest turn his back towards the altar, during the presence of the sacrament upon it, lest he might appear to act irreverently. After this follows the _Secret_, being one or more prayers, always said in silence, corresponding to the collect of the day, and which immediately precedes the preface, by which the second part of the mass ends, and the third begins. At this time is also rung a little bell, to give notice to all the people, that the priest is now reciting the Holy Canticle. It is usual also for the people, at this part of the mass, to bow down their heads and their breasts. With hearts thus prepared, and minds raised above earthly things, the priest, the ministers, and people, proceed to attend to the most awful part of the mass, in the _Canon_ or rule for consecrating the eucharist, which is never materially changed, whatever be the office. It is said by the priest in a low voice, to express the silence of CHRIST in his passion, and that all may be impressed with reverence and awe for the sacred mysteries. It consists of five prayers. In the first, the priest prays for all the Church; and by name, for the pope, and the bishop of the diocese; for those whom he desires particularly to recommend, for all the assistants, their families, &c. He makes mention of the Blessed Virgin, the apostles, and some martyrs, in order to express the union between the Church militant and triumphant, and to obtain the assistance of their prayers. Then he stretches his hands over the oblation, begging that it may become acceptable to GOD, by becoming the body and blood of JESUS CHRIST. The third prayer contains the history of the institution and the consecration of the elements, by the priest’s pronouncing the words of JESUS CHRIST himself. We have already seen that the essence of the sacrifice is contained in the consecration. As soon as the words of the consecration are pronounced, the priest kneels down to adore JESUS CHRIST present; and immediately elevates first the host, and then the chalice, in memory of CHRIST’S being raised upon the cross, and that the people also may adore him. Having laid these down on the altar, the priest kneels again, and bows his head in a second act of adoration. During this ceremony, the server tinkles a little bell, to awaken the attention of the congregation. In the mean time, the people also bow down their heads, being already upon their knees, and strike their breasts. He then continues the third prayer, making a commemoration of the passion, resurrection, and ascension of JESUS CHRIST, and beseeching GOD that he would vouchsafe to receive the sacrifice favourably, as he did those of Abel, Abraham, and Melchisedech, which were figures of it; and that those who partake of it may be replenished with every heavenly blessing. The attitude of the priest is changed when he comes to this part. Hitherto he has recited the prayers of the canon in an erect posture, with his hands mostly lifted up to heaven; but now he joins his hands before his breast, and bows down his head to the lowest degree that the altar will admit. In this posture of prostrate humility, he recites the prayer, till, towards the conclusion, he kisses the altar, and resumes his former upright posture. In the fourth prayer, the priest recommends to God the faithful departed in general, and those in particular for whom he intends to pray. “Be mindful, O LORD, of thy servants, men and women, who are gone before us in the sign of faith, and have rested in the sleep of peace.” Having said these words, the priest, joining his hands before his breast, prays a few moments for them, and mentions any names of persons for whom he particularly wishes to pray, or offer up the mass. Then, extending his hands again, he concludes his prayer in these words: “To these, O LORD, and to all the rest in CHRIST, grant, we beseech thee, a place of refreshment, light, and peace.” In the fifth, he mentions several saints, and beating his breast, begs that we sinners may have some part of their glory, through the mercy of GOD. In fine, he lifts the host over the chalice, honouring the Blessed TRINITY, acknowledging the Divine goodness to us through JESUS CHRIST, and, through him, offering it all honour and glory. During the elevation, all the ministers kneel in profound adoration, and either themselves hold tapers, or others are introduced bearing lighted torches. Thus finishes the third part of the mass.

The fourth part begins by the priest’s breaking the long silence he has observed since the preface, by chanting, or reciting aloud, the LORD’S Prayer, which is followed up by a prayer for deliverance from evil, and for peace in our days. At the conclusion of this prayer, the priest kneels down to adore the Blessed Sacrament; he then breaks the host into three pieces, to imitate that done by JESUS CHRIST himself, at the last supper, and in remembrance of his body being broken on the cross: one of the parts he drops into the chalice, to signify that the body and blood of CHRIST are but one sacrament: he then once more begs for peace, concord, and charity, in order to approach the spotless Lamb. For a token of this peace, in solemn masses, the clergy embrace each other. After this follow three prayers, by way of preparation for receiving JESUS CHRIST. The priest, after striking his breast, and declaring himself unworthy, proceeds to communicate himself, in both kinds, in order to consume the sacrifice, and then administers the communion, in the species of bread, to such of the assistants as may be disposed to partake of the sacrifice. The prayer used by the priest is repeated three times, and at each repetition the little bell tinkles, to excite the attention of the congregation; and as a signal to the laity, who intend to communicate, to approach the sacred table. Having made the sign of the cross, the priest immediately receives the communion, and, with his hands joined before him, stands for a little while in deep but silent meditation upon what he has done. The priest then proceeds, by an ablution, first of wine, and then of water, to remove from the chalice and his own fingers all remains of the consecrated elements. The mass concludes with a versical thanksgiving out of the Scriptures, and some prayers for the same purpose, some of them bearing a reference to the office of the day, and analogous to the collect; after which the priest, or deacon in high masses, gives the people leave to depart. The priest gives them his blessing previous to their departure, and reads the first part of St. John’s Gospel, which bears such ample testimony to the Divinity and incarnation of the SON of GOD, as well as his goodness in regard to man. This constitutes the chief part, if not the whole, of the morning service of the Church: and, in all this, the congregation in general appear to be little interested or concerned; for though they are “taught to assist at mass, with the same disposition that a good Christian would have cherished at the foot of the cross,” they are left at liberty to accompany the priest through the different parts, according to the directions contained in their manuals, or “to exercise their souls in other corresponding prayers;” and the consequence is, that many, it is too apparent, do neither the one nor the other. And though the mass is thus celebrated, at least every LORD’S day, the present discipline of the Church requires her members to communicate only once a year; and while comparatively few receive much oftener, many, it is feared, are not even annual communicants. They are, indeed, instructed, “when they do not communicate in reality, to do so in spirit, by fervent desires of being made worthy to partake of the sacred mysteries, acknowledging their own unworthiness, and begging of GOD a share of those graces, which the sacrifice and sacrament so plentifully contain.”

In Picart’s “Religious Ceremonies” we have the following explanation of the mass, and its attendant mystical ceremonies, which is offered to the reader as an example of the awful departure of the apostate Church from the spirituality and simplicity of the Christian faith and worship.

1. The priest goes to the altar in reference to our LORD’S retreat with his apostles to the garden of Olives. 2. Before he begins mass, he says a preparatory prayer; he is there to look upon himself as one abandoned of GOD, and driven out of paradise for the sin of Adam. 3. The priest makes confession for himself and for the people, in which it is required that he be free from mortal and venial sin. 4. The priest kisses the altar, as a token of our reconciliation with GOD, and our LORD’S being betrayed with a kiss. 5. The priest goes to the opposite side of the altar, and thurifies or perfumes it with incense. JESUS CHRIST is now supposed to be taken and bound! 6. The introit is said or sung, applicable to the circumstances of our LORD’S being taken before Caiaphas. 7. The priest says the “_Kyrie eleison_,” (“LORD, have mercy upon us,”) in allusion to Peter’s denying our LORD thrice. 8. The priest, turning towards the altar, says, “_Dominus vobiscum_,” the people returning the salutation by “_Et cum spiritu tuo_,” and this means, CHRIST looking at Peter. 9. The priest reads the Epistle relative to JESUS being accused before Pilate. 10. The priest, bowing before the altar, says “_Munda cor_,” and the devotion is directed to our SAVIOUR’S being brought before Pilate, and making no reply. 11. The priest reads the Gospel in which JESUS CHRIST is sent from Herod to Pilate; the Gospel is carried from the right of the altar to the left, to denote the tender of the gospel to the Gentiles, after the refusal of the Jews. 12. The priest uncovers the chalice, and this means the stripping of our LORD in order to be scourged. 13. The oblation of the host; the priest then kisses the altar and offers up the host, to represent the scourging of CHRIST. 14. The priest elevates the chalice and then covers; this means the crowning with thorns. 15. The priest washes his fingers, as Pilate washed his hands; declares JESUS innocent, blesses the bread and wine, blesses the frankincense, and perfumes the bread and wine.

Can it be necessary to go further into this singular detail to say, “that the priest, spreading out his arms on the altar, is the representation of the cross; that he lifts the host, to express the lifting of our LORD; that he adores (for such is the word, and the inconceivable fact) the wafer that he holds in his fingers as the very GOD; that he then mingles another adoration with this, and prays to the Virgin Mary and the saints for their mediation; that he breaks the wafer, to represent CHRIST’S giving up the ghost; that a fragment of this wafer put into the chalice figures our LORD’S descent into hell;” till the series of these representations, amounting in the whole to thirty-five, is closed by a benediction representing the blessings of the descent of the HOLY GHOST.—_O’Donoghue._

MASS, SACRIFICE OF THE. The following is the Romish doctrine on the subject: “I profess likewise, that in the mass there is offered to GOD a true, proper, and propitiatory sacrifice for the living and the dead: and that in the most holy sacrament of the eucharist there is truly, really, and substantially, the body and blood, together with the soul and Divinity, of our LORD JESUS CHRIST; and that there is made a conversion of the whole substance of the bread into the body, and of the whole substance of the wine into the blood; which conversion the Catholic Church calls transubstantiation. I also confess, that, under either kind alone, CHRIST is received whole and entire, and a true sacrament.”—_Pius’s Creed._ “Whosoever shall say, that, in the holy sacrament of the eucharist, the substance of bread and wine remains together with the substance of the body and blood of our LORD JESUS CHRIST, and shall deny that wonderful and singular change of the whole substance of the bread into the body, and of the whole substance of the wine into the blood, the species of bread and wine still remaining, which change the Catholic Church very fitly calls transubstantiation, let him be accursed.”—_Con. Trid. Sess. XIII._ Can. 2.

It is, moreover, decreed, “that, after the consecration of the bread and wine, the true God and man is truly, really, and substantially contained under the appearance of the sensible elements.”—_Id._ c. 1. So that “the bread and wine which are placed on the altar are, after consecration, not only the sacrament, but also the true body and blood of our LORD JESUS CHRIST; and are, sensually, not only in sacrament, but in truth, handled and broken by the hands of the priests, and bruised by the teeth of the faithful.”—_Con. Rom. apud Pop. Nichol. I._ And the Fathers of the second Nicene Council pronounced, “that the eucharist is not the mere image of CHRIST’S body and blood, but that it is CHRIST’S body and blood, their own literal and proper physical selves.”—_Labbe, Con._ vol. vii. p. 448. “Nor in this is there any repugnance; that Christ, according to his natural manner of existence, should always remain in heaven, at the right hand of his FATHER; and that, at the same time, he should be present with us, in many places, really but sacramentally.”—_Con. Trid. XIII._ c. 1. And “if any one says, that a true and proper sacrifice is not offered up to GOD at the mass, or that to be offered is anything else than JESUS CHRIST given to be eaten, let him be anathema.”—_Id. Sess. XXII._ Can. 1. “And if any one says, that the sacrifice of the mass is only a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving, or a bare memorial of the sacrifice which was completed upon the cross, and that it is not propitiatory, nor profitable to any but him that receives it, and that it ought not to be offered for the living and for the dead, for their sins, their punishments, their satisfactions, and their other necessities, let him be accursed.” “For the holy synod teaches that this sacrifice is truly propitiatory, and that by it the sins we commit, however enormous they be, are remitted.”—_Id._ Can. 3. It was decreed by the Council of Constance, “that, whereas in several parts of the world, some have presumed rashly to assert, that all Christians ought to receive the holy sacrament of the eucharist under both species of bread and wine, and that, also, after supper, or not fasting, contrary to the laudable custom of the Church, justly approved of, which they damnably endeavour to reprobate as sacrilegious. Hence it is, that this holy general Council of Constance, assembled by the HOLY GHOST to provide for the salvation of the faithful against this error, declares, decrees, and defines, that although CHRIST did after supper institute this holy sacrament, and administered it to his disciples in both kinds of bread and wine; yet this, notwithstanding the laudable authority of the sacred canons, and the approved custom of the Church, has fixed, and doth fix, that this sacrament ought not to be consecrated after supper, nor received by the faithful, except fasting. And as this custom, for the purpose of avoiding certain dangers and scandals, has been rationally introduced, and that although this sacrament was received by the faithful under both kinds in the primitive Church, it was afterwards received under both kinds by the officiating priest only, and by the people under the species of bread only, it being believed most certainly, and nothing doubted, that the entire body and blood of CHRIST are really contained as well under the species of bread as of wine: this, therefore, being approved, is now made a law. Likewise this holy synod decrees and declares, as to this matter, to the reverend fathers in CHRIST, patriarchs, lords, &c., that they must effectually punish all such as shall transgress this decree, or shall exhort the people to communicate in both kinds.”—_Conc. Gen. XII._ 100.

“The holy synod (of Trent) following the judgment of the Church, (as pronounced at Constance,) and its usage, declares and teaches, that neither laity nor unofficiating clergy are bound, by any Divine command, to receive the sacrament of the eucharist under both species; and that it cannot be doubted, without a breach of faith, that communion in either kind suffices for them. For though CHRIST, at his last supper, instituted this venerable sacrament under the forms of bread and wine, and then delivered it to his apostles, yet that institution, and that delivering, do not show that all the faithful, by the command of CHRIST, are bound to receive both kinds.”—_Sess. XXI._ c. 1. “And though, in the earlier ages, the use of both kinds was not unfrequent, yet the practice, in process of time, being widely changed, the Church, for weighty and just reasons, approved the change, and pronounced it to be a law, which no one, without the authority of that Church, is allowed to reject or alter.”—_Id._ c. 2. “It must be acknowledged, that the whole and entire CHRIST, and the true sacrament, are taken under either kind; and therefore, as to the fruit, that they who thus receive are deprived of no necessary grace.”—_Id._ c. 3. “And if any one shall say, that all Christians ought, by GOD’S command, or for the sake of salvation, to receive the most holy sacrament of the eucharist in both kinds, let him be accursed.”—_Id._

By the 5th Canon, c. 8, Sess. XXII., of the Council of Trent, it is expressly declared, that “we are to offer up to the honour of saints and angels the sacrifice of the mass, in order to obtain their patronage and intercession with GOD.”

“If any one shall deny that the body and blood of CHRIST is really and substantially contained, together with his very soul and Divinity, in the sacrament of the eucharist, let him be accursed.”—_Conc. Trid. Sess. XIII._ Can. 1. Or, “If he shall say that there yet remains any substance of the bread and wine in conjunction with the body and blood of our LORD JESUS CHRIST, and that the conversion is not real and total, let him be accursed.”—_Id._ Can. 2. “If any man shall deny that CHRIST is entirely contained under either species, and in every individual portion of that species,” (_Id._ Can. 3,) or “that CHRIST is only spiritually eaten, and not really and substantially, let him be accursed.”—_Id._ Can. 9.

Bishop Hall’s remarks on this doctrine are as follows:—It sounds not more prodigiously that a priest should every day make his GOD, than that he should sacrifice him.

Antiquity would have as much abhorred the sense, as it hath allowed the word. Nothing is more ordinary with the Fathers than to call GOD’S table an altar; the holy elements, an oblation; the act of celebration, an immolation; the actor, a priest.

St. Chrysostom reckons ten kinds of sacrifice; and at last, as having forgotten it, adds the eleventh: all which we well allow. And, indeed, many sacrifices are offered to GOD in this one: but “a true, proper, propitiatory sacrifice for quick and dead,” which the Tridentine Fathers would force upon our belief, would have seemed no less strange a solecism to the ears of the ancients, than it doth to ours.

St. Augustine calls it a designation of CHRIST’S offering upon the cross; St. Chrysostom, and Theophylact after him, a remembrance of his sacrifice; Emissenus, a daily celebration in mystery of that which was once offered in payment; and Lombard himself, a memorial and representation of the true sacrifice upon the cross.

That which Cassander cites from St. Ambrose or Chrysostom may be instead of all. “In CHRIST, is the sacrifice once offered, able to give salvation. What do we, therefore? Do we not offer every day? Surely, if we offer daily, it is done for a recordation of his death.”

This is the language and meaning of antiquity; the very same which the Tridentine Synod condemneth in us: “If any man shall say that the sacrifice of the mass is only a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving, or a bare commemoration of the sacrifice offered upon the cross, let him be accursed.”

How plain is the Scripture, while it tells us that our High Priest “needeth not daily, as those high priests” under the law, “to offer up sacrifice; first, for his own sins, then for the people: for this he did once, when he offered up himself!”—_Heb._ vii. 27.

The contradiction of the Trent Fathers is here very remarkable. “CHRIST,” say they, “who, on the altar of the cross, offered himself in a bloody sacrifice, is now this true propitiatory sacrifice in the mass, made by himself. He is one and the same sacrifice; and one and the same offerer of that sacrifice, by the ministry of his priests, who then offered himself on the cross.” So then they say, that CHRIST offered up that sacrifice then, and this now; St. Paul says he offered up that sacrifice, and no more. St. Paul says our High Priest needs not to offer daily sacrifice; they say these daily sacrifices must be offered by him. St. Paul says, that he offered himself but once for the sins of the people; they say he offers himself daily for the sins of quick and dead. And if the apostle, in the spirit of prophecy, foresaw this error, and would purposely forestall it, he could not speak more directly than when he saith, “We are sanctified through the offering of the body of JESUS CHRIST, once for all. And every high priest standeth daily ministering and offering oftentimes the same sacrifices, which can never take away sins: but this man, after he had offered one sacrifice for sins, for ever sat down on the right hand of GOD; from henceforth expecting till his enemies are made his footstool. For, by one offering, he hath perfected for ever them that are sanctified.”—_Heb._ x. 10–14.

Now let the vain heads of men seek subtle evasions in the different manner of this offering; bloody then, unbloody now. The HOLY GHOST speaks punctually of the very substance of the act, and tells us absolutely there is but one sacrifice once offered by him, in any kind; else the opposition that is there made betwixt the legal priesthood and his should not hold, if, as they, so he, had often properly and truly sacrificed.

That we may not say they build herein what they destroy, for an unbloody sacrifice, in this sense, can be no other than figurative and commemorative, is it really propitiatory? “Without shedding of blood there is no remission.” (Heb. ix. 22.) If, therefore, sins be remitted by this sacrifice, it must be in relation to that blood, which was shed in his true personal sacrifice upon the cross: and what relation can be betwixt this and that but of representation and remembrance? in which their moderate Cassander fully resteth.

In reason there must be in every sacrifice, as Cardinal Bellarmine grants, a destruction of the thing offered: and shall we say that they make their SAVIOUR to crucify him again? No; but to eat him: for, “consumptio seu manducatio, quæ fit à sacerdote,” &c.; “The consumption or manducation, which is done of the priest, is an essential part of this sacrifice,” saith the same author; “for, in the whole action of the mass, there is,” saith he, “no other real destruction but this.”

Suppose we, then, the true human flesh, blood, and bone of CHRIST, GOD and man, really and corporally made such by this transubstantiation, whether is more horrible, to crucify or to eat it?

By this rule, it is the priest’s teeth, and not his tongue, that makes CHRIST’S body a sacrifice.

By this rule it shall be _hostia_, “a host,” when it is not a sacrifice; and a reserved host is no sacrifice, howsoever consecrated. And what if a mouse, or other vermin, should eat the host, (it is a case put by themselves,) who then sacrificeth?

To stop all mouths, laics eat as well as the priest: there is no difference in their manducation: but laics sacrifice not. And, as Salmeron urges, the Scripture distinguisheth betwixt the sacrifice and the participation of it: “Are not they, which eat of the sacrifices, partakers of the altar?” (1 Cor. x. 18.) And, in the very canon of the mass, “Ut quotquot,” &c., the prayer is, “That all we, which, in the participation of the altar, have taken the sacred body and blood of thy Son,” &c. “Wherein it is plain,” saith he, “that there is a distinction betwixt the host and the eating of the host.”

Lastly, sacrificing is an act done to GOD: if, then, eating be sacrificing, the priest eats his GOD to his GOD: “Quorum Deus venter.”

While they, in vain, study to reconcile this new-made sacrifice of CHRIST already in heaven, with “Jube hæc perferri,” &c. “Command these to be carried by the hands of thy holy angels to thy high altar in heaven, in the sight of thy Divine Majesty,” we conclude that this proper and propitiatory sacrifice of the mass, as a new, unholy, unreasonable sacrifice, is justly abhorred by us; and we, for abhorring it, unjustly ejected.—_Bp. Hall._

MASTER. The designation of all the heads of colleges at Cambridge, with the exception of two, and of some at Oxford. The heads of some ancient hospitals, as Sherburn, are so called. It is recognised by the 42nd and 43rd Canons, &c., as one of the names of governors of cathedral and collegiate churches.

MASTER OF ARTS. The highest degree in arts, signifying one who is competent to teach, answering to that of Doctor in other faculties; conferred in all universities, though in a few modern instances superseded by that of Doctor of Philosophy. In England, the Masters of Arts form the privileged body of the ancient universities there; and there are many offices in the Church to which none are eligible but those who have at least taken that degree. By Canon 128, surrogates must be M. A. at least; and by Canon 74, M. A., being beneficed, are enjoined to wear hoods or tippets of silk or sarcenet, and square caps.

MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES. An officer in many foreign cathedrals, whose business it is to see that all the ceremonies, vestments, &c., peculiar to each season and festival, are observed in the choir.—_Jebb._

MASTER OF THE FACULTIES. The principal officer of the Court of Faculties. (See _Faculties_.)

MASTERS OF THE SCHOOLS. Three Masters of Arts, in the university of Oxford, annually elected, who preside over certain exercises of under-graduates. Before the ancient disputations and determinations were abolished, their office was much more onerous than at present.

MASTER OF THE SENTENCES. The name commonly given to the celebrated Peter Lombard, bishop of Paris, one of the founders of scholastic divinity; so called from his great work of the _Sentences_, divided into four books, illustrative of doctrines of the Churches, in sentences, or passages taken from the Fathers.—_Dupin._

MASTER OF THE SONG. A name for the instructor of the choristers, or choir-master.

MASTER OF THE TEMPLE. The principal minister in the Temple Church, in London, styled also the _Custos_; who, since the time of Henry VIII., has been appointed by royal letters patent, without institution or induction. This is a post of great eminence, and has been held by many able divines, as Hooker, Bishop Sherlock, &c.

MATINS. The ancient name for early morning prayers, which usually began about day-break.

The hours of prayer in the Church of England, before the Reformation, were seven in number, viz. matins, the first or prime, the third, sixth, and ninth hours, vespers, and compline. The office of matins, or morning prayer, according to the Church of England, is a judicious abridgment of her ancient services for matins, lauds, and prime.

The office of matins, or morning prayer, according to the English ritual, may be divided into three principal parts. First, the introduction, which extends from the beginning of the office to the end of the LORD’S Prayer: secondly, the psalmody and reading, which extends to the end of the Apostles’ Creed: and, thirdly, the prayers and collects, which occupy the remainder of the service.—_Palmer._

MATRIMONY. The nuptial state.

The State in England has declared that marriage may be henceforth regarded merely as a civil contract; and, so far as the effects of the law are concerned, they who contract marriage by a merely civil ceremony, will undergo no disabilities, their children will not be illegitimate, and they will themselves be regarded, to all intents and purposes, as man and wife. Yet, although this be the case, the Church, (in this respect opposed to the State, or rather the State having placed itself in opposition to the Church,) at the very commencement of the Marriage Service, declares that so many as are coupled together otherwise than GOD’S word doth allow, are not joined together by GOD, neither is their matrimony lawful: it is not _lawful_, that is to say, in the eyes of GOD,—for its legality in the eyes of the State cannot be questioned. The case is actually this: the State says, if you choose to consider matrimony to be a _civil contract_, the law of the land will permit you to enter into the marriage state by a _civil ceremony_: but the Church has not as yet been silenced, and _she_ affirms, that though the State may permit this, the word of GOD instructs us _otherwise_, and marriage is a _religious_ contract; therefore do not avail yourselves of the permission given by the State.

That such is the doctrine of the Church _now_, must at once be _admitted_; and equally admitted it will be, that it was so at the Reformation of the Church of England, and before the Reformation. But the question is, was it one of those dogmas introduced in the Middle Ages, such as transubstantiation, praying to the saints, worshipping images, and certain other superstitions which distinguish the Church of Rome from the Church of England? And we may answer at once in the negative, because we find allusion to the sacred nature of the marriage contract in the writings of the very earliest Christian authors. For instance, St. Ignatius, the disciple of St. John, (who was afterwards bishop of Ephesus, and died a blessed martyr,) waiting to Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, says expressly: “It becomes those who marry, and those that are given in marriage, to take this yoke upon them with the consent or direction of the bishop, that their marriage may be according to the will of GOD, and not their own lusts.” Another early Father (Tertullian) exclaims, “How shall I sufficiently set forth the happiness of the marriage which the Church brings about by her procurement, which the eucharist confirms, which angels report when done, and the FATHER ratifies!”

In those days the members of the Church were in much the same situation as that in which we are ourselves _now_ placed. The law of the land regarded marriage as a civil contract, and the Church did not annul or disallow the legality of such marriages, or solemnize them again, on the parties becoming converts: it admitted the _validity_ of the _act_ when _done_, though it declared it to be done unlawfully, according to GOD’S law, and severely censured the members of the Church whenever they were married without the sacerdotal benediction. The practice for Christians to be married in the Church appears at first to have been universal, except when a Christian was unequally yoked with an unbeliever; he was then obliged to have recourse to the civil authorities, because the Church, censuring the alliance, absolutely refused to solemnize the marriage.

When the Church, in the time of Constantine, became allied with the State, and religion began to cool, (the laws of the empire still remaining the same,) some Christians began to fall off from the primitive practice, some for one reason and some for another, and to contract marriages according to the civil form. To correct which abuse Charles the Great enacted in the eighth century for the Western empire, and Leo Sapiens in the tenth century for the Eastern empire, that marriages should be celebrated in no other way, except with the sacerdotal blessing and prayers, to be succeeded by the reception of the eucharist or LORD’S supper. And this continued to be the practice in our own country until the usurpation of Cromwell, when marriage was declared to be a merely civil contract. At the Restoration of Charles II. marriage was again regarded as a religious ordinance, though the Church no longer _insisted_ that the parties married should receive the communion, (a regulation which had in practice been much disregarded,) but contented herself with remarking in the _rubric_ succeeding the ordinance, that “it is expedient that the new-married couple should receive the holy communion at the time of their marriage, or at the first opportunity after their marriage,” declaring the duty, but not absolutely compelling its observance; and thus things continued till the present time. Of course, all churchmen must now adhere to their principle, that marriage is a religious contract, and that those marriages only are lawful in the sight of GOD which are contracted in his name and by his ordinance.

And for thus acting we have the highest authority which earth and heaven can afford, that of our blessed LORD and SAVIOUR JESUS CHRIST himself. When he was in the flesh, marriage was regarded by Jews and Gentiles as a mere civil contract, and that of no very binding nature. He did not on _this_ account declare the offspring of such marriages to be illegitimate; and yet, when appealed to, he assumed the fact as one which the Scriptures plainly declared, that marriage was of Divine institution. (Matt. xix. 4–9.) The Pharisees came unto him, tempting him, and saying unto him, “Is it lawful for a man to put away his wife for every cause?” Now, this was a very natural question for those to ask who considered marriage as a mere civil contract. Wherever such is the case, one of two things in process of time is found to follow—polygamy, or the allowance of frequent divorce. Men soon came to reason _thus_: If marriage be merely a bargain between two parties for mutual convenience, why should not the bargain be dissolved when the convenience no longer exists? and why, if a man wishes for more wives than one, should he be prevented from _having_ them, provided the parties making the contract agree that the first wife shall have the pre-eminence, and her children be the heirs of the family property? It is all a matter of mere civil convenience and expediency. The Jews thus arguing _had_ permitted polygamy; they _did_ possess many wives, and now they entertained the question, whether these wives might not be dismissed for almost any cause whatever. The subject being much under discussion, they appealed to our LORD, and how did he meet them? By arguments against the _expediency_ of polygamy, or frequent divorce? No; but by assuming at once, that, according to Scripture, marriage is _not_ a mere civil, but a _religious_ contract. “Have ye not read,” he says, thus referring to Scripture, “that he which made them at the beginning, made them male and female, and said, For this cause shall a man leave father and mother and shall cleave to his wife, and they twain shall be one flesh. Wherefore they are no more twain, but one flesh. What, therefore, GOD hath joined together let no man put asunder.” The permission of divorce is out of the jurisdiction of man, because the ordinance is of GOD. If the contract were merely a _civil_ contract, man might legislate with respect to it; but man may _not_ legislate for it, because it is an ordinance of GOD—a religious, and _not_ a mere civil, contract.

And all this is the more remarkable, because our LORD, in his reply to the Herodians, carefully distinguishes between the things of Cæsar and the things of GOD, and on several occasions disclaims all intention to interfere with those things which had reference merely to the civil authority; yet, observe, when the Pharisees appeal to him on a doubtful disputation, growing out of their allowance of divorce, he does _not_, as on another occasion, put the question aside by asking who made him a judge in such matters, but he instantly exercises his judicial authority without reservation; thereby, in that very fact, declaring that GOD, not Cæsar, or the State, is the supreme authority, to whose tribunal the decision with respect to matrimony belongs. He pronounces the vital principle of marriage to be the making twain one flesh, and expressly declares that it is by GOD’S joining them together that this blending of their nature takes effect, and that the contract, once made, is on this account inviolable; nay, he declares it to be an exempt jurisdiction reserved by GOD exclusively to himself, and not to be modified, or in any respect invaded, by human authority. _Man’s_ law indeed may couple male and female together; but as the Church declares, on the authority of our LORD, it is their being joined together by GOD, and as GOD’S law doth allow, that in his sight makes their matrimony lawful.

Indeed, the Scriptures from first to last envelope this union with a sacred and mysterious solemnity. The first marriage, that of Adam and Eve, GOD himself solemnized, even GOD, who, by that very act, instituted the ordinance, and stamped it as Divine, and not a mere human contract. The whole proceeding, with respect to the marriage of Adam and Eve, is related under circumstances calculated to awaken the most solemn attention. As to the other creatures of his hand, they were produced by a fiat of the ALMIGHTY will, (male and female of every species,) a corporeal and instinctive adaptation to herd together being the bounds of their perfection. But in the case of the human species, a very different course was observed. Man is first formed, a splendidly gifted creature, who soon is made to feel his social wants, (by a survey of all GOD’S creatures _mated_ except himself,) and to express, by a plaintive reference to his own comparative destitution, how desolate he was even in Paradise, being alone in the garden of delights; and how hopeless was the search for a helpmeet for him throughout the whole compass of hitherto animated nature. Then it is that GOD puts his last finish to the visible universe by his own wonderful counsel for supplying the deficiency. He takes from man’s own substance the material from which his second self is to be formed; as the term employed by Moses imports, he works upon it with the skill of a profound artificer; and having framed and modelled out of it, after man’s own image, softened and refined, but still retaining its Divine similitude, the grace of social life, he himself brings her to him to be his bosom counsellor and partner of his joys, (for cares and sorrows he, as yet, had none,) knitting them together, and pouring on them the most precious benedictions. Thus was the marriage first solemnized by the great GOD himself. And even so do his ambassadors now; _they_, as an ancient writer observes, they, as the representatives of GOD, come forth to the persons who are to be joined together, to confirm this their sacred covenant by the offering up of holy prayers.

By Canon 62, it is enjoined that no minister shall join persons in marriage in any private place, but either in the churches or chapels where one of them dwelleth, and likewise in time of Divine service. (See _Banns_.)

An uniformity of principle prevails throughout the sacred Scriptures, and to the sacredness of the marriage contract frequent allusions are made. Thus Israel is said to have been _married_ to the LORD; and idolatry (that is, the following of the gods of the heathens) is represented as adultery, a breach of the covenant between GOD and Israel. GOD’S reproofs to them for their infidelity are sharpened by the recollection of their marriage relation with him. The state of believers in this world is compared by the apostle Paul to the time that used to elapse between the betrothing and the actual marriage among the Jews; nay, St. Paul goes further, he alludes to this sacred contract as a type or representation of the mysterious love of JESUS to his Church. For our LORD forsook his heavenly FATHER, and did cleave unto our nature, becoming one flesh with us, giving to the Church his SPIRIT for a dowry, and heaven for a jointure, feeding her at his table, adorning her by his grace, and protecting her by his power; and from this love of CHRIST to his spouse, the Church, are many converts begotten unto GOD through the gospel, and (born again of water and the HOLY GHOST) they become heirs of glory. Thus honoured is the marriage contract, by being made an emblem of so Divine and mysterious a mercy. It was indeed to hallow the rite by this application that St. Paul wrote, since in the passage referred to he was arguing against certain seducers who would have disfigured Christianity by imputing to it the forbidding of its disciples to marry. He shows, on the contrary, that marriage, so far from having any discredit cast upon it by the gospel, is advanced in honour. He describes, indeed, the ministerial office to consist in espousing the Church to CHRIST; and St. John, in the Apocalypse, depicts the consummation of all things as the marriage of the LAMB and his wife, the beatific union between CHRIST and his redeemed ones, between GOD and the Church, when the Church has been cleansed and sanctified, and become a glorious Church, without spot or wrinkle, or any such thing.

MATTHEW, ST., THE EVANGELIST’S DAY. A festival of the Christian Church, observed on the 21st of September.

St. Matthew, the son of Alpheus, was also called Levi. He was of Jewish original, as both his names discover, and probably a Galilean. Before his call to the apostolate, he was a publican or tollgatherer to the Romans; an office of bad repute among the Jews, on account of the covetousness and exaction of those who managed it. St. Matthew’s office particularly consisted in gathering the customs of all merchandise that came by the sea of Galilee, and the tribute that passengers were to pay who went by water. And here it was that Matthew sat at the “receipt of custom,” when our Saviour called him to be a disciple. It is probable, that, living at Capernaum, the place of Christ’s usual residence, he might have some knowledge of him before he was called.

Matthew immediately expressed his satisfaction, in being called to this high dignity, by entertaining our Saviour and his disciples at a great dinner at his own house, whither he invited all his friends, especially those of his own profession, hoping, probably, that they might be influenced by the company and conversation of Christ.

St. Matthew continued with the rest of the apostles till after our LORD’S ascension. For the first eight years afterwards he preached in Judea. Then he betook himself to propagating the gospel among the Gentiles, and chose Ethiopia as the scene of his apostolical ministry; where it is said he suffered martyrdom, but by what kind of death is altogether uncertain. It is pretended, but without any foundation, that Hyrtacus, king of Ethiopia, desiring to marry Iphigenia, the daughter of his brother and predecessor Æglippus, and the apostle having represented to him that he could not lawfully do it, the enraged prince ordered his head immediately to be cut off.

MATTHEW’S, ST., GOSPEL. A canonical book of the New Testament. (See the preceding article.)

St. Matthew wrote his Gospel in Judea, at the request of those he had converted. It is thought he began this work about the year 41, eight years after our SAVIOUR’S resurrection. Irenæus thinks he wrote it whilst St. Peter and St. Paul were preaching at Rome. It was written (according to the testimony of all the ancients) in the Hebrew or Syriac language, which was then common in Judea.

The true Hebrew Gospel of St. Matthew is no longer in being anywhere, as far as can be discovered. Those printed by Sebastian Munster, and du Tillet, are modern, and translated into Hebrew from the Latin or Greek.

The Greek version of St. Matthew’s Gospel, and which at this day passes for the original, is as old as the apostolical times. The author is unknown. Some ascribe it to St. Matthew himself; others, to St. James the less, bishop of Jerusalem; others, to St. John the evangelist, or to St. Paul, or to St. Luke, or to St. Barnabas.

MATTHIAS’S, ST., DAY. A festival of the Christian Church, observed on the 24th of February.

St. Matthias was an apostle of JESUS CHRIST, but not of the number of the twelve, chosen by CHRIST himself. He obtained this high honour upon a vacancy, made in the college of the apostles by the treason and death of Judas Iscariot. The choice fell on Matthias by lot; his competitor being Joseph called Barsabas, and surnamed Justus.

Matthias was qualified for the apostleship, by having been a constant attendant upon our SAVIOUR all the time of his ministry. He was, probably, one of the seventy disciples. After our LORD’S resurrection, he preached the gospel first in Judea. Afterwards it is probable he travelled eastward, his residence being principally near the irruption of the river Apsarus and the haven Hyssus. The barbarous people treated him with great rudeness and inhumanity; and, after many labours and sufferings in converting great numbers to Christianity, he obtained the crown of martyrdom; but by what kind of death is uncertain.

The observance of this festival among us has been attended with some confusion. The Common Prayer Book of Queen Elizabeth directs, that, in Leap-years, an intercalary or additional day shall be added between the 23rd and 24th days of February. Hence St. Matthias’s day, which, in common years, was observed on the 24th of February, was, in Leap-years, observed on the 25th. But, in the review of our liturgy, it was thought more proper to add a 29th day to February. So that now, there being no variation of the days, this festival must always keep to the 24th day. But, notwithstanding the case is so clear, some almanack-makers continued to follow the old custom, which occasioned the day to be variously observed. Archbishop Sancroft decided the matter by an injunction, Feb. 5, 1683, requiring “all vicars and curates to take notice, that the feast of St. Matthias is to be celebrated, not upon the 25th of February, (as the common almanack-makers boldly and erroneously set it,) but upon the 24th of February for ever, whether it be Leap-year or not, as the calendar in the liturgy, confirmed by act of uniformity, appoints and enjoins.”

MAUNDY THURSDAY. The Thursday before Easter, being the day on which our Lord instituted the holy sacrament of his body and blood. The name of Maundy, Maunday, or Mandate, (_Dies Mandati_,) is said to have allusion to the _mandate_ or new commandment which, on this day, CHRIST gave to his disciples, that they should love one another, as he had loved them. It has also been supposed by others, that the name arose from the _maunds_, or baskets of gifts, which, at this time, it was an ancient custom for Christians to present one to another, in token of that mutual affection which our LORD so tenderly urged, at this period of his sufferings, and as a remembrancer of that “inestimable gift” of CHRIST, to be our spiritual food in the sacrament of his body and blood. Says a writer of the age of Wickliff, “CHRIST made his _maundy_ and said, Take, eat,” &c.

On this day it was customary for bishops, sovereigns, and nobles, to wash the feet of the poor, a ceremony still observed in many places abroad. In the Hierurgice Anglicana (p. 282, 283) is given an account of the ceremonial observed by Queen Elizabeth. King James II. is said to have been the last of our sovereigns who performed it. It is still the custom on Maundy Thursday for the Lord Almoner to distribute certain royal donations to the poor in the Royal Chapel at Whitehall. This service consists of appropriate psalms, lessons, anthems, and special prayers. It is performed with great solemnity. For the full particulars see Stephens’s edition of the Common Prayer Book.

MAY, TWENTY-NINTH OF. (See _Forms of Prayer_.)

MEANS OF GRACE. (See _Ordinances_ and _Sacraments_.) The sacraments and other ordinances of the Church, through which grace is conveyed to souls prepared by faith and penitence to receive it.

MEDIATOR. (See _Jesus_, _Lord_, _Christ_, _Messiah_.) A person who intervenes between two parties at variance. Thus our blessed LORD and SAVIOUR JESUS CHRIST is the Mediator between GOD and man.

This appears from 1 Tim. ii. 5, “For there is one GOD, and one Mediator between GOD and men, the man CHRIST JESUS.” When we call him a Mediator, we call him so, not only as he is our Redeemer, but also as he is our Intercessor. “For, if any man sin, we have an advocate with the FATHER, JESUS CHRIST the righteous.” (1 John ii. 1.)—_Archdeacon Welchman._ It is to be remembered, however, that by a mediator here the Church means, not barely an intercessor or transactor of business between two parties, in which sense Moses was a mediator between GOD and the Israelites with respect to the ceremonial law; but such a mediator, intercessor, and transactor, as can plead the merit of his own blood, offered up in man’s stead, to reconcile an offended GOD to sinful man. In this sense CHRIST is the only mediator between GOD and man, being both GOD and man.—_Dr. Bennet._

It has been already proved that CHRIST partook both of the Divine and human nature: and St. Paul expressly says, “There is one mediator,” &c. CHRIST is represented, both in the Old and New Testament, as the only redeemer of mankind, as the only sacrifice for the sins of the whole world. His merits will extend to all who lived before and after the promulgation of the gospel. “As in Adam all die, so in CHRIST shall all be made alive.” (1 Cor. xv. 22.) “He is the LAMB which was slain from the foundation of the world.” (Rev. xiii. 8.)—_Bp. Tomline._

MELCHITES. The name which is given to the Syriac, Egyptian, and other Christians of the Levant; who, though not Greeks, follow the doctrines and ceremonies of the Greek Church, and submit to the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. The term _Melchites_ is borrowed from the Hebrew or Syriac word _Melec_, which signifies _king_. So that Melchites is as much as to say Royalists, and is a term of reproach, given to the orthodox by the Eutychians, or Jacobites, on account of their implicit submission to the edicts of the emperors, for the publication and reception of the above-mentioned council.

The Melchites, excepting some few points of little or no importance, which relate only to their ceremonies and ecclesiastical discipline, are in every respect professed Greeks. They have translations, in the Arabian language, of the Greek rituals; but their versions are for the most part very incorrect. In general, the Christians of the Levant are so far from being just and correct in their translations of the Greek authors, that they imagine they have a right to make them speak according to their own sentiments. This is evident in the Arabic canons of the Council of Nice, in which the Melchites find sufficient arguments to justify their notions against those of the Jacobites; and the Jacobites, on the other hand, by the very same canons, vindicate their tenets against those of the Melchites.

The Melchites are governed by a particular patriarch, who resides at Damascus, and assumes the title of Patriarch of Antioch. The great difficulty they meet with in finding such ministers as can read Greek, is said to be the true reason why they celebrate mass in the Arabian language: and even those who are acquainted with the Greek tongue, yet read the Epistle and Gospel in Arabic.

The monks among the Melchites follow the rule of St. Basil, the common rule of all the Greek monks. They have four fine convents, distant about a day’s journey from Damascus. They never go out of the cloister.

MELETIANS. There were in the fourth century two schisms called _Meletian_.

1. The Meletians of Egypt had their name from Meletius, a bishop of Lycopolis, the second of the Egyptian sees in dignity. It has been most commonly supposed that Meletius sacrificed to the heathen gods in a persecution about the year 301, or perhaps in the last general persecution a few years later. But there seems to be reason for supposing that the occasion of his schism was of an opposite kind—that he objected to the lenity with which Peter, bishop of Alexandria, treated those who had lapsed in the persecution; and this explanation agrees better with the character of the sect, who rejected all from their communion, who in time of persecution fell from CHRIST, though they afterwards repented. Meletius proceeded to ordain bishops, and at one time had nearly thirty of these in his communion. He was prohibited for ever to ordain by the Council of Nice, but his followers were admitted to communion without re-ordination. He submitted to this at first, but afterwards resumed his practice of schismatical ordinations. The Arians attempted to draw the Meletians into a connexion with them, on the ground of their common enmity to the orthodox bishops of Alexandria; and thus the schismatics whose original difference with the Church had been limited to questions of discipline, became infected with heresy.

2. The Meletians of Antioch were so called from Meletius, who in 360 was appointed to the bishopric of that city. Although he owed his appointment to the Arians, he soon showed that he was orthodox; whereupon he was deposed and banished. He afterwards recovered his see, but the adherents of Eustathius, who had been deposed by the Arians many years before, refused to communicate with him; and Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari, by ordaining Paulinus in opposition to him, contributed to exasperate the differences of the orthodox. The schism of Antioch was not finally healed until the year 415.

MENAION. The name which the Greeks give to the twelve volumes of their Church Service. These volumes answer to the twelve months in the year, each volume taking in a month. In this book is contained the offices for the saints of every day, methodically digested.

From the Menaion is drawn the _Menologium_, (Menology,) or Greek calendar, in which the lives of the saints in short, or their names only, are cited. The Menaion, therefore, of the Greek answers to the Breviary of the Latins, and the Menology to the Martyrology. (See _Breviary_ and _Martyrology_.)

MENDICANTS, or BEGGING FRIARS. There are several orders of monks or friars, in Popish countries, who, having no income or revenues, are supported by the charitable contributions of others. These, from their manner of life, are called Mendicants.

This sort of friars began in the thirteenth century, when Dominic de Guzman, with nine more of his companions, founded the order of _Preaching Friars_, called from their founder _Dominicans_. The other three _Mendicant_ orders are, the _Franciscans_, _Augustines_, and _Carmelites_.

These monks gave great disturbance to the secular clergy, by pretending to a right of taking confessions and granting absolution, without asking leave of the parochial priests, or even the bishops themselves. Pope Innocent IV. restrained this licence, and prohibited the Mendicants to confess the faithful without leave of the curé. Alexander IV. restored this privilege to them. And Martin IV., to accommodate the dispute, granted them a permission to receive confessions, upon condition that the penitents, who applied to them, should confess once a year to their proper pastor. However, this expedient falling short of full satisfaction, Boniface VIII. ordered that the superiors of religious houses should make application to the bishops, for their permission to such friars as should be commissioned by their respective abbots to administer the sacrament of penance. And upon the foot of this constitution the matter now rests.

MENGRELIANS. Christians of the Greek religion, converted by Cyrillus and Methodius. They baptize not their children till the eighth year, and enter not into the Church (the men especially) till the sixtieth (others say the fortieth) year, but hear Divine service standing without the temple.

MENNONITES. A sect of Anabaptists in Holland, so denominated from one Mennon Simonis of Frisia, who lived in the sixteenth century. The Protestants, as well as the Romanists, confuted them. Mr. Stoupp explains their doctrine thus: Mennon is not the first of the Anabaptists; but having rejected the enthusiasms and revelations of the first Anabaptists and their opinions, concerning the new kingdom of JESUS CHRIST, he set up other tenets, which his followers hold to this time. They believe that the New Testament is the only rule of our faith; that the terms _Person_ and _Trinity_ are not to be used in speaking of the FATHER, SON, and HOLY GHOST; that the first men were not created just; that there is no original sin; that JESUS CHRIST had not his flesh from the substance of his mother Mary, but from the essence of his FATHER; that it is not lawful for Christians to swear, or exercise any office of magistracy, nor use the sword to punish evil-doers, nor to wage war upon any terms; that a Christian may attain to the height of perfection in this life; that the ministers of the gospel ought not to receive any salary; that children are not to be baptized; that the souls of men after death rest in an unknown place.

In the mean time these Mennonites broke into several divisions, for very inconsiderable reasons; many among them embraced the opinions of the Socinians, or rather of the Arians, touching the Deity of CHRIST; and they were all for moderation in religion, not thinking that they might lawfully debar from their assemblies any man leading a pious life, and that owned the Scriptures for the word of GOD. These were called Galenites, and borrowed their name from a physician of Amsterdam, called Galen. Some of them in Holland are called Collegiates, because they meet privately, and every one in their assembly hath the liberty to speak, to expound the Scriptures, to pray, and to sing: they that are truly Collegiates are Trinitarians: they never receive the communion in their college, but they meet twice a year, from all parts of Holland, at Rhinsburg, a village about two leagues from Leyden; there they receive the sacrament. The first that sits at table may distribute it to the rest; and all sects are admitted, even the Roman Catholics, if they would come.

MESSALIANS, or MASSALIANS. So called from a Chaldee word, which signifies _to pray_, as does the Greek εὐχομαι, from which these sectaries had also the name of _Euchites_, because they prayed continually, and held nothing necessary to salvation but prayer: they rejected preaching and the sacraments: they held that the supreme GOD was visible; and that Satan was to be worshipped that he might do no hurt: they pretended to cast out devils; and rejected almsgiving. This heresy prevailed under Valentinian and Valens, about A. D. 370.

MESSIAH signifies the anointed. (See _Christ_, _Jesus_, and _Lord_.) It is the title given by way of eminence to our blessed SAVIOUR, meaning in Hebrew the same as CHRIST in Greek, and it alludes to the authority he possesses to assume the characters of prophet, priest, and king, and so of the SAVIOUR of the world.

CHRIST the Messiah (“anointed”) was promised by GOD, (Gen. iii. 15; xxi. 12,) and foretold by the prophets, (Gen. xlix. 10; 1 Sam. ii. 10 and 35; Ps. ii. 2; xlv. 7; Micah v. 2, with John vii. 42; Mal. iii. 1,) as the “redeemer” of Israel, (Job xix. 25; Isa. lix. 20; Luke xxiv. 21,) and “the desire of all nations” (Haggai ii. 7). He who was born in the days of Herod, of a pure virgin, and called “JESUS,” according to prophecy, (Luke i. 31,) is that “Messiah,” “the CHRIST,” (John i. 41; Acts ii. 36,) as he declares himself to be, (John x. 24, 25,) whose coming was then expected (Matt. ii. 1, 2; John iv. 25, 29, 42). Who was “anointed,” not with any material and typifying “oil,” as were those who preceded him—his types—but with “the Spirit of GOD,” (Matt. iii. 16; John i. 32, 33,) “the Spirit of the LORD,” as promised, (Isa. xi. 2; xlii. 1; Matt. xii. 18,) a spiritual unction—“the oil of gladness, above his fellows” (Ps. xlv. 7); and thus was he consecrated to the three offices, divided in others, being the great Prophet predicted, (Deut. xviii. 15, 18,) and acknowledged, (John vi. 14; vii. 40,) the eternal High Priest, (Ps. cx. 4; Heb. viii. 1; x. 12, 14,) and universal King (Gen. xlix. 10; Num. xxiv. 17; Ps. ii. 6; Dan. vii. 14; Zech. xiv. 9; Matt. xxv. 34; Rev. xi. 15). And this Spirit he received as the head, (Heb. i. 9,) and conveys to the members of his body (2 Cor. i. 21; 1 John ii. 20).

MESSIANIC. A term invented by modern critics, to signify those Psalms or other portions of Scripture which specially relate to or personify the Messiah.

METHODISTS, POPISH. Polemical doctors, who arose in France about the middle of the seventeenth century, in opposition to the Huguenots, or French Protestants.

METHODISTS. This is the distinctive appellation of the followers of the late Mr. John Wesley, who was born in 1703, and died in 1791.

Under the general term of “Methodists” are comprehended two principal and several subordinate sections, having totally distinct ecclesiastical organizations. The two grand sections differ from each other upon points of _doctrine_; one professing Arminian, and the other Calvinistic, sentiments. The former are the followers of John Wesley, and from him are called “Wesleyan Methodists;”—the latter were originated by the labours of George Whitfield, but their founder’s name is not perpetuated in their title, which is generally that of “Calvinistic Methodists.” Each of the two grand sections is divided into several smaller sections, differing from each other upon points of _Church government_ and discipline: the _Wesleyan Methodists_ comprise the “Original Connexion,” the “New Connexion,” the “Primitive Methodists,” and the “Wesleyan Association”—the _Calvinistic Methodists_ comprise the body bearing that specific name, and also the churches belonging to what is known as “The Countess of Huntingdon’s Connexion.”

THE ORIGINAL CONNEXION.

As at present settled, the form of Church government somewhat resembles that of the Scottish Presbyterian Churches in the order of the courts, in the relation they bear to each other, and in their respective constitutions and functions. The difference is in the greater degree of authority in spiritual matters exercised by the Wesleyan ministers, who preside in their courts not as mere chairmen or moderators, but as pastors. This is said by them to secure an equitable balance of power between the two parties, lay and clerical, in these courts, and thus to provide against abuse on either side. How far this is the case will be more clearly seen by a description of these various courts, tracing them upwards from the lowest to the highest,—from the Class to the Conference.

The CLASSES were the very first of the arrangements introduced by Mr. Wesley. They consist, in general, of about 12 persons; each class having its appointed “leader,” (an experienced Christian layman, nominated by the superintendent of a circuit, and appointed by a leaders’ meeting,) whose duty is to meet his class once every week—converse with each class member, hear from him a statement of his spiritual condition, and give appropriate counsel. Every member of a class, except in cases of extreme poverty, is expected to contribute at least a penny per week towards the funds of the society. Out of the proceeds of this contribution, assisted by other funds, the stipends of the ministers are paid. The system of class meetings is justly considered the very life of Methodism.

The public worship of these societies is conducted in each circuit by two descriptions of preachers, one clerical, the other lay. The clerics are separated entirely to the work of the ministry—are members of, or in connexion with, or received as probationers by, the Conference—and are supported by funds raised for that purpose in the classes and congregations. From one to four of these, called “itinerant preachers,” are appointed annually for not exceeding three years in immediate succession to the same circuit. Their ministry is not confined to any particular chapel in the circuit, but they act interchangeably from place to place, seldom preaching in the same place more than one Sunday without a change, which is effected according to a plan generally re-made every quarter. Of itinerant preachers there are at present about 915 in Great Britain. The lay, or “local” preachers, as they are denominated, follow secular callings, like other of their fellow subjects, and preach on the sabbaths at the places appointed for them in the above-mentioned plan; as great an interval being observed between their appointments to the same place as can be conveniently arranged.

The public services of Methodists present a combination of the forms of the Church of England with the usual practice of Dissenting Churches. In the larger chapels, the Church Liturgy is used; and, in all, the sacrament is administered according to the Church of England rubric. Independently of sabbath worship, love feasts are occasionally celebrated; and a midnight meeting, on the last day of each year, is held as a solemn “watch night,” for the purpose of impressing on the mind a sense of the brevity and rapid flight of time.

At present there are 428 circuits in Great Britain. Besides preaching in the various chapels in their respective circuits, the itinerant preachers administer the sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s supper. One or other of them, according to an arrangement amongst themselves, meets every class in his circuit once in every quarter, personally converses with every member, and distributes to all such as have throughout the past three months walked orderly a _ticket_, which authenticates their membership. One of the ministers in every circuit is called the “superintendent,” whose duties, in addition to his ordinary labours as a travelling preacher, are, to see that the Methodist discipline is properly maintained,—to admit candidates into membership, (subject to a veto by a leaders’ meeting,)—and to expel from the society any member whom a leaders’ meeting shall pronounce guilty of any particular offence. Appeal, however, lies from his decision to a District meeting, and ultimately to the Conference. There is also a “circuit steward,” whose duty is to receive from the society stewards the contributions of class members, and to superintend their application for the purposes of the circuit.

The CONFERENCE, the highest Wesleyan court, is composed exclusively of ministers. It derives its authority from a deed of declaration, executed by Mr. Wesley in 1784, by which it was provided that, after the decease of himself and his brother Charles, 100 persons, named in the deed, “being preachers and expounders of God’s holy word, under the care and in connexion with the said John Wesley,” should exercise the authority which Wesley himself possessed, to appoint preachers to the various chapels. Vacancies in the “hundred” were to be filled up by the remainder at an annual Conference. In pursuance of this deed, a Conference of 100 ministers meets yearly in July, with the addition of the representatives selected by the district meetings, and such other ministers as are appointed or permitted to attend by the district committees. The custom is, for all these ministers to share in the proceedings and to vote; though all the decisions thus arrived at must be sanctioned by the legal “hundred,” ere they can have binding force. The Conference must sit for at least five days, but not beyond three weeks. Its principal transactions are, to examine the moral and ministerial character of every preacher—to receive candidates on trial—to admit ministers into the connexion—and to appoint ministers to particular circuits or stations. Independently of its functions under this deed poll, the Conference exercises a general superintendence over the various institutions of the body; including the appointment of various committees, as, (1.) The Committee of Privileges for guarding the interests of the Wesleyan Connexion; (2.) The Committee for the management of Missions; (3.) The Committee for the management of Schools for educating the children of Wesleyan ministers; (4.) The General Book Committee (for superintending the publication and sale of Wesleyan works); (5.) The Chapel Building Committee (without whose previous consent in writing no chapel, whether large or small, is to be erected, purchased, or enlarged); (6.) The Chapel Relief Committee; (7.) The Contingent Fund Committee; (8.) The Committee of the Auxiliary Fund for worn-out ministers and ministers’ widows; and the committees for the various schools, theological institutions, &c.

The Conference has also assumed to itself the power of making new laws for the government of the Connexion: provided that, if any circuit meeting disapprove such law, it is not to be enforced in that circuit for the space of one year. Any circuit has the power of memorializing Conference on behalf of any change considered desirable, provided the June quarterly meeting should so determine.

The doctrines held by the Wesleyans are substantially accordant with the Articles of the Established Church, interpreted in their Arminian sense. In this they follow Mr. Wesley rather than Arminius; for although the writings of the latter are received with high respect, the first four volumes of Wesley’s Sermons, and his Notes on the New Testament, (which they hold to be “neither Calvinistic on the one hand nor Pelagian on the other,”) are referred to as the standard of their orthodoxy. The continued influence of their founder is manifested by the general adherence of the body to his opinions on the subject of attainment to Christian perfection in the present life—on the possibility of final ruin after the reception of Divine grace—and on the experience by every convert of a clear _assurance_ of his acceptance with God through faith in Jesus Christ.

The Census Accounts show 6579 chapels in England and Wales, belonging to this Connexion in March 1851; containing (allowance being made for defective returns) accommodation for 1,447,580 persons. The number of _attendants_ on the Census Sunday was: Morning, 492,714; Afternoon, 383,964; Evening, 667,850: including an estimate for 133 chapels, for which the number of attendants was not stated.

The following table shows the principal societies and institutions for religious objects supported by the Wesleyan Original Connexion. Others, in part supported by Wesleyans, are mentioned in the General List at page cxvii. of the Report.

────────────────────────────────────┬───────────┬─────── NAME OF SOCIETY OR INSTITUTION. │ DATE OF │ANNUAL │FOUNDATION.│INCOME. ────────────────────────────────────┼───────────┼─────── │ A.D. │ £ Contingent Fund │ 1756 │ 10,065 Auxiliary Fund │ 1813 │ 7,163 The Children’s Fund │ 1818 │ 3,280 Wesleyan Theological Institution │ 1834 │ 4,688 General Chapel Fund │ 1818 │ 3,984 Wesleyan Seamen’s Mission │ 1843 │ 160 Wesleyan Missionary Society │ 1817 │105,370 ────────────────────────────────────┼───────────┼─────── Kingswood and Woodhouse Grove School│ 1748 │ 8,048 │ 1811 │ ────────────────────────────────────┼───────────┼─────── Education Fund │ 1837 │ 2,800 ────────────────────────────────────┴───────────┴───────

In 1839 was celebrated the Centenary of the existence of Wesleyan Methodism; and the gratitude of the people towards the system under which they had derived so much advantage was displayed by contributions to the large amount of £216,000, which sum was appropriated to the establishment of theological institutions in Yorkshire and at Richmond—the purchase of the “Centenary Hall and Mission House” in Bishopsgate Street—the provision of a missionary ship—the discharge of chapel debts—and the augmentation of the incomes of the Methodist religious societies.

Of late years a considerable agitation (to be more particularly mentioned when describing “Wesleyan Reformers”) has diminished to a great extent the number of the members in connexion. It is stated that by this division the Original Connexion has sustained a loss of 100,000 members.

THE METHODIST NEW CONNEXION.

For some time after Mr. Wesley’s death in 1791, considerable agitation was observable throughout the numerous societies which, under his control, had rapidly sprung up in every part of England. The more immediate subjects of dispute had reference to, (1.) “the right of the people to hold their public religious worship at such hours as were most convenient, without being restricted to the mere intervals of the hours appointed for service in the Established Church;” and, (2.) “the right of the people to receive the ordinances of Baptism and the Lord’s supper from the hands of their own ministers, and in their own places of worship;” but the principal and fundamental question in dispute concerned the right of the laity to participate in the spiritual and secular government of the body. Wesley himself had, in his lifetime, always exercised an absolute authority; and after his decease the travelling preachers claimed the same extent of power. A vigorous opposition was, however, soon originated, which continued during several years; the Conference attempting various unsuccessful measures for restoring harmony. A “Plan of Pacification” was adopted by the Conference in 1795, and was received with general satisfaction so far as the ordinances were concerned; but the question of lay influence remained untouched till 1797, when the Conference conceded that the leaders’ meetings should have the right to exercise an absolute _veto_ upon the _admission_ of new members to the Society, and that no member should be _expelled_ for immorality, “until such immorality had been proved at a leaders’ meeting.” Certain lesser rights were at the same time conceded to the quarterly meetings, in which the laity were represented by the presence of their stewards and class leaders. But this was the extent of the concessions made by the preachers; and all propositions for lay delegation to the Conference and the district meetings were conclusively rejected.

Foremost amongst many who remained unsatisfied by these concessions was the Rev. Alexander Kilham, who, singularly enough, was born at Epworth in Lincolnshire, the birth-place of the Wesleys. Mr. Kilham, first acquiring prominence as an assertor of the right of Methodists to meet for worship in church hours, and to receive the sacraments from their own ministers, was gradually led to take an active part in advocacy of the principle of lay participation in the government of the Connexion.

Originated by a movement for a certain and specific alteration in the _constitution_ of Wesleyan Methodism, the New Connexion differs from the parent body only with respect to those ecclesiastical arrangements which were then the subjects of dispute. In doctrines, and in all the essential and distinctive features of Wesleyan Methodism, there is no divergence: the Arminian tenets are as firmly held by the New as by the Old Connexion; and the outline of ecclesiastical machinery—comprising classes, circuits, districts, and the Conference—is in both the same. The grand distinction rests upon the different degrees of power allowed in each communion to the laity. It has been shown that, in the “Original Connexion,” all authority is virtually vested in the preachers: they alone compose the Conference—their influence is paramount in the inferior courts—and even when, as in financial matters, laymen are appointed to committees, such appointments are entirely in the hands of Conference. The “New Connexion,” on the contrary, admits, in all its courts, the principle of lay participation in Church government: candidates for membership must be admitted by the voice of the existing members, not by the minister alone; offending members cannot be expelled but with the concurrence of a leaders’ meeting; officers of the body, whether leaders, ministers, or stewards, are elected by the Church and ministers conjointly; and in district meetings and the annual Conference lay delegates (as many in number as the ministers) are present, freely chosen by the members of the Churches.

The progress of the New Connexion since its origin has been as follows, in the aggregate, comprising England, Ireland, and the colonies:

Year. Members. 1797 5,000 1803 5,280 1813 8,067 1823 10,794 1833 14,784 1840 21,836 1846 20,002 1853 21,384

At present (1853) the state of the Connexion, _In England and Wales_, is reported to be as follows:

Chapels 301 Societies 298 Circuit preachers 95 Local preachers 814 Members 16,070 Sabbath schools 273 Sabbath-school teachers 7,335 Sabbath-school scholars 44,337

Returns have been received at the Census Office from 297 chapels and stations (mostly in the northern counties) belonging to this Connexion, containing accommodation, after an estimate for 16 defective returns, for 96,964 persons. The number of _attendants_ on the Census Sunday was: Morning, 36,801; Afternoon, 22,620; Evening, 39,624: including an estimate for three chapels, the attendance in which was not stated.

In 1847 the Jubilee of the Connexion was celebrated, and it was resolved to raise a fund of £20,000, to be appropriated to the relief of distressed chapels, to the erection of a theological institution, the extension of home and foreign missions, and the provision for aged and retired ministers.

PRIMITIVE METHODISTS.

About the commencement of the present century, certain among the “Wesleyans (and conspicuously Hugh Bourne and William Clowes) began to put in practice a revival of those modes of operation, which had by that time been abandoned by the then consolidated body. The Conference of 1807 affirmed a resolution adverse to such unprescribed expedients; and the consequence of this disapprobation was the birth of the Primitive Methodist Connexion,—the first class being formed at Standley in Staffordshire in 1810. The following table, furnished by the Conference itself, will show the progress made by the Connexion since that period.

───────┬──────────────┬───────────────┬─────┬───────┬─────────────────────── │ │ │Class│ Mem- │ Period.│ Chapels. │ Preachers. │Lead-│ bers. │ Sabbath Schools. │ │ │ers. │ │ ───────┼───────┬──────┼────────┬──────┼─────┼───────┼────────┬──────┬─────── │Connex-│Rented│ Tra-│ │ │ │ │Teach-│Schol- „ │ional. │Rooms,│velling.│Local.│ „ │ „ │Schools.│ ers. │ ars. │ │ &c. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ───────┼───────┼──────┼────────┼──────┼─────┼───────┼────────┼──────┼─────── 1810│ │ │ │ │ │ 10│ │ │ 1811│ │ │ 2│ │ │ 260│ │ │ 1820│ │ │ 202│ 1,435│ │ 7,842│ │ │ 1830│ 421│ │ 240│ 2,719│ │ 35,733│ │ │ 1840│ 1,149│ │ 487│ 6,550│ │ 73,990│ │11,968│ 60,508 1850│ 1,555│ 3,515│ 519│ 8,524│6,162│104,762│ 1,278│20,114│103,310 1853│ 1,789│ 3,565│ 568│ 9,594│6,767│108,926│ 1,535│22,792│121,394 ───────┴───────┴──────┴────────┴──────┴─────┴───────┴────────┴──────┴───────

These statistics refer as well to the foreign stations of the Connexion as to England and Wales; but the deduction to be made upon this account will not exceed two or three per cent. of the above figures. The number of chapels, &c. returned by the Census officers was only 2871, so that many of the above must probably be small rooms, which thus escaped the notice of the enumerators. The number of connexional circuits and missions is, altogether, 313, of which, 13 are in Canada, 2 in South Australia, 1 in New South Wales, 1 in Victoria, and 3 in New Zealand. The “Missions,” whether abroad or at home, are localities in which the labours of the preachers are remunerated not from local sources, but from the circuit contributions, or from the general funds of the Connexion appropriated to missions.

The doctrines held by the Primitive Methodists are precisely similar to those maintained by the Original Connexion, and the outline of their ecclesiastical polity is also similar, the chief distinction being the admission, by the former body, of lay representatives to the Conference, and the generally greater influence allowed, in all the various courts, to laymen.

Camp meetings, though occasionally held, are much less frequent now than formerly: the people, it is thought, are more accessible than 50 years ago to other agencies.

BIBLE CHRISTIANS.

The “Bible Christians” (sometimes called Bryanites) are included here among the Methodist communities, more from a reference to their sentiments and polity than to their origin. The body, indeed, was not the result of a secession from the Methodist Connexion, but was rather the origination of a new community, which, as it grew, adopted the essential principles of Methodism.

The founder of the body was Mr. William O’Bryan, a Wesleyan local preacher in Cornwall, who, in 1815, separated from the Wesleyans, and began himself to form societies upon the Methodist plan. In a very few years considerable advance was made, and throughout Devonshire and Cornwall many societies were established; so that, in 1819, there were nearly 30 itinerant preachers. In that year, the first Conference was held, when the Connexion was divided into 12 circuits. Mr. O’Bryan withdrew from the body in 1829.

In doctrinal profession there is no distinction between “Bible Christians” and the various bodies of Arminian Methodists.

The forms of public worship, too, are of the same simple character; but, in the administration of the sacrament of the Lord’s supper, “it is usual to receive the elements in a sitting posture, as it is believed that that practice is more conformable to the posture of body in which it was at first received by Christ’s apostles, than kneeling; but persons are at liberty to kneel, if it be more suitable to their views and feelings to do so.”

According to the Census returns, the number of chapels belonging to the body in England and Wales in 1851 was 482; by far the greater number being situated in the south-western counties of England. The number of sittings, (after adding an estimate for 42 imperfect returns,) was 66,834. The attendance on the Census Sunday was: _Morning_, 14,902; _Afternoon_, 24,345; _Evening_, 34,612; an estimate being made for eight chapels the number of attendants at which was not stated in the returns. The Minutes of Conference for 1852 present the following view:—

─────────────────┬─────────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────────── │ In Circuits. │ In Home │ Total. │ │ Missionary │ │ │ Stations. │ ─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼───────────────── Chapels │ 293│ 110│ 403 Itinerant │ 61│ 52│ 113 Ministers │ │ │ Local Preachers │ 741│ 345│ 1,059 Members │ 10,146│ 3,716│ 13,862 ─────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────

THE WESLEYAN METHODIST ASSOCIATION.

In 1834 a controversy was originated as to the propriety of the proposed establishment of a Wesleyan Theological Institution; and a minister who disapproved of such a measure, and prepared and published some remarks against it, was expelled from the Connexion. Sympathizers with him were in similar manner expelled.

The “Association” differs from the “Old Connexion” only with regard to the specific subjects of dispute which caused the rupture. The only variations, therefore, are in constitutional arrangements, and the principal of these are as follows:—

The Annual Assembly (answering to the Old Wesleyan Conference) is distinguished by the introduction of the laity as representatives. It consists of such of the itinerant and local preachers, and other official or private members, as the circuits, societies, or churches in union with the Association (and contributing £50 to the support of the ministry) elect. The number of representatives is regulated by the number of constituents. Circuits with less than 500 members send one; those with more than 500 and less than 1,000 send two; and such as have more than 1,000 send three. The Annual Assembly admits persons on trial as preachers, examines them, receives them into full connexion, appoints them to their circuits, and excludes or censures them when necessary. It also directs the application of all General or Connexional Funds, and appoints a committee to represent it till the next Assembly. But it does not interfere with strictly local matters, for “each circuit has the right and power to govern itself by its local courts, without any interference as to the management of its internal affairs.”

As was to be expected from the reason of its origin, the Association gives more influence to the laity in matters of Church discipline than is permitted by the Old Connexion. Therefore it is provided, that “no member shall be expelled from the Association except by the direction of a majority of a leaders’ society or circuit quarterly meeting.”

According to the Minutes of the 17th Annual Assembly, the following was the state of the Association in England and Wales in 1852, no allowance having, however, been made for several incomplete returns:—

Itinerant preachers and missionaries 90 Local preachers 1,016 Class leaders 1,353 Members in society 19,411 Chapels 329 Preaching places, rooms, &c. 171 Sunday schools 322 Sunday-school teachers 6,842 Sunday-school scholars 43,389

The Census Returns make mention of 419 chapels and preaching rooms, containing (after an estimate for the sittings in 34 cases of deficient information) accommodation for 98,813 persons. The attendance on the Census Sunday (making an allowance for five chapels, the returns from which are silent on this point) was: _Morning_, 32,308; _Afternoon_, 21,140; _Evening_, 40,655.

WESLEYAN METHODIST REFORMERS.

In 1840, another of the constantly recurring agitations with respect to ministerial authority in matters of Church discipline arose, and still continues. Some parties having circulated through the Connexion certain anonymous pamphlets called “Fly Sheets,” in which some points of Methodist procedure were attacked in a manner offensive to the Conference, that body, with a view to ascertain the secret authors, (suspected to be ministers,) adopted the expedient of tendering to every minister in the Connexion a “Declaration,” reprobating the obnoxious circulars, and repudiating all connexion with the authorship. Several ministers refused submission to this test, as being an unfair attempt to make the offending parties criminate themselves, and partaking of the nature of an Inquisition. The Conference, however, held that such a method of examination was both Scripturally proper, and accordant with the usages of Methodism; and the ministers persisting in their opposition were expelled. This stringent measure caused a great sensation through the various societies, and meetings were convened to sympathize with the excluded ministers. The Conference, however, steadily pursued its policy—considered all such meetings violations of Wesleyan order—and, acting through the superintendent ministers in all the circuits, punished by expulsion every member who attended them. In consequence of this proceeding, the important question was again, and with increased anxiety, debated,—whether the admission and excision of Church members is exclusively the duty of the minister, or whether, in the exercise of such momentous discipline, the other members of the Church have not a right to share.

The agitation on these questions (and on some collateral ones suggested naturally by these) is still prevailing, and has grown extremely formidable. It is calculated that the loss of the Old Connexion, by expulsions and withdrawals, now amounts to 100,000 members. The Reformers have not yet ostensibly seceded, and can therefore not be said to form a separate Connexion. They regard themselves as still Wesleyan Methodists, illegally expelled, and they demand the restoration of all preachers, officers, and members who have been excluded. In the mean time, they have set in operation a distinct machinery of Methodism, framed according to the plan which they consider ought to be adopted by the parent body. In their own returns it is represented that they had in 1852, 2000 chapels or preaching places, and 2800 preachers.

At the time of the Census, in March 1852, the movement was but in its infancy; so that the returns received, though possibly an accurate account of the then condition of the body, will fail to give an adequate idea of its present state. From these returns it seems there were at that time 339 chapels in connexion with the movement; having accommodation (after estimates for 51 defective schedules) for 67,814 persons. The attendance on the Census Sunday (making an allowance for five cases where the numbers were not given) was as follows: _Morning_, 30,470; _Afternoon_, 16,080; _Evening_, 44,953.

CALVINISTIC METHODISTS.

George Whitfield, born in 1714, the son of an innkeeper at Gloucester, where he acted as a common drawer, was admitted as a servitor in Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1732. Being then the subject of religious impressions, to which the evil character of his early youth lent force and poignancy, he naturally was attracted to those meetings for religious exercises which the brothers Wesley had a year or two before originated. After a long period of mental anguish, and the practice, for some time, of physical austerities, he ultimately found relief and comfort; and, resolving to devote himself to the labours of the ministry, was admitted into holy orders by the bishop of Gloucester. Preaching in various churches previous to his embarkation for Georgia, whither he had determined to follow Mr. Wesley, his uncommon force of oratory was at once discerned, and scenes of extraordinary popular commotion were displayed wherever he appeared. In 1737 he left for Georgia, just as Wesley had returned. He ministered with much success among the settlers for three months, and then came back to England, for the purpose of procuring aid towards the foundation of an orphan house for the colony. The same astonishing sensation was created by his preaching as before; the churches overflowed with eager auditors, and crowds would sometimes stand outside. Perceiving that no edifice was large enough to hold the numbers who desired and pressed to hear him, he began to entertain the thought of preaching in the open air; and when, on visiting Bristol shortly after, all the pulpits were denied to him. he carried his idea into practice, and commenced his great experiment by preaching to the colliers at Kingswood. His first audience numbered about 200; the second, 2000; the third, 4000; and so from ten to fourteen and to twenty thousand. Such success encouraged similar attempts in London; and accordingly, when the churchwardens of Islington forbade his entrance into the pulpit, which the vicar had offered him, he preached in the churchyard; and, deriving more and more encouragement from his success, he made Moorfields and Kennington Common the scenes of his impassioned eloquence, and there controlled, persuaded, and subdued assemblages of thirty and forty thousand of the rudest auditors. He again departed for Georgia in 1748, founded there the orphan house, and, requiring funds for its support, again returned to England in 1751.

Up to this period, Wesley and Whitfield had harmoniously laboured in conjunction; but there now arose a difference of sentiment between them on the doctrine of election, which resulted in their separation. Whitfield held the Calvinistic tenets, Wesley the Arminian; and their difference proving, after some discussion, to be quite irreconcilable, they thenceforth each pursued a different path. Mr. Wesley steadily and skilfully constructing the elaborate machinery of Wesleyan Methodism; and Whitfield following his plan of field itinerancy, with a constant and amazing popularity, but making no endeavour to originate a sect. He died in New England in 1769, at the age of 55.

His followers, however, and those of other eminent evangelicals who sympathized with his proceedings, gradually settled into separate religious bodies, principally under two distinctive appellations; one, the “Countess of Huntingdon’s Connexion,” and the other, the “Welsh Calvinistic Methodists.” These, in fact, are now the only sections which survive as individual communities; for most of Whitfield’s congregations, not adopting any connexional bond, but existing as independent churches, gradually became absorbed into the Congregational body.

THE COUNTESS OF HUNTINGDON’S CONNEXION.

Selina, daughter of the Earl of Ferrers, and widow of the Earl of Huntingdon, was one of those on whom the preaching of Whitfield made considerable impression. In 1748 he became her chaplain; and by his advice she assumed a kind of leadership over his followers, erected chapels, engaged ministers or laymen to officiate in them, and founded a college at Trevecca in South Wales, for the education of Calvinistic preachers. After her death, this college was, in 1792, transferred to Cheshunt, (Herts,) and there it still exists.

The doctrines of the Connexion are almost identical with those of the Church of England, and the form of worship does not materially vary; for the liturgy is generally employed, though extemporary prayer is frequent.

Although the name “Connexion” is still used, there is no combined or federal ecclesiastical government prevailing. The Congregational polity is practically adopted; and of late years, several of the congregations have become, in name as well as virtually, Congregational churches.

The number of chapels mentioned in the Census as belonging to this Connexion, or described as “English Calvinistic Methodists,” was 109, containing (after an allowance for the sittings in five chapels, the returns for which are defective) accommodation for 38,727 persons. The attendants on the Census Sunday (making an estimated addition for seven chapels, the returns from which were silent on the point) were: _Morning_, 21,103; _Afternoon_, 4380; _Evening_, 19,159.

WELSH CALVINISTIC METHODISTS.

The great revival of religion commenced in England by Wesley and Whitfield had been preceded by a similar event in Wales. The principal agent of its introduction there was Howel Harris, a gentleman of Trevecca, in Brecknockshire, who, with a view to holy orders, had begun to study at Oxford, but, offended at the immorality there prevalent, had quitted college, and returned to Wales. He shortly afterwards began a missionary labour in that country, going from house to house, and preaching in the open air. A great excitement was produced; and multitudes attended his discourses. To sustain the religious feeling thus awakened, Mr. Harris, about the year 1736, instituted “Private Societies,” similar to those which Wesley was, about the same time, though without communication, forming in England. By 1739 he had established about 300 such societies in South Wales. At first, he encountered much hostility from magistrates and mobs; but after a time his work was taken up by several ministers of the Church of England; one of whom, the Reverend Daniel Rowlands, of Llangeitho, Cardigan, had such a reputation, that “persons have been known to come 100 miles to hear him preach on the sabbaths of his administering the Lord’s supper;” and he had no less than 2000 communicants in his church. In 1742, 10 clergymen were assisting in the movement, and 40 or 50 lay preachers. The first chapel was erected in 1747, at Builth in Brecknockshire.

In the mean time, North Wales began to be in similar manner roused; and, in spite of considerable persecution, many members were enrolled, and several chapels built. The Rev. Thomas Charles, of Bala, one of the founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society, was, towards the termination of the century, a prominent instrument in effecting this result.

The growth of the movement, both in North and South Wales, was extremely rapid; but the process of formation into a separate body was more gradual and slow. At first, as several of the most conspicuous labourers were clergymen of the Established Church, the sacraments were administered exclusively by them; but, as converts multiplied, the number of evangelical clergymen was found inadequate to the occasion: many members were obliged to seek communion with the various dissenting bodies; till, at last, in 1811, 12 among the Methodist preachers were ordained, at a considerable Conference, and from that time forth the sacraments were regularly administered by them in their own chapels, and the body assumed distinctly the appearance of a separate Connexion.

A _county_ in Wales corresponds with a Wesleyan “Circuit,” or to a Scottish Presbytery. All the Church officers within a county, whether preachers or leaders of private societies, are members of the “Monthly Meeting” of the county. The province of this meeting is to superintend both the spiritual and secular condition of the societies within the county.

The “Quarterly Association” performs all the functions of the Wesleyan “Conference,” or of the “Synod” amongst Presbyterians. There are two meetings held every quarter; one in North Wales, and the other in South Wales. The Association consists of all the preachers and leaders of private societies in the Connexion. “At every Association, the whole Connexion is supposed to be present through its representatives, and the decisions of this meeting are deemed sufficient authority on every subject relating to the body through all its branches. It has the prerogative to superintend the cause of Christ among the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists through Wales and England, to inquire into the affairs of all the private and monthly societies, and to direct any changes or alterations which it may think requisite.” It is at this meeting that the ministers are selected who are to administer the sacraments.

The ministers, among the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, are itinerant. They are selected by the private societies, and reported to the monthly meetings, which examine into their qualifications, and permit them to commence on trial. A certain number only, who must previously have been preachers for at least five years, are ordained to administer the sacraments, and this ordination takes place at the Quarterly Associations. The preachers are appointed each to a particular county; but generally once in the course of a year they undertake a missionary tour to distant parts of Wales, when they preach twice every day, on each occasion at a different chapel. Their remuneration is derived from the monthly pence contributed by the members of each congregation; out of which fund a trifling sum is given to them after every sermon. In 1837, a college for the education of ministers was established at Bala, and in 1842 another was established at Trevecca.

The doctrines of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists may be inferred from the appellation of the body, and be said to be substantially accordant with the Articles of the Established Church, interpreted according to their Calvinistic sense.

The number of chapels returned at the Census as pertaining to the body was 828; containing (after an estimate for 53 chapels which made no return of sittings) accommodation for 211,951 persons. The _attendance_ on the Census Sunday was: _Morning_, 79,728; _Afternoon_, 59,140; _Evening_, 125,244. It is computed that the body have expended in the erection and repairs of their chapels, between the year 1747 and the present time, a sum amounting to nearly a million sterling. From the “_Dyddiadwr Methodistaidd_” for 1853 we learn that the number of ministers was 207, and of preachers 234. The number of communicants was stated on the same authority at 58,577.

The principal societies supported by the Connexion are those connected with Home and Foreign Missions; the contributions to which amount to about £3000 a year. The operations of the Home Mission are carried on among the English population inhabiting the borders between England and Wales. The Foreign Mission has a station in Brittany (north-west of France)—the language of that country being a sister dialect of the Welsh—and stations at Cassay and Sylhet in India, the presidency of Bengal.

METROPOLITAN. (See _Archbishop_, _Bishop_.) The bishop who presides over the other bishops of a province. The writers of the Latin Church use promiscuously the words archbishop and metropolitan, making either name denote a bishop, who, by virtue of his see, presides over or governs several other bishops. Thus in England the archbishops of Canterbury and York, and in Ireland the archbishops of Armagh and Dublin, are metropolitans. But the Greeks use the name only to denote him whose see is really a civil metropolis. There are some bishops in our Church who are metropolitans without the title of archbishop, viz. the bishops of Calcutta and Sydney.

MICHAEL, ST., AND ALL ANGELS. A festival of the Christian Church observed on the 29th of September.

The Scripture account of Michael is; that he was an archangel, who presided over the Jewish nation, as other angels did over the Gentile world, as is evident of the kingdoms of Persia and Greece; that he had an army of angels under his command; that he fought with the dragon, or Satan and his angels; and that, contending with the devil, he disputed about the body of Moses.

As to the combat between Michael and the dragon, some authors understand it literally, and think it means the expulsion of certain rebellious angels, with their head or leader, from the presence of GOD. Others take it in a figurative sense, and refer it, either to the contest that happened at Rome between St. Peter and Simon Magus, in which the apostle prevailed over the magician; or to those violent persecutions, under which the Church laboured for three hundred years, and which happily ceased when the powers of the world became Christian.

The contest about the body of Moses is, likewise, taken both literally and figuratively. Those who understand it literally are of opinion, that Michael, by the order of GOD, hid the body of Moses after his death, and that the devil endeavoured to discover it, as a fit means to entice the people to idolatry by a superstitious worship of his relics. But this dispute is figuratively understood to be a controversy about rebuilding the temple, and restoring the service of GOD among the Jews at Jerusalem, the Jewish Church being fitly enough styled “the body of Moses.” It is thought by some that this story of the contest between Michael and the devil was taken by St. Jude out of an apocryphal book, called “The Assumption of Moses.”—_Broughton._

MILITANT. (From _militans_, “fighting.”) A term applied to the Church on earth, as engaged in a warfare with the world, sin, and the devil; in distinction from the Church _triumphant_ in heaven. It is used in the prefatory sentence of the prayer after the Offertory in our Communion Service, and was first inserted in the Second Book of King Edward VI.

MILLENARIANS and MILLENNIUM. A name which is given to those who believe that Christ will reign personally for a thousand years upon earth, their designation being derived from the Latin words, _mille_, “a thousand,” and _annus_, “a year.” In the words of Greswell, we may define their doctrine and expectation, generally, as the belief of a second personal advent or return of our LORD JESUS CHRIST, some time before the end of the present state of things on the earth; a resurrection of a part of the dead in the body, concurrently with that return; the establishment of a kingdom, for a certain length of time, upon earth, of which JESUS CHRIST will be the sovereign head, and good and holy men who lived under the Mosaic dispensation before the gospel æra, or have lived under the Christian, since, whether previously raised to life, or found alive in the flesh at the time of the return, will be the subjects, and in some manner or other admitted to a share of its privileges.

This is what is meant by the doctrine of the Millennium in general: the fact of a return of JESUS CHRIST in person before the end of the world; of a first or particular resurrection of the dead; of a reign of CHRIST, with all saints, on the earth; and all this before the present state of things is at an end, and before time and sense, whose proper period of being is commensurate with the duration of the present state of things, have given place to spirit and eternity in heaven.

The Millenarian, says the same learned writer, Mr. Greswell, expects the following events, and as far as he can infer their connexion, in the following order, though that is not, in every instance, a point of paramount importance, or absolute certainty, on which room for the possibility of a different succession of particulars may not be allowed to exist.

First, a personal reappearance of the prophet Elijah, before any second advent of JESUS CHRIST.

Secondly, a second advent of JESUS CHRIST in person, before his coming to judgment at the end of the world.

Thirdly, a conversion of the Jews to Christianity, collectively, and as a nation.

Fourthly, a resurrection of part of the dead, such as is called, by way of distinction, “the resurrection of the just.”

Fifthly, the restitution of the kingdom to Israel, including the appearance and manifestation of the Messiah to the Jews, in the character of a temporal monarch.

Sixthly, a conformation of this kingdom to a state or condition of society of which CHRIST will be the head, and faithful believers, both Jews and Gentiles, will be the members.

A distribution of rewards and dignities in it, proportioned to the respective merits or good deserts of the receivers.

A resulting state of things, which though transacted upon earth, and adapted to the nature and conditions of a human society as such, leaves nothing to be desired for its perfection and happiness.

Bishop Newton, in his “Dissertations on the Prophecies,” says, with reference to the millennium, when these great events shall come to pass, of which we collect from the prophecies, this is to be the proper order: the Protestant witnesses shall be greatly exalted, and the 1260 years of their prophesying in sackcloth, and of the tyranny of the beast, shall end together; the conversion and restoration of the Jews succeed; then follows the ruin of the Ottoman empire; and then the total destruction of Rome and of antichrist. When these great events, I say, shall come to pass, then shall the kingdom of CHRIST commence, or the reign of the saints upon earth. So Daniel expressly informs us that the kingdom of CHRIST and the saints will be raised upon the ruins of the kingdom of antichrist (vii. 26, 27). “But the judgment shall sit, and they shall take away his dominion, to consume and to destroy it unto the end; and the kingdom and dominion, and the greatness of the kingdom under the whole heaven, shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most High, whose kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and all dominions shall serve and obey him.” So likewise St. John saith, that, upon the final destruction of the beast and the false prophet, (Rev. xx.,) “Satan is bound for a thousand years: and I saw thrones, and they sat upon them, and judgment was given unto them; and I saw the souls of them that were beheaded for the witness of JESUS CHRIST and for the word of GOD, which had not worshipped the beast, neither his image, neither had received his mark upon their foreheads or in their hands: and they lived and reigned with CHRIST a thousand years. But the rest of the dead lived not again until the thousand years were finished. This is the first resurrection.” It is, I conceive, to these great events, the fall of antichrist, the re-establishment of the Jews, and the beginning of the glorious millennium, that the three different dates in Daniel of 1260 years, 1290 years, and 1335 years, are to be referred. And as Daniel saith, (xii. 12,) “Blessed is he that waiteth and cometh to the 1335 years;” so St. John saith, (Rev. xx. 6,) “Blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection.” Blessed and happy indeed will be this period: and it is very observable that the martyrs and confessors of JESUS, in Papist as well as Pagan times, will be raised to partake of this felicity. Then shall all those gracious promises in the Old Testament be fulfilled, of the amplitude and extent, of the peace and prosperity, of the glory and happiness of the Church in the latter days. “Then,” in the full sense of the words, (Rev. xi. 15,) “shall the kingdoms of this world become the kingdoms of our LORD, and of his CHRIST, and he shall reign for ever and ever.” According to tradition, these thousand years of the reign of CHRIST and the saints will be the seventh millenary of the world; for as GOD created the world in six days, and rested on the seventh, so the world, it is argued, will continue six thousand years, and the seventh thousand will be the great Sabbatism, or holy rest of the people of GOD; “One day (2 Pet. iii. 8) being with the LORD as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day.” According to tradition, too, these thousand years of the reign of CHRIST and the saints are the great “day of judgment,” in the morning or beginning whereof shall be the coming of CHRIST in flaming fire, and the particular judgment of antichrist and the first resurrection; and in the evening or conclusion whereof shall be the general resurrection of the dead, “small and great; and they shall be judged, every man, according to their works!”

MINIMS. A religious order, in the Church of Rome, whose founder was St. Francis de Paulu, so called from the place in Calabria, where he was born in 1416.

He composed his rule in 1493, and it was approved by Pope Alexander VI., at the recommendation of the king of France. This pontiff changed the name of _Hermits of St. Francis_, which these monks bore, into that of Minims, (the _Least_,) because they called themselves in humility _Minimi Fratres Eremitæ_, and gave them all the privileges of the religious mendicant or begging friars. In 1507, the holy founder of this order died, at the age of ninety-one years, and was canonized by Pope Leo X., in 1519. His body was preserved in the church of the convent of Plessis, until the Huguenots, in 1562, dragged it out of its tomb, and burnt it with the wood of a crucifix belonging to the church. His bones, however, were saved out of the fire by some zealous Catholics who mixed with the Calvinist soldiers, and were distributed afterwards among several churches.

This order is divided into thirty-one provinces, of which twelve are in Italy, eleven in France and Flanders, seven in Spain, and one in Germany. It has, at present, about 450 convents. The Minims have passed even into the Indies, where there are some convents which do not compose provinces, but depend immediately on the general.

What more particularly distinguishes these monks from all others, is the observation of what they call the _quadragesimal life_, that is, a total abstinence from flesh, and everything which has its origin from flesh, as eggs, butter, cheese, excepting in case of great sickness. By this means they make the year one continued Lent fast. Their habit is coarse black woollen stuff, with a woollen girdle of the same colour, tied in five knots. They are not permitted to quit their habit and girdle night nor day. Formerly they went barefooted, but for these last hundred years they have been allowed the use of shoes.

MINOR CANONS. Priests in collegiate churches, next in rank to the canons and prebendaries, but not of the chapter, who are responsible for the performance of the daily service. In cathedrals of the old foundation, they are not often found, their duties being generally performed there by priest-vicars. There are minor canons at St. Patrick’s, Hereford, and Chichester, and formerly were at Salisbury; and at all those places there are priest-vicars also: twelve minor canons at St. Paul’s, and seven at Windsor, where there are only lay-vicars besides. It appears from the original statutes of St. Patrick’s and St. Paul’s, that the minor canons held a middle place between the canons and vicars; and that besides their attendance on the daily service, they were required to take the place of the major canons when required. At Hereford, they are responsible for the reading of the daily prayers, the vicars choral for the Litany and lessons; which seems to mark this office as being more presbyteral than that of the vicars.

As the number of minor canons is generally but four or five, (at St. Patrick’s statutably six, though there never have been more than four,) it would appear as if these offices were originally instituted to supply the place of the four junior canons, whose proper duty it was to perform the daily service of the choir. Thus, in the _Causes Celebres_, viii. 345, on remarking on the constitution of the cathedral of Verdun, it is stated that, “par le service de chœur, on entend l’obligation des quatre chanonies qui sont dans les ordres sacrés, de porter la chappe, et de faire chœur tous les jours de l’année à leur tour. Cette fonction pénible a déja été retranchée; elle a été exercée par des chapelains, gagés par les nouveaux chanonies,” &c. _Chaplain_ and minor canon are convertible terms in many churches abroad, as at St. Peter’s at Rome, where there are fifty minor canons or chaplains. (_Eustace’s Classical Tour._) At Rouen there were eight _Moindees Chanonies_. They were elsewhere called semi (or demi) prebendaries.

The minor canons of St. Paul and of St. Patrick form corporate bodies, and had their common hall and collegiate buildings in ancient times. There is also a college of vicars-choral at St. Patrick’s. At Hereford the minor canonries are held by priest-vicars; but they have separate estates, as minor canons, with designation, like prebendaries, for their individual stalls.

In the cathedrals of the new foundation there are no priest-vicars, but all the inferior clerical members are minor canons. They ought to be all priests, and skilled in church music, according to the statutes, a qualification required by the laws of all cathedrals. Formerly the minor canons were more numerous than now, being commensurate to the number of the prebendaries: e. g. twelve at Canterbury, twelve at Durham, ten at Worcester: a number by no means too great for the due and solemn performance of the service. They were in fact, but not in name, the vicars of the prebendaries.—_Jebb._

MINISTER. This is the Latin term to designate that officer who is styled deacon in Greek. The term was applied generally to the clergy about the time of the great rebellion, since which time it has been used to denote the preacher of any religion. Joseph Mede protested against our calling presbyters ministers of the Church, or of such or such a parish: we should call them, he observes, ministers of GOD, or ministers of CHRIST, not ministers of men, because they are only GOD’S ministers, who sends them, but the people’s pastors, to teach, instruct, and oversee them. Were it not absurd to call the shepherd the sheep’s minister? The word has, however, obtained such general currency, that it would be pedantic to refuse to use it. The word seems generally to imply an assistant, whether presbyteral or diaconal, in Divine service. Thus in the statutes of the cathedrals of the new foundation, the minor canons and other members of the choir are called _minister_. These represent the deacons, readers, chanters, &c. of the ancient Church.

Some trace of the division of the service between the superior and inferior clergy, (the priest and the deacon,) is perhaps still visible in our liturgy. The word _minister_ is prefixed, in the order both for Morning and Evening Prayer, to those parts of the service only where there is exhortation, or in which the people audibly join, or which are said kneeling, such as the General Confession, LORD’S Prayer, Apostles’ Creed, and Lesser Litany. _Minister_ also occurs in one of the rubrics respecting the reading of the lessons, which the custom of the Church, both Eastern and Western, has always permitted to the inferior ministers. The word _priest_ is prefixed to the absolution, and to all those prayers which the clergyman performs standing; such as the versicles before the psalms, beginning at the Gloria Patri, and those before the collects. To the collects themselves no direction is prefixed. There are a few exceptions which may be accounted for.

MINORESS. A nun under the rule of St. Clair.

MIRACLE. An effect that does not follow from any of the regular laws of nature, or which is inconsistent with some law of it, or contrary to the settled constitution and course of things: accordingly, all miracles pre-suppose an established system of nature, within the limits of which they operate, and with the order of which they disagree.

The following statement is true beyond controversy:—Man cannot, in the present constitution of his mind, believe that religion has a Divine origin, unless it be accompanied with miracles. The necessary inference of the mind is, that if an Infinite Being act, his acts will be superhuman in their character; because the effect, reason dictates, will be characterized by the nature of its cause. Man has the same reason to expect that GOD will perform acts above human power and knowledge, that he has to suppose the inferior orders of animals will, in their actions, sink below the power and wisdom which characterize human nature. For, as it is natural for man to perform acts superior to the power and knowledge of the animals beneath him, so reason affirms that it is natural for GOD to develope his power by means and in ways above the skill and ability of mortals. Hence, if GOD manifest himself at all—unless, in accommodation to the capacities of men, he should constrain his manifestations within the compass of human ability—every act of GOD’S immediate power would, to human capacity, be a miracle. But, if GOD were to constrain all his acts within the limits of human means and agencies, it would be impossible for man to discriminate between the acts of the GODHEAD and the acts of the manhood. And man, if he considered acts to be of a Divine origin which were plainly within the compass of human ability, would violate his own reason.

Suppose, for illustration, that GOD desired to reveal a religion to men, and wished them to recognise his character and his benevolence in giving that revelation. Suppose, further, that GOD should give such a revelation, and that every appearance and every act connected with its introduction were characterized by nothing superior to human power; could any rational mind on earth believe that such a system of religion came from GOD? Impossible! A man could as easily be made to believe that his own child, who possessed his own lineaments, and his own nature, belonged to some other world, and some other order of the creation. It would not be possible for GOD to convince men that a religion was from heaven, unless it was accompanied with the marks of Divine power.

Suppose, again, that some individual were to appear either in the heathen or Christian world—that he claimed to be a teacher sent from GOD, yet aspired to the performance of no miracles—that he assumed to do nothing superior to the wisdom and ability of other men. Such an individual, although he might succeed in gaining proselytes to some particular view of a religion already believed, yet he could never make men believe that he had a special commission from GOD to establish a new religion, for the simple reason that he had no grounds more than his fellows, to support his claims as an agent of the Almighty. But if he could convince a single individual that he had wrought a miracle, or that he had power to do so, that moment his claims would be established in that mind as a commissioned agent from Heaven. So certainly and so intuitively do the minds of men revere and expect miracles as the credentials of the Divine presence.

This demand of the mind for miracles, as testimony of the Divine presence and power, is intuitive with all men; and those very individuals who have doubted the existence or necessity of miracles, should they examine their own convictions on this subject, would see that, by an absolute necessity, if they desired to give the world a system of religion, whether truth or imposture, in order to make men receive it as of Divine authority, they must work miracles to attest its truth, or make men believe that they did so. Men can produce doubt of a revelation in no way until they have destroyed the evidence of its miracles; nor can faith be produced in the Divine origin of a religion until the evidence of miracles is supplied.

The conviction that miracles are the true attestation of immediate Divine agency, is so constitutional (allow the expression) with the reason, that so soon as men persuade themselves they are the special agents of GOD in propagating some particular truth in the world, they adopt likewise the belief that they have ability to work miracles. There have been many sincere enthusiasts, who believed that they were special agents of Heaven; and, in such cases, the conviction of their own miraculous powers arises as a necessary concomitant of the other opinion. Among such, in modern times, may be instanced Emanuel Swedenborg, and Irving, the Scotch preacher. Impostors also, perceiving that miracles were necessary in order that the human mind should receive a religion as Divine, have invariably claimed miraculous powers. Such instances recur constantly from the days of Elymas down to the Mormon, Joseph Smith.

All the multitude of false religions that have been believed since the world began, have been introduced by the power of this principle. Miracles believed, lie at the foundation of all religions which men have ever received as of Divine origin. No matter how degrading or repulsive to reason in other respects, the fact of its establishment and propagation grows out of the belief of men that miraculous agency lies at the bottom. This belief will give currency to any system, however absurd; and, without it, no system can be established in the minds of men, however high and holy may be its origin and its design.

Such, then, is the constitution which the Maker has given to the mind. Whether the conviction be an intuition or an induction of the reason, GOD is the primary cause of its existence; and its existence puts it out of the power of man to receive a revelation from GOD himself, unless accompanied with miraculous manifestations. If, therefore, GOD ever gave a revelation to man, it was necessarily accompanied with miracles, and with miracles of such a nature, as would clearly distinguish the Divine character and the Divine authority of the dispensation.—_Plan of the Philosophy of Salvation._

MIRACLES, or MIRACLE-PLAYS. (See _Moralities_.)

MISCHNA, or MISNA. A part of the Jewish Talmud. From a word which signifies _repetition_: i. e. a secondary law. It is believed by the Jews to be the tradition delivered, unwritten, to Moses by GOD; and preserved only by the doctors of the synagogue till the time of Rabbi Judas the Holy, who committed it to writing about A. D. 180. It is in fact the canon and civil law of the Jews; treating of tithes, festivals, matrimonial laws, mercantile laws, idolatry, oaths, sacrifices, and purifications. The heads of the synagogue who are said to have preserved the Mischna, were thought to have had the privilege of hearing the _Bath-Col_, or oracular voice of God. (See _Bath-Col_.) The Mischna contains the text; and the Gemara, which is the second part of the Talmud, contains the commentaries; so that the Gemara is, as it were, a glossary to the Mischna.

MISERERE. The seat of a stall, so contrived as to turn up and down, according as it is wanted as a support in long standing, or as a seat. Misereres are almost always carved, and often very richly; more often, too, than any other part of the wood-work, with grotesques.

MISSAL. (See _Mass_.) In the Romish Church, a book containing the services of the mass for the various days of the year. In the ancient Church, the several parts of Divine service were arranged in distinct books. Thus the collects and the invariable portion of the Communion Office formed the book called the _Sacramentary_. The lessons from the Old and New Testaments constituted the _Lectionary_, and the Gospels made another volume, with the title of _Evangelistarium_. The _Antiphonary_ consisted of anthems, &c. designed for chanting.

About the eleventh or twelfth century it was found convenient, generally, to unite these books, and the volume obtained the name of the Complete or Plenary _Missal_, or Book of Missæ. Of this description were almost all the liturgical books of the Western Churches, and the arrangement is still preserved in our own.—_Palmer’s Origines Liturgicæ._

MISSION. A power or commission to preach the gospel. Thus our blessed LORD gave his disciples and their successors the bishops their mission, when he said, “Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature.”

It certainly is essential that the true ministers of GOD should be able to prove that they have not only the power, but the right, of performing sacred offices. There is an evident difference between these things, as may be seen by the following cases. If a regularly ordained priest should celebrate the eucharist in the church of another, contrary to the will of that person and of the bishop, he would have the _power_ of consecrating the eucharist, it actually would be consecrated; but he would not have the _right_ of consecrating; or, in other words, he would not have _mission_ for that act. If a bishop should enter the diocese of another bishop, and, contrary to his will, ordain one of his deacons to the priesthood, the intruding bishop would have the power, but not the right, of ordaining; he would have no mission for such an act.

In fact, mission fails in all schismatical, heretical, and uncanonical acts, because GOD cannot have given any man a right to act in opposition to those laws which he himself has enacted, or to those which the apostles and their successors have instituted, for the orderly and peaceable regulation of the Church: he “is not the author of confusion, but of peace, as in all the churches of the saints” (1 Cor. xiv. 33); and yet, were he to commission his ministers to exercise their offices in whatever places and circumstances they pleased, confusion and division without end must be the inevitable result.

Mission can only be given for acts in accordance with the Divine and ecclesiastical laws, the latter of which derive their authority from the former; and it is conferred by valid ordination. It would be easy to prove this in several ways; but it is enough at present to say, that no other method can be pointed out by which mission is given. Should the ordination be valid, and yet uncanonical, mission does not take effect until the suspension imposed by the canons on the person ordained is in some lawful manner removed.

Mr. Palmer, from whom the above remarks are taken, shows, in his _Origines Liturgicæ_, that the English bishops and clergy alone have mission in England.

MISSIONARY. A clergyman, whether bishop, priest, or deacon, deputed or sent out by ecclesiastical authority, to preach the gospel, and exercise his other functions, in places where the Church has hitherto been unknown, or is in the infancy of its establishment.

MITRE. The episcopal coronet. From Eusebius it seems that St. John wore an ornament which many have considered to be a mitre (φέταλον).

The most ancient mitres were very low and simple, being not more than from three to six inches in elevation, and they thus continued till the end of the thirteenth century. In the fourteenth century they gradually increased in height to a foot or more, and became more superbly enriched; their contours also presented a degree of convexity by which they were distinguished from the older mitres. The two horns of the mitre are generally taken to be an allusion to the cloven tongues as of fire, which rested on each of the apostles on the day of Pentecost.

Mitres, although worn in some of the Lutheran Churches, (as in Sweden,) have fallen into utter desuetude in England, even at coronations. They were worn however at the coronations of Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth. See Hiereugia Anglicana, p. 81, et seq. In which work, however, at p. 89, there is an assertion of Dr. Milner’s, which is incorrect, viz. that they were worn at the coronation of George III. In the detailed accounts of that ceremony (see e. g. the Annual Register for 1761) the bishops are described as carrying their square caps, and putting them on when the lay peers assumed their coronets. The mitre is now merely an heraldic decoration, and, as such, occasionally carried at funerals.

MODUS DECIMANDI. This is when lands, or a yearly pension, or some money or other thing, is given to a parson in lieu of his tithes.

MONASTERIES. Convents or houses built for those who profess the monastic life, whether abbeys, priories, or nunneries. (For the origin of monasteries, see _Abbey_ and _Monk_.)

In their first institution, and in their subsequent uses, there can be no doubt that monasteries were amongst the most remarkable instances of Christian munificence, and they certainly were in the dark ages among the beneficial adaptations of the talents of Christians to pious and charitable ends. They were schools of education and learning, where the children of the great received their education; and they were hospitals for the poor: they afforded also a retirement for the worn-out servants of the rich and noble; they protected the calmer spirits, who, in an age of universal warfare, shrunk from conflict, and desired to lead a contemplative life. But the evils which grew out of those societies seem quite to have counterbalanced the good. Being often exempted from the authority of the bishop, they became hotbeds of ecclesiastical insubordination; and were little else but parties of privileged sectaries within the Church. The temptations arising out of a state of celibacy, too often in the first instance enforced by improper means, and always bound upon the members of these societies by a religious vow, were the occasion of great scandal. And the enormous wealth with which some of them were endowed, brought with it a greater degree of pride, and ostentation, and luxury, than was becoming in Christians; and still more in those who had vowed a life of religion and asceticism.

The dissolution of houses of this kind began so early as the year 1312, when the Templars were suppressed; and, in 1323, their lands, churches, advowsons, and liberties, here in England, were given by 17 Edward II. stat. iii. to the prior and brethren of the hospital of St. John of Jerusalem. In the years 1390, 1437, 1441, 1459, 1497, 1505, 1508, and 1515, several other houses were dissolved, and their revenues settled on different colleges in Oxford and Cambridge. Soon after the last period, Cardinal Wolsey, by licence of the king and pope, obtained a dissolution of above thirty religious houses for the founding and endowing his colleges at Oxford and Ipswich. About the same time a bull was granted by the same pope to Cardinal Wolsey to suppress monasteries, where there were not above six monks, to the value of eight thousand ducats a year, for endowing Windsor and King’s College in Cambridge; and two other bulls were granted to Cardinals Wolsey and Campeius, where there were less than twelve monks, to annex them to the greater monasteries; and another bull to the same cardinals to inquire about abbeys to be suppressed in order to be made cathedrals. Although nothing appears to have been done in consequence of these bulls, the motive which induced Wolsey and many others to suppress these houses, was the desire of promoting learning; and Archbishop Cranmer engaged in such suppression with a view of carrying on the reformation. There were other causes that concurred to bring on their ruin: many of the monks were loose and vicious; they were generally thought to be in their hearts attached to the pope’s supremacy; their revenues were not employed according to the intent of the donors; many cheats in images, feigned miracles, and counterfeit relics, had been discovered, which brought the monks into disgrace; the Observant friars had opposed the king’s divorce from Queen Catharine; and these circumstances operated, in concurrence with the king’s want of a supply, and the people’s desire to save their money, to forward a motion in parliament, that, in order to support the king’s state, and supply his wants, all the religious houses which were not able to spend above £200 a year, might be conferred upon the Crown; and an act was passed for that purpose, 27 Henry VIII. c. 28. By this act about 380 houses were dissolved, and a revenue of £30,000 or £32,000 a year came to the Crown; besides about £200,000 in plate and jewels. The suppression of these houses occasioned discontent, and at length an open rebellion: when this was appeased, the king resolved to suppress the rest of the monasteries, and appointed a new visitation, which caused the greater abbeys to be surrendered apace; and it was enacted by 31 Henry VIII. c. 13, that all monasteries which had been surrendered since the 4th of February, in the twenty-seventh year of his Majesty’s reign, and which thereafter should be surrendered, should be vested in the king. The knights of St. John of Jerusalem were also suppressed by the 32nd Henry VIII. c. 24. The suppression of these greater houses by these two acts produced a revenue to the king of above £100,000 a year, besides a large sum in plate and jewels. The last act of dissolution in this king’s reign was the act of 37 Henry VIII. c. 4, for dissolving colleges, free chapels, chantries, &c., which act was further enforced by 1 Edward VI. c. 14. By this act were suppressed 90 colleges, 110 hospitals, and 2374 chantries and free chapels.

Whatever were the offences of the race of men then inhabiting them, this destruction of the monasteries was nothing less than sacrilege, and can on no ground be justified. They were the property of the Church; and if, while the Church cast off divers errors in doctrine which she had too long endured, she had been permitted to purge these institutions of some practical errors, and of certain flagrant vices, they might have been exceedingly serviceable to the cause of religion. Cranmer felt this very forcibly, and begged earnestly of Henry VIII. that he would save some of the monasteries for holy and religious uses; but in vain. Ridley also was equally anxious for their preservation. It is a mistake to suppose that the monasteries were erected and endowed by Papists. Many of them were endowed before most of the errors of the Papists were thought of: and the founders of abbeys afterwards built and endowed them, not as Papists, but as churchmen; and when the Church became pure, she did not lose any portion of her right to such endowments as were always made in supposition of her purity. (See Num. xviii. 32; Lev. xxv. 23, 24; Ezek. xlviii. 14.)

Although much of the confiscated property was profligately squandered and consumed by the Russells, the Cavendishes, &c., still, out of the receipts, Henry VIII. founded six new bishoprics, viz. those of Westminster, (which was changed by Queen Elizabeth into a deanery, with twelve prebends and a school,) Peterborough, Chester, Gloucester, Bristol, and Oxford. And in eight other sees he founded deaneries and chapters, by converting the priors and monks into deans and prebendaries, viz. Canterbury, Winchester, Durham, Worcester, Rochester, Norwich, Ely, and Carlisle. He founded also the colleges of Christ Church in Oxford, and Trinity in Cambridge, and finished King’s College there. He likewise founded professorships of divinity, law, physic, and of the Hebrew and Greek tongues in both the said universities. He gave the house of Greyfriars and St. Bartholomew’s Hospital to the city of London, and a perpetual pension to the poor knights of Windsor, and laid out great sums in building and fortifying many ports in the Channel. It is observable that the dissolution of these houses was an act, not of the Church, but of the State, in the period preceding the Reformation, by a king and parliament of the Roman Catholic communion in all points except the king’s supremacy; to which the pope himself, by his bulls and licences, had led the way.

Of the monasteries which had been attached to cathedrals before the Reformation, the heads were called Priors, (which answered to dean,) never Abbots; as the bishop was considered as virtually the abbot. The bishop of Ely actually occupied, as he still does, the abbot’s place in the choir, (i. e. the stall usually assigned by the dean,) as he did since the Reformation at Carlisle, though in the latter place he had a throne also. Christ Church monastery in Dublin, which had always been a cathedral chapter, was also secularized at the Reformation.

MONASTERY. In architectural arrangement, monastic establishments, whether abbeys, priories, or other convents, followed nearly the same plan.

The great enclosure, (varying, of course, in extent with the wealth and importance of the monastery,) and generally with a stream running beside it, was surrounded by a wall, the principal entrance being through a _gateway_ to the west or north-west. This gateway was a considerable building, and often contained a chapel, with its altar, besides the necessary accommodation for the porter. The _almery_, or place where alms were distributed, stood not far within the great gate, and generally a little to the right hand: there, too, was often a chapel with its altar. Proceeding onwards the west entrance of the church appeared. The church itself was always, where it received its due development, in the form of a Latin cross; a cross, i.e. of which the transepts are short in proportion to the nave. Moreover, in Norman churches, the eastern limb never approached the nave or western limb in length. Whether or no the reason of this preference of the Latin cross is found in the domestic arrangements of the monastic buildings, it was certainly best adapted to it; for the nave of the church with one of the transepts formed the whole of one side and part of another side of a quadrangle; and any other than a long nave would have involved a small quadrangle, while a long transept would leave too little of another side, or none at all, for other buildings. How the internal arrangements were affected by this adaptation of the nave to external requirements, we have seen under the head _Cathedral_, to which also we refer for the general description of the conventual church.

Southward of the church, and parallel with the south transept, was carried the western range of the monastic offices; but it will be more convenient to examine their arrangement within the court. We enter then by a door near the west end of the church, and passing through a vaulted passage, find ourselves in the _cloister court_, of which the nave of the church forms the northern side, the transept part of the eastern side and other buildings, in the order to be presently described, complete the quadrangle. The _cloisters_ themselves extended around the whole of the quadrangle, serving, among other purposes, as a covered way from every part of the convent to every other part. They were furnished, perhaps always, with _lavatories_, on the decoration and construction of which much cost was expended; and sometimes also with desks and closets of wainscot, which served the purpose of a _scriptorium_.

Commencing the circuit of the cloisters at the north-west corner, and turning southward, we have first the _dormitory_, or _dorter_, the use of which is sufficiently indicated by its name. This occupied the whole of the western side of the quadrangle, and had sometimes a groined passage beneath its whole length, called the _ambulatory_, a noble example of which, in perfect preservation, remains at Fountains. The south side of the quadrangle contained the _refectory_, with its correlative, the _coquina_ or _kitchen_, which was sometimes at its side, and sometimes behind it. The refectory was furnished with a pulpit, for the reading of some portion of Scripture during meals. On this side of the quadrangle may also be found, in general, the _locutorium_, or _parlour_, the latter word being, at least in etymology, the full equivalent of the former. The _abbot’s lodge_ commonly commenced at the south-east corner of the quadrangle; but, instead of conforming itself to its general direction, rather extended eastward, with its own chapel, hall, parlour, kitchen, and other offices, in a line parallel with the choir or eastern limb of the church. Turning northwards, still continuing within the cloisters, we come first to an open passage leading outwards, then to the _chapter-house_, or its vestibule; then, after another open passage, to the south transept of the church. Immediately before us is an entrance into the church, and another occurs at the end of the west cloister.

The parts of the establishment especially connected with _sewerage_, were built over or close to the stream; and we may remark that, both in drainage, and in the supply of water, great and laudable care was always taken.

The stream also turned the _abbey mill_, at a small distance from the monastery. Other offices, such as _stables_, _brew-houses_, _bake-houses_, and the like, in the larger establishments, usually occupied another court; and, in the smaller, were connected with the chief buildings in the only quadrangle. It is needless to say that, in so general an account, we cannot enumerate exceptional cases. It may, however, be necessary to say, that the greatest difference of all, that of placing the quadrangle at the north instead of the south side of the church, is not unknown; it is so at Canterbury and at Lincoln, for instance.

The subject may be followed out in the several plans of monasteries scattered among our topographical works, and in a paper read by Mr. Bloxam before the Bedfordshire Architectural Society, and published in their Report for 1850.

MONKS. The word monk, being derived from the Greek μόνος, _solus_, signifies the same as a solitary, or one who lives sequestered from the company and conversation of the rest of the world, and is usually applied to those who dedicate themselves wholly to the service of religion, in some monastery (as it is called) or religious house, and under the direction of some particular statutes, or rule. Those of the female sex who devote themselves in like manner to a religious life, are called nuns. (See _Nuns_.)

There is some difference in the sentiments of learned men concerning the original and rise of the monastic life. But the most probable account of this matter seems to be as follows:

Till the year 250, there were no monks, but only ascetics, in the Church. (See _Ascetics_.)

In the Decian persecution, which was about the middle of the third century, many persons in Egypt, to avoid the fury of the storm, fled to the neighbouring deserts and mountains, where they not only found a safe retreat, but also more time and liberty to exercise themselves in acts of piety and Divine contemplations; which sort of life became so agreeable to them, that when the persecution was over, they refused to return to their habitations again, choosing rather to continue in those cottages and cells which they had made for themselves in the wilderness.

The first and most noted of these solitaries were Paul and Anthony, two famous Egyptians, whom therefore St. Jerome calls the fathers of the Christian hermits. Some indeed carry up the original of the monastic life as high as John Baptist and Elias. But learned men generally reckon Paul the Thebæan, and Anthony, as the first promoters of this way of living among the Christians.

As yet there were no bodies or communities of men embracing this life, nor any monasteries built, but only a few single persons scattered here and there in the deserts of Egypt, till Pachomius, in the peaceable reign of Constantine, procured some monasteries to be built in Thebais in Egypt, from whence the custom of living in societies was followed by degrees in other parts of the world, and in succeeding ages.

Macarius peopled the Egyptian desert of Scetis with monks. Hilarion, a disciple of Anthony’s, was the first monk in Palestine or Syria. Not long after, Eustathius, bishop of Sebaste, brought monachism into Armenia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. But St. Basil is generally considered as the great father and patriarch of the Eastern monks. It was he who reduced the monastic life to a fixed state of uniformity, who united the Anchorets and Cœnobites, and obliged them to engage themselves by solemn vows. It was St. Basil who prescribed rules for the government and direction of the monasteries, to which rules most of the disciples of Anthony, Pachomius, and Macarius, and the other ancient fathers of the deserts, submitted. And to this day, all the Greeks, Nestorians, Melchites, Georgians, Mingrelians, and Armenians, follow the rule of St. Basil.

The monastic profession made no less progress in the West. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, retiring to Rome, about the year 339, with several priests, and two Egyptian monks, made known to several pious persons the life of Anthony, who then lived in the desert of Thebais; upon which many were desirous to embrace so holy a profession. To this effect several monasteries were built at Rome, and this example was soon followed all over Italy. Benedict of Nursia appeared in that country in the early part of the sixth century, and published his rule, which was universally received throughout the West; for which reason that saint was styled the patriarch of the Western monks, as St. Basil was of the Eastern.

France owes the institution of the monastic life to St. Martin, bishop of Tours, in the fourth century; who built the monasteries of Lugugé and Marmontier. The Council of Saragossa, in Spain, anno 380, which condemns the practice of clergymen, who affected to wear the monastical habits, is a proof that there were monks in that kingdom in the fourth century, before St. Donatus went thither out of Africa, with seventy disciples, and founded the monastery of Sirbita.

Augustine, being sent into England by Gregory the Great, in the year 596, to preach the faith, at the same time introduced the monastic state into this kingdom. It made so great a progress here, that, within the space of 200 years, there were thirty kings and queens who preferred the religious habit to their crowns, and founded stately monasteries, where they ended their days in retirement and solitude.

The monastic profession was also carried into Ireland by St. Patrick, who is looked upon as the apostle of that kingdom, and multiplied there in so prodigious a manner, that it was called the Island of Saints.—_Broughton._

The monastic life soon made a very great progress all over the Christian world. Rufinus, who travelled through the East in 373, assures us there were almost as many monks in the deserts, as inhabitants in the cities. From the wilderness (contrary to its original institution) it made its way into the towns and cities, where it multiplied greatly: for the same author informs us, that, in the single city of Oxirinca, there were more monasteries than private houses, and above 30,000 monks.

The ancient monks were not, like the modern, distinguished into orders, and denominated from the founders of them; but they had their names from the places where they inhabited, as the monks of _Scetis_, _Tabennesus_, _Nitria_, _Canopus_ in Egypt, &c. or else were distinguished by their different ways of living. Of these the most remarkable were,

1. The anchorets, so called from their retiring from society, and living in private cells in the wilderness. (See _Anchorets_.)

2. The Cœnobites, so denominated from their living together in common. (See _Cœnobites_.)

All monks were, originally, no more than laymen: nor could they well be otherwise, being confined by their own rules to some desert or wilderness where there could be no room for the exercise of the clerical functions. Accordingly St. Jerome tells us, the office of a monk is, not to teach, but to mourn. The Council of Chalcedon expressly distinguishes the monks from the clergy, and reckons them with the laymen. Gratian himself, who is most interested for the moderns, owns it to be plain from ecclesiastical history, that to the time of Pope Sircius and Zosimus, the monks were only mere monks, and not of the clergy.

In some cases, however, the clerical and monastic life were capable of being conjoined; as, first, when a monastery happened to be at so great a distance from its proper church, that the monks could not ordinarily resort thither for Divine service, which was the case of the monasteries in Egypt and other parts of the East. In this case, some one or more of the monks were ordained for the performance of divine offices among them. Another case, in which the clerical and monastic life were united, was, when monks were taken out of monasteries by the bishops, and ordained for the service of the Church. This was allowed, and encouraged, when once monasteries were become schools of learning and pious education. In this case they usually continued their ancient austerities; and upon this account the Greeks styled them ἱερομοναχοι, clergy-monks. Thirdly, it happened sometimes that a bishop and all his clergy embraced the monastic life by a voluntary renunciation of property, and enjoyed all things in common. Eusebius Vercellensis was the first who brought in this way of living, and St. Augustine lived thus among the clergy of Hippo. And so far as this was an imitation of cœnobitic life, and having all things in common, it might be called a monastic as well as a clerical life.

The Cœnobites, or such monks as lived in communities, were chiefly regarded by the Church, and were therefore under the direction of certain laws and rules of government, of which we shall here give a short account. And,

First, All men were not allowed to turn monks at pleasure, because such an indiscriminate permission would have been detrimental both to the Church and State. Upon this account the civil law forbids any of those officers called _curiales_ to become monks, unless they parted with their estates to others, who might serve their country in their stead. For the same reason servants were not to be admitted into any monastery without their masters’ leave. Indeed, Justinian afterwards abrogated this law by an edict of his own, which first set servants at liberty from their masters, under pretence of betaking themselves to a monastic life. The same precautions were observed in regard to married persons and children. The former were not to embrace the monastic life, unless with the mutual consent of both parties. This precaution was afterwards broke through by Justinian; but the Church never approved of this innovation. As to children, the Council of Gangra decreed that if any such, under pretence of religion, forsook their parents, they should be anathematized. But Justinian enervated the force of this law likewise, forbidding parents to hinder their children from becoming monks or clerks. And as children were not to turn monks without consent of their parents, so neither could parents oblige their children to embrace a monastic life against their own consent. But the fourth Council of Toledo, A. D. 633, set aside this precaution, and decreed that, whether the devotion of their parents, or their own profession, made them monks, both should be equally binding, and there should be no permission to return to a secular life again, as was before allowable, when a parent offered a child before he was capable of giving his own consent.

The manner of admission to the monastic life was usually by some change of habit or dress, not to signify any religious mystery, but only to express their gravity and contempt of the world. Long hair was always thought an indecency in men, and savouring of secular vanity; and therefore they polled every monk at his admission, to distinguish him from seculars; but they never shaved any, for fear they should look too like the priests of Isis. This, therefore, was the ancient tonsure, in opposition to both these extremes. As to their habit and clothing, the rule was the same: they were to be decent and grave, as became their profession. The monks of Tabennesus, in Thebais, seem to have been the only monks, in those early days, who were confined to any particular habit. St. Jerome, who often speaks of the habit of the monks, intimates that it differed from others only in this, that it was a cheaper, coarser, and meaner raiment, expressing their humility and contempt of the world, without any singularity or affectation. The father is very severe against the practice of some who appeared in chains or sackcloth. And Cassian blames others who carried wooden crosses continually about their necks, which was only proper to excite the laughter of the spectators. In short, the Western monks used only a common habit, the philosophic pallium, as many other Christians did. And Salvian seems to give an exact description of the habit and tonsure of the monks, when, reflecting on the Africans for their treatment of them, he says, “they could scarce ever see a man with short hair, a pale face, and habited in a pallium, without reviling, and bestowing some reproachful language on him.”

We read of no solemn vow, or profession, required at their admission: but they underwent a triennial probation, during which time they were inured to the exercises of the monastic life. If, after that time was expired, they chose to continue the same exercises, they were then admitted without any further ceremony into the community. This was the method prescribed by Pachomius, the father of the monks of Tabennesus, from which all others took their model.

Nor was there, as yet, any solemn vow of poverty required; though it was customary for men voluntarily to renounce the world by disposing of their estates to charitable uses, before they entered into a community, where they were to enjoy all things in common. Nor did they, after renouncing their own estates, seek to enrich themselves, or their monasteries, by begging, or accepting, the estates of others. The Western monks did not always adhere to this rule, as appears from some Imperial laws made to restrain their avarice. But the monks of Egypt were generally just in their pretensions, and would accept of no donations but for the use of the poor. Some, indeed, did not wholly renounce all property, but kept their estates in their own hands, the whole yearly revenue of which they distributed in charitable uses.

As the monasteries had no standing revenues, all the monks were obliged to exercise themselves in bodily labour to maintain themselves, without being burdensome to others. They had no idle mendicants among them; they looked upon a monk that did not work as no better than a covetous defrauder. Sozomen tells us, that Serapion presided over a monastery of ten thousand monks, near Arsinoë in Egypt, who all laboured with their own hands, by which means they not only maintained themselves, but had enough to relieve the poor.

The monasteries were commonly divided into several parts, and proper officers appointed over each of them. Every ten monks were subject to one, who was called the _decanus_, or _dean_, from his presiding over ten; and every hundred had another officer called _centenarius_, from his presiding over a hundred. Above these were the _patres_, or fathers of the monasteries, called likewise _abbates_, _abbots_, from the Greek ἄββας, which signifies _father_; and _hegumeni_ (ἡγούμενοι) _presidents_; and _archimandrites_, from _mandru_, a sheep-fold. The business of the deans was to exact every man’s daily task, and bring it to the _œconomus_, or steward, who gave a monthly account thereof to the father, or abbot. (See _Abbot_.)

To their bodily exercises they joined others that were spiritual. The first of these was a perpetual repentance. Upon which account the life of a monk is often styled the _life of a mourner_. And in allusion to this, the isle of Canopus, near Alexandria, formerly a place of great lewdness, was, upon the translation and settlement of the monks of Tabennesus there, called _Insulæ Metanœæ_, the _Isle of Repentance_.

The next spiritual exercise was extraordinary fasting. The Egyptian monks kept every day a fast till three in the afternoon, excepting Saturdays, Sundays, and the fifty days of Pentecost. Some exercised themselves with very great austerities, fasting two, three, four, or five days together; but this practice was not generally approved. They did not think such excessive abstinence of any use, but rather a disservice to religion. Pachomius’s rule, which was said to be given him by an angel, permitted every man to eat, drink, and labour, according to his bodily strength. So that fasting was a discretionary thing, and matter of choice, not of compulsion.

Their fastings were accompanied with extraordinary and frequent returns of devotion. The monks of Palestine, Mesopotamia, and other parts of the East, had six or seven canonical hours of prayer. Besides which they had their constant vigils, or nocturnal meetings. The monks of Egypt met only twice a day for public devotion; but, in their private cells, whilst they were at work, they were always repeating psalms, and other parts of Scripture, and intermixing prayers with their bodily labour. St. Jerome’s description of their devotion is very lively: “When they are assembled together, (says that father,) psalms are sung, and the Scriptures read: then, prayers being ended, they all sit down, and the father begins a discourse to them, which they hear with the profoundest silence and veneration. His words make a deep impression on them; their eyes overflow with tears, and the speaker’s commendation is the weeping of his hearers. Yet no one’s grief expresses itself in an indecent strain. But when he comes to speak of the kingdom of heaven, of future happiness, and the glory of the world to come, then one may observe each of them, with a gentle sigh, and eyes lifted up to heaven, say within himself, ‘Oh that I had the wings of a dove, for then would I flee away, and be at rest!’” In some places, they had the Scriptures read during their meals at table. This custom was first resorted to in the monasteries of Cappadocia, to prevent idle discourses and contentions. But in Egypt they had no occasion for this remedy; for they were taught to eat their meat in silence. Palladius mentions one instance more of their devotion, which was only occasional; namely, their psalmody at the reception of any brethren, or the conducting them with singing of psalms to their habitation.

The laws did not allow monks to interest themselves in any public affairs, either ecclesiastical or civil; and those who were called to any employment in the Church, were obliged to quit their monastery thereupon. Nor were they permitted to encroach upon the duties, or rights and privileges, of the secular clergy.

By the laws of their first institution, in all parts of the East, their habitation was not to be in cities, or places of public concourse, but in deserts, and private retirements, as their very name implied. The famous monk Anthony used to say, “That the wilderness was as natural to a monk, as water to a fish; and therefore a monk in a city was quite out of his element, like a fish upon dry land.” Theodosius enacted, that all who made profession of the monastic life should be obliged by the civil magistrate to betake themselves to the wilderness, as their proper habitation. Baronius, by mistake, reckons this law a punishment, and next to a persecution of the monks. Justinian made laws to the same purpose, forbidding the Eastern monks to appear in cities; but, if they had any business of concern to be transacted there, they might do it by their _Apocrisarii_ or _Responsales_, that is, their proctors or syndics, which every monastery was allowed for that purpose.

But this rule admitted of some exceptions. As, first, in times of common danger to the faith. Thus Anthony came to Alexandria, at the request of Athanasius, to confute the Arian heresy. Sometimes they thought it necessary to come and intercede with the emperors and judges for condemned criminals. Thus the monks in the neighbourhood of Antioch forsook their cells, to intercede with the emperor Theodosius, who was highly displeased with that city for demolishing the imperial statues. Afterwards, indeed, this practice grew into an abuse, and the monks were not contented to petition, but would sometimes come in great bodies or troops, and deliver criminals by force. To repress which tumultuous way of proceeding, Arcadius published a law, forbidding any such attempts under very severe penalties.

As the monks of the ancient Church were under no solemn vow or profession, they were at liberty to betake themselves to a secular life again. Julian himself was once in the monastic habit. The same is observed of Constans, the son of that Constantine, who, in the reign of Honorius, usurped the empire in Britain. The rule of Pachomius, by which the Egyptian monks were governed, has no mention of any vow at their entrance, nor any punishment for such as deserted their station afterwards.

In process of time, it was thought proper to inflict some punishment on such as returned to a secular life. The civil law excludes deserters from the privilege of ordination. Justinian added another punishment; which was, that if they were possessed of any substance, it should be all forfeited to the monastery which they had deserted. The censures of the Church were likewise inflicted on deserting monks in the fifth century.

MONOPHYSITES. (From μόνος, _only_, and φύσις, _nature_.) A general name given to all those sectaries in the Levant who only own one nature in our blessed SAVIOUR and who maintain that the Divine and human nature of JESUS CHRIST were so united as to form only one nature, yet without any change, confusion, or mixture of the two natures. (See _Eutychians_.)

MONOTHELITES. Christian heretics in the seventh century, so called from the Greek words μόνος (_only_) and θέλημα (_will_), because they maintained, that, though there were two natures in JESUS CHRIST, the human and the Divine, there was but one will, which was the Divine.

The author of this sect was Theodore, bishop of Pharan in Arabia, in 626, who first started the question, and maintained that the manhood in CHRIST was so united to the WORD, that, though it had its faculties, it did not act by itself, but the whole act was to be ascribed to the WORD, which gave it the motion. Thus, he said, it was the manhood of CHRIST that suffered hunger, thirst, and pain; but the hunger, thirst, and pain were to be ascribed to the WORD. In short, the WORD was the sole author and mover of all the operations and wills in CHRIST.

Sergius, patriarch of Constantinople, was of the same sentiment; and the emperor Heraclius embraced the party so much the more willingly, as he thought it a means of reconciling some other heretics to the Church.

Pope Martin I. called a council at Rome in 649, upon the question about the two operations and two wills. In this council, at which were present 105 Italian bishops, the doctrine of the Monothelites was generally condemned. The emperor Constans, who looked upon this condemnation as a kind of rebellion, caused Pope Martin to be violently carried away from Rome, and, after most cruel usage, banished him to Chersona.

However, this heresy was finally condemned in the sixth general council, held at Constantinople, under Constantine Pogonatus, in the year 680.

MONTANISTS. Christian heretics, who sprung up about the year 171, in the reign of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. They were so called from their leader, the heresiarch Montanus, a Phrygian by birth, whence they are sometimes styled Phrygians and Cataphrygians.

Montanus, it is said, embraced Christianity in hopes of rising to the dignities of the Church. He pretended to inspiration, and gave out that the HOLY GHOST had instructed him in several points which had not been revealed to the apostles. Priscilla and Maximilla, two enthusiastic women of Phrygia, presently became his disciples, and in a short time he had a great number of followers. The bishops of Asia, being assembled together, condemned his prophecies, and excommunicated those who dispersed them. Afterwards, they wrote an account of what had passed to the Western Churches, where the pretended prophecies of Montanus and his followers were likewise condemned.

The Montanists, finding themselves exposed to the censure of the whole Church, formed a schism, and set up a distinct society, under the direction of those who called themselves prophets. Montanus, in conjunction with Priscilla and Maximilla, was at the head of the sect.

These sectaries made no alteration in the creed. They only held that the HOLY SPIRIT made Montanus his organ for delivering a more perfect form of discipline than that which was delivered by the apostles. They refused communion for ever to those who were guilty of notorious crimes, and believed that the bishops had no authority to reconcile them. They held it unlawful to fly in time of persecution. They condemned second marriages, allowed the dissolution of marriage, and observed three Lents.

The Montanists became separated into two branches, one of which were the disciples of Proclus, and the other of Æschines. The latter are charged with following the heterodoxy of Praxeas and Sabellius concerning the Trinity. The celebrated Tertullian was a Montanist.

MONUMENT. The memorial placed over the body of a Christian, after his burial in consecrated ground.

The earliest monuments in England which have come down to us are, perhaps, not older than the Norman Conquest; and the most ancient is the simplest form. A stone coffin is covered with a single stone slab, which is also the only recipient of whatever device may be designed to commemorate the tenant of the narrow dwelling over which it closes. So early as the middle of the ninth century, (840,) Kenneth, king of Scotland, made an ordinance that such coffins should be adorned with the sign of the cross, in token of sanctity, on which no one was on any account to tread; and, perhaps, there were none but purely religious emblems employed for some generations after this time. The sign of the cross still continued for centuries the most usual ornament of tombs, but by-and-by it became associated with others which were most of them intended to designate the profession of him whose dust they honoured. Hence we have the crosier and mitre, with perhaps a chalice and paten, upon the tomb of an ecclesiastic, of an abbot, or a bishop; the knight has a sword, and his shield at first plain, but afterwards charged with his arms on his tomb. Sometimes an approach to religious allegory is discovered on monuments even of these very early ages, such as, for instance, the cross or crosier stuck into the mouth of a serpent or cockatrice, indicating the victory of the cross and of the Church over the devil. These, and the like devices, occurring before any attempt at the human figure was made, are in a low relief, or indented outline.

By-and-by the human figure was added, recumbent, and arrayed in the dress of the individual commemorated; and this figure soon rose from low relief to an effigy in full proportions. The knight and the ecclesiastic are now discovered so perfectly attired according to their order and degree, that the antiquary gathers his knowledge of costume from these venerable remains. Some affecting lessons of mortality are now forcibly inculcated by circumstances introduced into the sepulchre; for instance, the figure of the deceased appears nearly reduced to a skeleton, and laid in a shroud; a few instances occur in which the corpse thus represented is below a representation of the living person. Another interesting intimation of the character of the deceased appears in the crossed legs of those who had vowed a pilgrimage to the Holy Land; and the lion is frequently found, as well as the serpent, at the feet of the recumbent figure, perhaps in allusion to the words of the psalmist, “Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder: the young lion and the dragon shalt thou trample under thy feet.”

All this time the tomb has been gradually increasing in height and in general splendour, the sides are adorned with figures in several compartments, which run into niches or panels, according to the advance of architectural design, and at last they are surmounted with an arch, low at first and little decorated, but afterwards very elaborately wrought into a rich canopy. Religious allegories become more complex on the sides of the tomb, and we have instances of some which have since been borrowed by artists of name, and perhaps accounted new by many; for instance, it is not rare to see a representation of the soul of the dying conveyed to heaven by angels, while the corpse lies upon the litter, and this was a design chosen for the cenotaph of the Princess Charlotte. The relatives of the deceased are sometimes represented by many small statues in the niches; or armorial bearings are introduced, sparing at first, and often, as on the tomb of Lionell Lord Wells, in Methley church, supported on the breasts of angels. Angels also frequently support the head of the recumbent figure, and at the feet are sometimes one or more priests with an open book in their hands. The space in the wall behind the tomb and beneath the canopy allows of allegorical devices, sometimes in fresco, sometimes in mosaic. But what most demands attention are the recumbent figures themselves, generally with both hands raised in the attitude of prayer; or, if they be bishops, with the right hand as if giving a blessing. The effigies of the man and his wife appear always on the same tomb, lying side by side, and in the same pious attitude; a frequently recurring sight, which inspired the lines of Piers Plowman:—

“=Knyghts in ther conisance clad for the nones, Alle it semed seyntes ysacred opon erthe, And lovely ladies ywrought leyen by her sides.=”

And surely there is a beauty and propriety in that character of monuments for Christian men in Christian churches, which could suggest the words,

=“Alle it semed seyntes ysacred opon erthe,”=

far greater than we recognise in the vain-glorious boastings of success in secular pursuits, perhaps even in sinful undertakings, which cumber church walls. It is a holier thought to remember what was sacred in the Christian man; who, imperfect as he may have been, was yet, as he was a Christian, in some sense a saint, and to embody it in some pious attitude upon his tomb, than to forget everything that is Christian, and to celebrate only the secular or the vicious.

Gorgeous as some of these tombs are, they did not satisfy the splendour of that age, and the canopy swells into an actual chapel, sometimes in the body of the larger church, as that of William of Wykeham, in Winchester, and those of Cardinal Beaufort, and Bishops Waynflete and Fox, in the same cathedral. Sometimes the chapel is a building complete in itself, as that of the Beauchamps, at St. Mary’s church, Warwick, and that of Henry VII. at Westminster.

MORALITIES, MYSTERIES, and MIRACLES. A kind of theatrical representations, which were made by the monks, friars, and other ecclesiastics of the middle ages, the vehicle of instruction to the people. Their general character was the same, but the _miracles_ may be distinguished as those which represented the miracles wrought by the holy confessors, and the sufferings by which the perseverance of the martyrs was manifested; of which kind the first specified by name is a scenic representation of the legend of St. Catherine. The _moralities_ were certain allegorical representations of virtues or vices, always so contrived as to make virtue seem desirable, and vice ridiculous and deformed. The _mysteries_ were representations often of great length, and requiring several days’ performance, of the Scripture narrative, or of several parts of it, as, for instance, the descent of CHRIST into hell. Of these mysteries two complete series have lately been published from ancient manuscripts, _the Townley Mysteries_, performed by the monks of Woodchurch, near Wakefield, and the different leading companies of that town; and _the Coventry Mysteries_, performed with like help of the trades in Coventry, by the Grey Friars of that ancient city. Both of these collections begin with the creation, and carry on the story in different pageants or scenes until the judgment-day.

It will not be supposed that these plays are free from the deformities of every other kind of literature of the times to which they are referred; nor that the performance of them was without a great deal more of the coarseness of an unrefined age than would be tolerated now: neither need it be concealed that the theology therein embodied was sometimes rather Popish than Catholic.

On the whole it may fairly be said, that these _miracles_, _mysteries_, and _moralities_, were wholesome for the times; and that though they afterwards degenerated into actual abuses, yet that they are not to be condemned without measure and without mercy.

Their history and character are interesting, not only as giving a fair picture of the character of remote ages, but also because they seem to be the original from which arose stage plays and oratorios.

As a specimen of these old moralities see in Dodsley’s collection of Old Plays—_God’s Promises_, by Bale, bishop of Ossory, which dramatizes the leading events of the Sacred History. It was printed in 1538.

MORAVIANS, or UNITED BRETHREN. A sect generally said to have arisen under Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, a German nobleman of the last century, and thus called because the first converts to the system were some Moravian families. According to the society’s own account, however, they derive their origin from the Greek Church in the ninth century, when, by the instrumentality of Methodius and Cyrillus, two Greek monks, the kings of Bulgaria and Moravia, being converted to the faith, were, together with their subjects, united in communion with the Greek Church. Methodius was their first bishop, and for their use Cyrillus translated the Scriptures into the Sclavonian language.

It is sometimes supposed that because the Moravians have bishops, they are less to be blamed than other dissenting sects. But, to say nothing of the doubt that exists with respect to the validity of their orders, an episcopal church may be, as the Moravians and Romanists of this country are, in a state of schism. And the very fact that the difference between them and the Church is not great, if this be so, makes the sin of their schism, in not conforming, yet greater.

Though the Brethren acknowledge no other standard of truth than the sacred Scriptures, they in general profess to adhere to the Augsburg Confession of Faith. Both in their Summary of Christian Doctrine, which is used for the instruction of their children, and in their general instructions and sermons, they teach the doctrine of the Trinity; and in their prayers, hymns, and litanies address the FATHER, SON, and HOLY GHOST, in the same manner as is done in other Christian Churches; yet they chiefly direct their hearers to JESUS CHRIST, as the appointed channel of the Deity, in whom GOD is known and made manifest unto man. They dwell upon what he has done and suffered, and upon the glorious descriptions given of him as an Almighty Saviour. They recommend love to him, as the constraining principle of the Christian’s conduct; and their general manner is more by beseeching men to be reconciled to GOD, than by alarming them with the terrors of the law, and the threatenings against the impenitent, which they, however, do not fail occasionally to set before their hearers. They avoid, as much as possible, everything that would lead to controversy; and though they strongly insist upon salvation by grace alone through faith, yet they will not enter into any explanation, or give any decided opinion, concerning particular election. They have, therefore, been considered by high Calvinists as leaning to Arminianism, and by others as Calvinists; but they themselves decline the adoption of either name, and conceive that the gospel may be preached by both. They profess to believe that the kingdom of CHRIST is not confined to any party, community, or church; and they consider themselves, though closely united in one body or visible Church, as spiritually joined in the bond of Christian love to all who are taught of GOD, and belong to the universal Church of CHRIST, however much they may differ in forms, which they deem non-essentials.

See _Crantz’s History of the Brethren_; _Spangenberg’s Exposition of Christian Doctrine_; _Ratio Disciplinæ Unit. Fratrum_, by Loretz, &c.

MORMONISTS, or LATTER DAY SAINTS. The Census Report published in 1854, gives the following account of these enthusiasts. Although, in origin, the Mormon movement is not English, but American, yet, as the new creed, by the missionary zeal of its disciples, has extended into England, and is making some not inconsiderable progress with the poorer classes of our countrymen, it seems desirable to give, as far as the inadequate materials permit, some brief description of a sect, the history of whose opinions, sufferings, and achievements, shows, perhaps, the most remarkable religious movement that has happened since the days of Mahomet.

Joseph Smith, the prophet of the new belief, was born in humble life in 1805, at Sharon in the state of Vermont, from whence in 1815 he removed with his parents to Palmyra, New York. When about 15 years old, being troubled by convictions of his spiritual danger, and perplexed by the multitude of mutually hostile sects, he saw, he says, while praying in a grove, a vision of “two personages,” who informed him that his sins were pardoned, and that all existing sects were almost equally erroneous. This vision was repeated three years afterwards, in 1823, when an angel, he reports, informed him that the American Indians were a remnant of the Israelites, and that certain records, written by the Jewish prophets and containing history and prophecy, had, when the Indians fell into depravity, been buried in the earth at a spot which the angel indicated. Smith was further told, that _he_ had been selected as the instrument by which these valuable records should be brought to light; the revelations they contained being necessary for the restoration of that purity of creed and worship from which all the modern churches had alike departed.

Accordingly, upon the 22nd of September, 1823, Smith, the story runs, discovered in the side of a hill, about four miles from Palmyra in Ontario County, a stone box, just covered by the earth, in which was deposited the “Record,”—a collection of thin plates of gold, held together by three golden rings. Part of this golden book was sealed, but the portion open to inspection was engraven thickly with “Reformed Egyptian” characters. Together with the book he found two crystal lenses “set in the two rims of a bow,” apparently resembling an enormous pair of spectacles; this instrument he said was the Urim and Thummim used by ancient seers.

The simple inspection of these treasures was the whole extent of Smith’s achievements on his first discovery of them; he was not permitted by the angel to remove them until four years afterwards, on the 22nd of September, 1827. During the interval he received occasional instruction from his supernatural visitant.

The news of his discovery attracted such attention, and procured him so much obloquy, that, according to the narrative of his biographers, he was exposed to personal violence, and was obliged to fly to Pennsylvania, carrying his golden plates concealed in a barrel of beans. When thus in some security, he, by the aid of the Urim and Thummim, set to work upon the translation of the unsealed portion, which, when complete, composed a bulky volume, which he called the “Book of Mormon”—“Mormon” meaning, he explained, _more good_, from “_mor_,” a contraction for _more_, and “_mon_,” Egyptian for _good_. “Mormon,” too, was the name of a supposed prophet living in the fourth or fifth century, who, after the principal portion of the American Israelites had fallen in battle, and the whole of them become degenerate, engraved on plates a summary of their history and prophecies. These plates, his son, Moroni, in the troublous times which followed, hid for safety in a hill then called Cumora, about the year A. D. 420.

Mormons defend the authenticity of this recital, by asserting the improbability that Smith, an illiterate person, could invent it, and, unaided, write so large and peculiar a volume. To the objection that the golden plates are not produced, they give Smith’s own reply to the applications made to him by his disciples for a view—that such an exhibition of them is prohibited by special revelation. Nevertheless, in further proof of Smith’s veracity, three “witnesses” were found to testify that they had actually _seen_ the plates, an angel having shown them; and a similar testimony was borne by eight other “witnesses,”—four of those belonging to a family named Whitmer, and three being the two brothers and the father of Smith. The utmost that Smith did towards allowing access by indifferent parties to the plates, was to give to one of his inquiring followers a copy upon paper of a portion of the plates in the original hieroglyphics, viz. the “Reformed Egyptian.” This was submitted by the yet unsatisfied disciple to Professor Anthon of New York, who, however, did not recognise the characters as those of any ancient language known to him. The Mormon advocates appear to think these evidences irresistible.—Upon the other hand, it is asserted, by opponents of the Mormons, that about the years 1809–12, a person of the name of Solomon Spaulding, who had been a clergyman, conceived and executed the design of writing a religious tale, the scenes and narrative of which should be constructed on the theory that the American Indians were the lost ten tribes of Israel. This work, when finished, he entitled “_The Manuscript found_;” and the purport of the fiction was, to trace the progress of the tribes from Jerusalem to America, and then describe their subsequent adventures in the latter country,—“Mormon” and his son “Moroni” being prominent characters, and Nephi, Lehi, and the Lamanites (names frequently occurring in the Book of Mormon) being also mentioned. The MS. of this production, it is further stated, found its way into the hands of one Sidney Rigdon, who was intimately connected with Smith from the commencement of his career.

The “_Book of Mormon_” was succeeded by a “_Book of Doctrine and Covenants_,” being a collection of the special revelations made to Smith and his associates upon all points connected with the course and welfare of the Church. This was continually enlarged as further revelations, consequent upon the varying fortunes and requirements of the body, were received. Amongst these was one by which the “Aaronic Priesthood” was revived—another by which baptism by immersion was commanded—a third for the institution of “Apostles”—and others for the temporal regulation of the Church from time to time. In these productions the peculiar phraseology of the sacred Scriptures was profusely imitated.

It appears that at the end of about three years after Smith’s announcement of himself as a prophet, about thirty persons were convinced of the reality of his pretensions, and from this time forward converts rapidly increased. Smith removed to Kirtland in Ohio, and set up a mill, a store, and a bank.

It was not without opposition that this progress was effected. As appears to be usual upon the rise of new religious sects, the Mormons were accused of holding many outrageous and immoral doctrines, and, amongst them, that of a community of wives. The popular hostility was often violently manifested, and the “saints” were subjected to much ill-treatment. Smith himself, in 1832, was tarred and feathered by a midnight mob; and, in the following year, the whole of the Mormons in Missouri (amounting to above a thousand persons) were expelled from Independence, Jackson County, which had been described by Smith as the Zion appointed by revelation for the resting-place of the “saints.” They removed to Clay County, where, in 1837, they were joined by the prophet himself, whose bank in Kirtland had failed. Meantime, the prejudice against the Mormons followed them to their new habitation, and, in 1838, after several sanguinary outbreaks, Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum were imprisoned, and the whole community of Mormons were expelled from their possessions in Missouri. They took refuge in the neighbouring state of Illinois. Here, in 1839, their prophet, who had managed to escape from prison, joined them. They now numbered 15,000 souls.

In Illinois, they chose the village of Commerce as their residence, which soon became converted into a considerable town, of which the “prophet” was appointed mayor. This town they called Nauvoo, or “Beautiful,” according to the language of the Book of Mormon. A body of militia, called the Nauvoo Legion, was established—Smith being “General.” In 1841, a “revelation” ordered the construction of a splendid temple, towards which object all the Mormons were to contribute a full tithe of their possessions. It is said that they expended on this structure nearly a million of dollars.

In Nauvoo, the Mormons seem to have increased and prospered greatly: the town extended fast; the temple gradually rose; and the prophet was the absolute head of a comparatively powerful community, which hardly recognised the ordinary laws of the state. In 1843 he became a candidate for the presidency, and put forth a statement of his views. In 1844, however, occurred the final catastrophe of his life. A Nauvoo paper, having printed certain scandal of him, was, by order of the council of the town, suppressed, and its office razed; on which, the editors retired to Carthage, and obtained a warrant against Smith and his brother. This warrant Smith refused to recognise: the county force prepared to execute it; and the “saints” prepared their city for defence. To save the town, however, Smith surrendered on the promise of protection from the governor. This promise proved of little value; for, on the 27th of June, 1844, a mob broke into Carthage prison, and Joseph and Hyrum Smith were shot.

Upon the prophet’s death there were two competitors for the vacant supremacy—Sidney Rigdon and Brigham Young. The former was the earliest associate of Smith, and professed to be acquainted with “all his secrets;” but, as the prominent advocate of the “Spiritual Wife” doctrine, he was looked upon with disfavour as the virtual author of much of the suspicion and hostility with which the Mormons were regarded. Brigham Young succeeded therefore to the post of “prophet,” (which he still retains,) and Rigdon was expelled from the community. An interval of scarcely interrupted progress followed, during which the temple was completed; but in 1845 the troubles were renewed: perpetual conflicts, in which blood was shed, occurred, and the city of Nauvoo itself was regularly besieged. At length the Mormons, conscious of their inability alone to cope with their antagonists, and seeing that no confidence could be reposed upon the law for their protection, undertook (since nothing less would satisfy their enemies) that they would altogether quit the State—commencing their departure in the spring of 1846.

This time it was no mere temporary, neighbouring refuge which the Mormons sought. The elders of the church, aware of the hostility to which it would be constantly exposed in any portion of the populated States, resolved, with equal policy and daring, to escape entirely from the settled territory, and to seek far off, beyond the Rocky Mountains, some secluded and unoccupied retreat in which they could, secure from molestation, build their earthly “Zion,” and, by gathering thither from all quarters of the world the converts to their faith, become a thriving and a powerful community, too potent to be further interfered with. This remarkable pilgrimage, involving the removal of some thousands of men, women, children, cattle, and stores, over thousands of untrodden miles—across wide unbridged rivers—by the difficult passes of snow-capped mountains—and through deserts, prairies, and tribes of predatory Indians—was at once commenced. A party of pioneers set out from Nauvoo in February, 1846, when it was still winter—the waggons crossing the Mississippi on the ice. These were to prepare the way for the main body of the citizens, who, according to stipulation, might remain in Nauvoo till these preparations were completed. Their departure was, however, hastened by the fresh hostility of their opponents, who—concluding from the progress still continued in the decorations of the temple that the Mormons secretly intended to elude their promise and return—attacked the town in September, 1846, and expelled the whole of its remaining population. These then followed and overtook the pioneering party, which, after dreadful sufferings from cold and heat, from hunger and disease, had, finding it impossible to reach their destination till the following year, encamped upon the banks of the Missouri, on the lands of the Omahas and Pottawatamies. Here they had sown the land to some extent with grain, the crops of which were to be reaped by their successors. After a dreary winter, spent in this location, they began their march towards their final settlement. In April, 1847, the first detachment of 143, with 70 waggons, crossed the Rocky Mountains; arriving at the basin of the Great Salt Lake, in the latter portion of July, in time to sow the land for an autumn crop. The second party started in the summer with 566 waggons and a great supply of grain. The others followed in the course of 1848—their passage much alleviated by the tracks prepared by their predecessors, and the harvests left for them to gather.

The valley of the Great Salt Lake is a territory of considerable extent, enclosed on all sides by high rocky mountains. The Lake itself is nearly 300 miles in circumference, with islands rising from its surface to an elevation of some thousand feet: its shores are covered in some places with the finest salt, and its water is as buoyant as the waves of the Dead Sea. Portions of the land are desert; but a vast expanse is wonderfully fertile, and abounds in all facilities for pasturage and cultivation. Here the Mormons have now firmly fixed themselves, and made, since 1848, continual progress. Further settlements have been established, and several cities founded: that of the Great Salt Lake itself has a plot of several acres, destined to support a temple whose magnificence shall far exceed the splendour of the former Nauvoo edifice. Relying on the inexhaustible resources of the region to sustain innumerable inhabitants, the principal endeavour of the rulers is to gather there as many immigrants as possible, professing the same faith. They calculate that thus, established in an almost inaccessible retreat, with numbers continually augmenting, they will soon be able to defy external enmity, and rear upon a lasting basis their ecclesiastical republic. Missionary agents are despatched to almost every portion of the world to make fresh converts and facilitate their transit to America. In England these endeavours have been followed by no slight success: it is computed that at least as many as 30,000 persons in this country belong to the community, and nearly 20,000 have already, it is said, departed for the Great Salt Lake. This settlement itself has now, by the name of “Utah,” been admitted to the United States’ Confederacy; but it seems, from a report of the judges sent there by the recent President, that the authority of the federal government is virtually set at nought; the laws and their administration being always found accordant with the pleasure of the Mormon rulers.

A printed “Creed” presents the following summary of their opinions, but omits some rather material points:—

“We believe in God the eternal Father, and his Son Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost.

“We believe that men will be punished for their own sins, and not for Adam’s transgressions.

“We believe that through the atonement of Christ all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel.

“We believe that these ordinances are: 1st, Faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. 2d, Repentance. 3d, Baptism by immersion for the remission of sins. 4th, Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Spirit. 5th, The Lord’s supper.

“We believe that men must be called of God by inspiration, and by laying on of hands by those who are duly commissioned to preach the gospel and administer in the ordinances thereof.

“We believe in the same organization that existed in the primitive church, viz. apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, evangelists, &c.

“We believe in the powers and gifts of the everlasting gospel, viz. the gift of faith, discerning of spirits, prophecy, revelation, visions, healing, tongues and the interpretation of tongues, wisdom, charity, brotherly love, &c.

“We believe in the word of God recorded in the Bible. We also believe the word of God recorded in the Book of Mormon and in all other good books.

“We believe all that God has revealed, all that he does now reveal; and we believe that he will yet reveal many more great and important things pertaining to the kingdom of God, and Messiah’s second coming.

“We believe in the literal gathering of Israel, and in the restoration of the ten tribes; that Zion will be established upon the Western continent; that Christ will reign personally upon the earth a thousand years; and that the earth will be renewed and receive its paradisaical glory.

“We believe in the literal resurrection of the body, and that the dead in Christ will rise first, and that the rest of the dead live not again until the thousand years are expired.

“We claim the privilege of worshipping Almighty God according to the dictates of our conscience, unmolested, and allow all men the same privilege, let them worship how or where they may.

“We believe in being subject to kings, queens, presidents, rulers, and magistrates, in obeying, honouring, and sustaining the law.

“We believe in being honest, true, chaste, temperate, benevolent, virtuous, and upright, and in doing good to all men; indeed, we may say that we follow the admonition of Paul,—we ‘believe all things,’ we ‘hope all things,’ we have endured very many things, and hope to be able to ‘endure all things.’ Everything virtuous, lovely, praiseworthy, and of good report we seek after, looking forward to the ‘recompence of reward.’”

A rather more specific outline of some points of their belief is given by one of their “apostles.” According to him, the “saints” believe that all mankind, in consequence of Adam’s sin, are in a state of ruin: from this, however, they are all delivered by the sacrifice of Christ, and are made secure of everlasting happiness, unless they commit any _actual_ sin. Infants, therefore, being irresponsible, will be eternally redeemed; and such among the people of the earth as have not had the benefit of revelation will receive a mitigated punishment. The rest, in order to be saved from endless ruin, must comply with four conditions:—(1.) they must _believe_ in Christ’s atonement; (2.) they must _repent_ of their transgressions; (3.) they must receive _baptism_ by immersion for the remission of sins, administered only by one authorized of Christ; and (4.) they must receive the _laying on of hands_ for the gift of the Holy Ghost—_this_ ordinance also being, like that of baptism, only to be administered by duly authorized apostles or elders. All who comply with these conditions obtain forgiveness of their sins and are made partakers of the Holy Ghost—enjoying, too, the gifts of prophecy and healing, visions and revelations, and the power of working miracles.

Among the prominent opinions, not included in these statements, are their doctrines of the materiality of the Deity, and of the two-fold order of the priesthood, viz. the Melchisedekian and the Aaronic. They are also charged by their opponents with the practice and the sanction of polygamy; and evidence is not unplentiful of their allowance of something closely similar; and in their various publications very peculiar doctrines on the subject of marriage are propounded. Their standard books, however, specially denounce the crime.

In England and Wales there were, in 1851, reported by the Census officers as many as 222 places of worship belonging to this body—most of them however being merely rooms. The number of sittings in these places (making an allowance for 53, the accommodation in which was not returned,) was 30,783. The _attendance _on the Census Sunday (making an estimated addition for 9 chapels from which no intelligence on this point was received) was: _Morning_, 7,517; _Afternoon_, 11,481; _Evening_, 16,628. The preachers, it appears, are far from unsuccessful in their efforts to obtain disciples: the surprising confidence and zeal with which they promulgate their creed—the prominence they give to the exciting topics of the speedy coming of the Saviour and his personal millennial reign—and the attractiveness to many minds of the idea of an infallible church, relying for its evidences and its guidance upon revelations made perpetually to its rulers,—these, with other influences, have combined to give the Mormon movement a position and importance with the working classes, which, perhaps, should draw to it much more than it has yet received of the attention of our public teachers.

MORTAL SIN. (See _Deadly Sin_.)

MORTIFICATION. Any severe penance observed on a religious account. The mortification of sin in believers is a duty enjoined in the sacred Scriptures. (Rom viii. 13; Col. iii. 5.) It consists in breaking the league with sin; declaration of open hostility against it; and strong resistance to it. (Eph. vi. 10, &c.; Gal. v. 24; Rom. viii. 13.)

MORTMAIN. This is where lands are given to some spiritual person or corporation and to their successors; and because the lands were never to revert to the donor, or his heirs, and by that means the services and other profits due for the same were extinct, therefore it was called a gift _mortua manu_.

The first statute against mortmain was that of Magna Charta, (9 Hen. III. c. 36,) which declares, “that if any one shall give lands to a religious house, the grant shall be void, and the land forfeited to the lord of the fee.” The next was the 7 Edw. I. stat. ii., commonly called the statute “De Religiosis,” which restrained people, at the time of their death or otherwise, from giving or making over any lands or rents to churches or religious houses, without the king’s leave first obtained. This is called the statute of mortmain; but being evaded, the 13 of Edw. I. was passed, and afterwards by the 15 Rich. II. c. 5, it was declared, “that it was within the compass of the statute of Edward I. to convert any land into a churchyard, though it be done with the consent or connivance of the ter-tenant, and confirmed by the pope’s bull.

This last statute extended only to bodies corporate, and, therefore, by the 23 Hen. VIII. c. 10, it is enacted, “that if any grants of lands or other hereditaments should be made in trust to the use of any churches, chapels, churchwardens, guilds, fraternities, &c., to have perpetual obits, or a continual service of a priest for ever, or for sixty or eighty years, or to such like uses or intents, all such uses, intents, and purposes shall be void; they being no corporations, but erected either of devotion, or else by the common consent of the people; and all collateral assurances made for defeating this statute shall be void, and the said statute shall be expounded most beneficially for the destruction of such uses as aforesaid.”

Though the prohibition by the statute of mortmain in the Magna Charta was absolute, yet a royal charter of licence (18 Edw. III. stat. iii. c. 3) afforded relaxation of the restraint, and by the 17 Car. II. c. 3, the following relief was granted:—“Every owner of any impropriations, tithes, or portion of tithes, in any parish or chapelry, may give and annex the same, or any part thereof, unto the parsonage or vicarage of the said parish church or chapel where the same do lie or arise; or settle the same in trust for the benefit of the said parsonage or vicarage, or of the curate and curates there successively, where the parsonage is impropriate and no vicar endowed, without any licence of mortmain.

“And if the settled maintenance of any parsonage, vicarages, churches, and chapels united, or of any other parsonage or vicarage with cure, shall not amount to the full sum of £100 a year clear and above all charges and reprises, it shall be lawful for the parson, vicar, and incumbent of the same, and his successors, to take and purchase to him and his successors lands and tenements, rents, tithes, or other hereditaments, without any licence of mortmain.” This dispensing power was carried so high in the reign of King James II., that by the 1 Wm. III. sess. ii. c. 2, it was enacted, that no dispensation, by “non obstante,” to any statute shall be allowed. By the 7 & 8 Wm. III. c. 37, and 2 & 3 Anne, c. 11, certain relaxations were again made; but by the 9 Geo. II. c. 36, further restraints were imposed, which render it impossible for the Church of England to augment poor livings, under the provisions of 17 Car. II. c. 3, already recited.

By 12 & 13 Vict. c. 49, s. 4, grants of land for sites of schools, not exceeding five acres, made by owners or tenants in tail are valid, although the grantor die within twelve months.

MORTUARY, (_Mortuarium_,) in the English ecclesiastical law, is a gift left by a man at his death to his parish church, in recompence of personal tithes omitted to be paid in his lifetime; or, it is that beast, or other cattle, which, after the death of the owner, by the custom of the place, is due to the parson or vicar, in lieu of tithes or offerings forgot, or not well and truly paid by him that is dead.

Selden tells us, it was usual anciently to bring the mortuary along with the corpse, when it came to be buried, and to offer it to the Church as a satisfaction for the supposed negligence and omission the deceased had been guilty of in not paying his personal tithes; and from thence it was called a corpse present.

A mortuary is not properly due to an ecclesiastical incumbent from any but those of his own parish; but by custom, in some places, they are paid to the incumbents of other parishes, when corpses are carried through them. The bishops of Bangor, Landaff, St. David’s, &c. had formerly mortuaries of priests, abolished by 12 Anne, stat. ii. c. 6. And it was customary, in the diocese of Chester, for the bishop to have a mortuary, on the death of every priest dying within the archdeaconry of Chester, of his best beast, saddle and bridle, and best gown or cloak, hat, and upper garment under the gown. By 28 Geo. II. c. 6, mortuaries in the diocese of Chester were abolished, and the rectory of Waverton attached to the see in lieu thereof. By the 21 Hen. VIII. c. 6, mortuaries were commuted into money payments, which were regulated as follows:—“No parson, vicar, curate, parish priest, or other, shall for any person dying or dead, and being at the time of his death of the value in moveable goods of ten marks or more, clearly above his debts paid, and under the sum of £30, take for a mortuary above 3_s._ 4_d._ in the whole. And for a person dying or dead, being at the time of his death of the value of £30 or above, clearly above his debts paid, in moveable goods, and under the value of £40, there shall no more be taken or demanded for a mortuary, than 6_s._ 8_d._ in the whole. And for any person dying or dead, having at the time of his death of the value in moveable goods of £40 or above, to any sum whatsoever it be clearly above his debts paid, there shall be no more taken, paid, or demanded for a mortuary, than 10_s._ in the whole. The Welsh bishoprics and the diocese of Chester were excepted from the operation of this statute, and therefore subsequent acts were passed with respect to them.

MOTETT, in Church music, a short piece of music highly elaborated, of which the subject is taken from the psalms or hymns of the Church. It somewhat resembles our anthems. The derivation is from the Italian _Mottetto_, a little word or sentence; originally signifying a short epigram in verse; and afterwards applied as now defined, as the words of the Motett properly consist of a short sentence from Holy Scripture.—_Jebb._

MOTHER OF GOD. (See _Mariolatry_, _Virgin Mary_, _Nestorians_.) “The Virgin Mary,” says Pearson on the Creed, “is frequently styled the Mother of JESUS in the language of the evangelists, and by Elizabeth, particularly, the _Mother of her Lord_, as also, by the general consent of the Church, because he which was born of her was GOD, the _Deipara_: which, being a compound title, begun in the Greek Church, was resolved into its parts by the Latins, and so the Virgin was plainly named the _Mother of God_.”

We admit that the Virgin Mary is the mother of GOD; but we protest against the conclusion that she is, on that account, to be treated with peculiar honour, or to be worshipped; for this expression is used not to exalt her, but to assert unequivocally the Divinity of her SON: He whom she brought forth was GOD, and therefore she is a bringer forth or mother of GOD.

The term was first brought prominently forward at the Council of Ephesus, (A. D. 431,) the third of those four general councils, the decisions of which are authoritative in the Church of England; and it was adopted as a formula against the Nestorians. The Nestorian controversy originated thus. In the year 428, Nestorius was bishop of Constantinople, and he had brought with him from Antioch, where he had before resided, a priest named Anastasius, his chaplain and friend; this person, preaching one day in the church of Constantinople, said, “Let no one call Mary mother of GOD, for she was a woman, and it is impossible that GOD should be born of a human creature.” These words gave great offence to many both of the clergy and laity; for they had always been taught, says the historian Socrates, to acknowledge JESUS CHRIST as GOD, and not to sever him in any way from the Divinity. Nestorius, however, declared his assent to what Anastasius had said, and became, from his high position in the Church, the heresiarch.

When the heresy had spread into Egypt, it was refuted by St. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, in a pastoral letter, which he published for the direction of his people. “I wonder,” he says, “how a question can be raised, as to whether the Holy Virgin should be called mother of GOD; for if our LORD JESUS CHRIST is GOD, how is not the Holy Virgin, his mother, the mother of GOD? This is the faith we have been taught by the apostles.” He next proves that he who was born of the Virgin Mary is GOD in his own nature, since the Nicene Creed says that the only begotten SON of GOD, of the same substance with the FATHER, himself came down from heaven and was incarnate; and then he proceeds, “You will say, perhaps, is the Virgin, then, mother of the Divinity? We answer, It is certain that the WORD is eternal, and of the substance of the FATHER. Now, in the order of nature, mothers, who have no part in the creation of the soul, are still called mothers of the whole man, and not of the body only; for surely it would be a hypercritical refinement to say, Elizabeth is mother of the body of John, and not of his soul. In the same way, therefore, we express ourselves in regard to the birth of EMMANUEL, since the WORD, having taken flesh upon him, is called SON of Man.” In a letter to Nestorius himself he enters into a fuller explanation: “We must admit in the same CHRIST two generations: first, the eternal, by which he proceeds from his FATHER; second, the temporal, by which he is born of his mother. When we say that he suffered and rose again, we do not say that GOD the WORD suffered in his own nature, for the Divinity is impassible; but because the body which was appropriated to him suffered, so also we say that he suffered himself. So too we say he died. The Divine WORD is in his own nature immortal. He is life itself; but because his own true body suffered death, we say that he himself died for us. In the same way, when his flesh is raised from the dead, we attribute resurrection to him. We do not say that we adore the man along with the WORD, lest the phrase ‘along with’ should suggest the idea of non-identity; but we adore him as one and the same person, because the body assumed by the WORD is in no degree external or separated from the WORD.”—_Conc. Eph._ part i. v. 8. “It is in this sense,” he says afterwards, “that the Fathers have ventured to call the Holy Virgin mother of GOD, not that the nature of the WORD, or his Divinity, did receive beginning of his existence from the Holy Virgin, but because in her was formed and animated a reasonable soul and a sacred body, to which the WORD united himself in hypostasis, which is the reason of its being said, ‘he was born according to the flesh.’”

It was jealousy for the LORD JESUS CHRIST, and anxiety to maintain his honour, and to assert his Divinity, which influenced the Fathers at the Council of Ephesus, and not any special regard to the creature through whose instrumentality he was brought into the world. And the decisions of that council, because they can be proved to be scriptural, the Church of England accepts. The council vindicated this title, not because it was a high title for Mary, but because to deny it is to deny that he is GOD whom she brought forth. The heresy of Nestorius related to the incarnation or junction of the two natures in CHRIST, which he affirmed not to be a _union_, but merely a _connexion_; whereas the object of the Council of Ephesus was to assert “the real and inseparable union of the two natures in CHRIST, and to show that the human nature, which CHRIST took of the Holy Virgin, never subsisted separately from the Divine person of the SON of GOD.”

To the use of the term, however, though we contend for its propriety, divines of the Church of England are not partial, because, by the subtilty of the Romish controversialists, it has been so used, or rather misused, as to make it seem to confer peculiar honour and privileges upon the Virgin Mary. The primitive Christians, like ourselves, were contented with speaking of the Virgin as “the mother of my LORD;” and this phrase sufficed until, as we have seen, heretics arose who understood the word LORD in an inferior sense, and then it became necessary to assert that GOD and LORD, as applied to our blessed Saviour, are synonymous terms. And sound theologians will still occasionally use the term Mother of GOD, lest Nestorianism should be held unconsciously by persons who wish to be orthodox, and people forget the great truth expressed by St. Paul, that “GOD purchased the Church with his own blood;” and that CHRIST is “over all, GOD blessed for ever.”

The Council of Ephesus caused the Nicene Creed, and several passages out of St. Cyprian, St. Basil, Athanasius, Gregory Nazianzen, and many others, to be read in council. And from them they gathered, and therefore pronounced, that according to the Scriptures, as interpreted by the catholic Church, Christ, though he have two natures, yet he is but one person, and by consequence that the Virgin Mary might properly be called Θεοτόκος, because the same person who was born of her is truly GOD as well as man: which being once determined by an universal council to be the true sense and meaning of the Scriptures in this point, hath been acknowledged by the universal Church ever since, till this time.—_Bishop Beveridge._

MOULDING. An ornamental form given to angles and edges of masonry or wood-work, and carried uniformly along a considerable extent. The use of mouldings must commence with the earliest attempts at ornament in masonry or carpentry. The Saxon mouldings, so far as we can collect from existing specimens, were extremely rude and simple; but with the Norman mouldings the case is precisely the reverse, so far, at least, as simplicity is concerned: for though the mouldings themselves may be resolved into a very few forms and combinations, they were often either treated as if themselves broken and mitred together at various angles, as in the case of the chevron and embattled mouldings; or they were themselves decorated with forms not of their own nature, as the medallion, beak head, and other like mouldings, which are however, strictly speaking, rather decorations of mouldings, than themselves mouldings. It would far exceed our limits to describe the several mouldings of the succeeding styles. We must be content with saying, in general, that in the Early English they reached their greatest complexity and depth, and that they gradually became less numerous, and shallower, to the Perpendicular; the happy mean being reached in this, as in almost everything else, in the Geometrical. The particular mouldings, which may be said to be distinctive of a style, are chiefly the ogee, in several of its forms, of the Decorated; the scroll of the Decorated, with the later Geometric; the wide and shallow casement or hollow of the Perpendicular. The hollows, in the Early English, usually separate single mouldings, in the Decorated groups of mouldings. The earlier mouldings, as Norman and Early English, generally occupy the planes of the wall and of the soffit; the later, especially Perpendicular, the chamfer plane only. To be at all appreciated, the subject of mouldings must be studied in the “Oxford Glossary,” or in Paley’s “Manual of Gothic Mouldings;” and to be mastered, it must be pursued, pencil in hand, in our ancient ecclesiastical edifices.

MOVEABLE and IMMOVEABLE FEASTS. The feasts kept in the Christian Church are called moveable and immoveable, according as they fall always on the same day in the calendar in each year,—as the saints’ days; or depend on other circumstances,—as Easter, and the feasts calculated from Easter. The Book of Common Prayer contains several tables for calculating Easter, and the following rules to know when the moveable feasts and holy-days begin:

“Easter Day, on which the rest depend, is always the first Sunday after the full moon which happens upon, or next after, the twenty-first day of March; and if the full moon happens upon a Sunday, Easter Day is the Sunday after.

“Advent Sunday is always the nearest Sunday to the feast of St. Andrew, whether before or after.

Septuagesima │ Sunday is │Nine │Weeks before │ │ │Easter. Sexagesima │ „ │Eight │ „ Quinquagesima │ „ │Seven │ „ Quadragesima │ „ │Six │ „ │ │ │ Rogation Sunday │ is │Five Weeks │after Easter.” Ascension Day │ „ │Forty Days │ „ Whit Sunday │ „ │Seven Weeks │ „ Trinity Sunday │ „ │Eight Weeks │ „

MOYER’S LECTURE. A lecture established by Lady Moyer. The following is an extract from the will of the Lady Moyer, or, as she is therein styled, “Dame Rebecca Moyer, late of the parish of St. Andrew, Holborn, in the county of Middlesex, widow.”

“My now dwelling-house in Bedford Row, or Jockey Field, I give to my dear child Eliza Moyer, that out of it may be paid twenty guineas a year to an able minister of GOD’S word, to preach eight sermons every year on the Trinity and Divinity of our ever-blessed SAVIOUR, beginning with the first Thursday in November, and to the first Thursday in the seven sequel months, in St. Paul’s, if permitted there, or, if not, elsewhere, according to the discretion of my executrix, who will not think it any encumbrance to her house. I am sure it will bring a blessing on it, if that work be well and carefully carried on, which in this profligate age is so neglected. If my said daughter should leave no children alive at her death, or they should die before they come to age, then I give my said house to my niece, Lydia Moyer, now wife to Peter Hartop, Esq., and to her heirs after her, she always providing for that sermon, as I have begun, twenty guineas every year.”

There is a list of the preachers of this lecture at the end of Mr. John Berriman’s “Critical Dissertation on 1 Tim. iii. 16,” (which is the substance of the lectures he preached,) down to the year 1740–1: and in a copy of that book in Sion College library, there is a continuation of the list in MS., by Mr. John Berriman, to the year 1748. In the year 1757, they were preached by Mr. William Clements, librarian of Sion College, but he did not publish them till 1797. In the year 1764, or thereabouts, the preacher was Benjamin Dawson, LL.D., who printed them under the title of “An Illustration of several Texts of Scripture, particularly wherein the Logos occurs, 1765.” Dr. Thomas Morell, author of the “_Thesaurus Græcæ, Poeseos_,” is supposed to have been the last. Mr. Watts, librarian of Sion College, (to whom the reader is indebted for the information here given,) heard him preach one of them in January, 1773. One of these lectures Dr. Morell published, _without his name_, in April, 1774. It was written against Lindsey, and entitled “The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity justified.” In the “Gentleman’s Magazine for 1804,” p. 187, mention is made of a Mrs. Moyer, who “died at Low Layton, February, 1804, the widow of Benjamin Moyer, Esq., son of Lawrence Moyer, merchant, who succeeded as heir of his uncle, Sir Samuel Moyer, a rich Turkey merchant, sheriff of Essex in 1698; Bart., 1701; died, 1716. His widow Rebecca, sister of Sir William Jolliffe, Knt., founded the lecture for a limited number of years.” This does not, however, appear to have been the case, no limitations being mentioned in Lady Moyer’s will. But since there is no compulsory obligation in the will to perpetuate the lecture, the probability is that, in course of time, (perhaps immediately after Dr. Morell’s turn expired,) the property fell into other hands, and the lecture was no longer continued.

MOZARABIC LITURGY. The ancient liturgy of Spain; the name Mozarabic signifying those Christians who were mixed with, or lived in the midst of, Arabs, or Moors. Mr. Palmer considers that this liturgy was derived at a very early age from that of Gaul, which it much resembles. It was abolished in 1060 in Arragon, but was not for some time afterwards relinquished in Navarre, Castile, and Leon. Cardinal Ximenes founded a college and chapel in Toledo for the celebration of this rite: the only place perhaps in Spain where it is preserved.—_Palmer’s Origin. Liturg._

MOZECTA, MUZECTA, MOZZETTO. An ecclesiastical vestment, like the bishop’s colobrium or tunicle, worn by the canons in certain cathedrals of Sicily.—_Peiri Sicilia Sacra._

MULLION, more correctly _Monial_. The upright bars dividing a traceried window into lights.

MUSIC, as connected with the Church service, is sometimes used in a peculiar and technical sense, to signify the accompaniment of a band of instrumental music, as violins and wind instruments, not the organ only. A service _in music_ abroad is understood in this sense. These kind of accompaniments are foreign to the genuine spirit of the Church of England, which, as a general rule, recognises the organ only. Charles II. introduced the foreign style of music into his chapel, which, however, was but short-lived. Evelyn in his Memoirs, (Dec. 22, 1662,) speaking of the service at the Chapel Royal when he was present, says, “Instead of the ancient, grave, and solemn wind music accompanying the organ, was introduced a concert of 24 violins between every pause, after the French fantastical light way, better suiting a tavern or a play-house than a church.” The only stated musical service in the Church was that performed annually a few years since at the feast of the sons of the clergy at St. Paul’s. The instrumental accompaniments are now laid aside. At what are called musical festivals the service is so accompanied.

MUSIC TABLE. A sort of Lectern, with three sides, round which the choir were placed, in the middle of Bishop Andrewes’s chapel; as appears by the plan given in _Canterbury’s Doom_, 1646.

MYNCHERY. A nunnery. A corruption of ministere, or minster.

MYSTERY. (From μύειν τὸ στόμα, _to shut the mouth_; hence μυστήριον, _mystery_.) Something secret, hidden from human comprehension, or revealed only in part. The term is applied both to doctrines and facts. By the usage of the Church it also denotes that inscrutable union in the sacrament of the inward and spiritual grace with the outward and visible sign. Hence in the early Church the sacraments were denominated “mysteries,” and the term derived a still greater force, from the secrecy which was observed in the administration of those ordinances. More especially, however, was the holy communion thus designated, as we learn from the ancient Fathers, who speak repeatedly of the “sacred” and “tremendous mysteries,” in allusion to this sacrament. With this application, the term appears in our own Communion Office, where CHRIST is said to have “instituted and ordained holy mysteries, as pledges of his love, and for a continual remembrance of his death.” We are also exhorted so to prepare ourselves, that we may be “meet partakers of those holy mysteries;” and after their reception, thanks are rendered to GOD, that he has vouchsafed to “feed us who have duly received these holy mysteries, with the spiritual food of the most precious body and blood of his SON, our SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST.”

MYSTERIES. (See _Moralities_.)

MYSTIC. Sacredly obscure.

MYSTIC RECITATION. Several parts of the Greek liturgy are ordered to be said μυστικῶς, that is, in a low voice, or whisper, like the _secreto_ of the Roman offices.—_Jebb._

MYSTICAL. Having a hidden, allegorical, or secret meaning. In the baptismal offices we read, “Sanctify this water to the mystical washing away of sin:” from which it would be absurd to infer that the mere physical application of water can remove sin; and yet, on the other hand, the fact that the remission of sin is associated with baptism, rests on Scriptural authority. There is, therefore, a secret operation of GOD’S grace in cleansing the soul linked to the sacramental application of water to the body; and the concurrence or co-existence of these the Church regards as a “mystical washing away of sin.”

Again: in the Communion Office, the faithful recipients are said to be “very [true] members incorporate of the mystical body of CHRIST.” Now, _how_ the Church can constitute “the body of CHRIST,” will appear to any one an inscrutable _mystery_, if he will but divest himself of the familiarity of the terms. As to the fact, it is indisputable; but the manner is beyond our full comprehension, partaking in some measure of the nature of allegory, and being strictly _mystical_. It is worth while to add, that the Church does not recognise the notion of an invisible Church, as constituting this “mystical body,” composed of those only who shall be finally saved; for she goes on to pray for the assistance of GOD’S grace, “that we _may continue_ in that holy fellowship,” &c., a petition somewhat irrelevant if such an hypothesis be adopted.

MYSTICS. A party which arose towards the close of the third century, distinguished by their professing pure, sublime, and perfect devotion. They excuse their fanatical ecstasies by alleging the passage of St. Paul, “The SPIRIT prays in us with sighs and groans which cannot be uttered.” They contend that, if the SPIRIT prays within us, we must resign ourselves to its motions, and be guided and swayed through its impulse by remaining in a state of mere inaction. The principles proceeded from the known doctrine of the Platonic school, which was also adopted by Origen and his disciples, that the Divine nature was diffused through all human souls; or that the faculty of reason, from which proceed the health and vigour of the mind, was an emanation from GOD into the human soul, and comprehended in it the principles and elements of all truth, human and divine. They denied that men could, by labour or study, excite this celestial flame in their breasts; and therefore they disapproved highly of the attempts of those who, by definitions, abstract theorems, and profound speculations, endeavoured to form distinct notions of truth, and to discover its hidden nature. On the contrary, they maintained that silence, tranquillity, repose, and solitude, accompanied with such acts as might tend to extenuate and exhaust the body, were the means by which the hidden and internal word was excited to produce its latent virtues, and to instruct them in the knowledge of Divine things. For thus they reasoned: Those who behold with a noble contempt all human affairs; who turn away their eyes from terrestrial vanities, and shut all the avenues of the outward senses against the contagious influences of a material world, must necessarily return to GOD when the spirit is thus disengaged from the impediments that prevented that happy union; and in this blessed frame they not only enjoy inexpressible raptures from their communion with the Supreme Being, but are also invested with the inestimable privilege of contemplating truth undisguised and uncorrupted in its native purity, while others behold it in a vitiated and delusive form.

The number of the Mystics increased in the fourth century, under the influence of the Grecian fanatic, who gave himself out for Dionysius the Areopagite, disciple of St. Paul, and probably lived about this period; and by pretending to higher degrees of perfection than other Christians, and practising greater austerity, their cause gained ground, especially in the Eastern provinces, in the fifth century. A copy of the pretended works of Dionysius was sent by Balbus to Louis the Meek, in the year 824, which kindled the holy flame of mysticism in the Western provinces, and filled the Latins with the most enthusiastic admiration of this new religion. In the twelfth century, these Mystics took the lead in their method of expounding the Scriptures. In the thirteenth century they were the most formidable antagonists of the Schoolmen; and, towards the close of the fourteenth, many of them resided and propagated their tenets in almost every part of Europe.

Among the Mystics of that time we may notice the Dominican John Tauler, of Strasburg, A. D. 1361; Henry Suso of Ulm, A. D. 1365; and especially John Ruysbroock, called Doctor Ecstaticus, A. D. 1381, who of all the Mystics was the most dreamy and enthusiastic. Among Protestants there have been and are many Mystics, but they have not formed a sect.—_Mosheim._ _Gieseler._

NAG’S HEAD FABLE. (See _Consecration of Bishops_.)

NAHUM, THE PROPHECY OF. A canonical book of the Old Testament. Nahum is the seventh of the twelve lesser prophets; a native of Elkoshai, a little village of Galilee, the ruins of which were still to be seen in the time of St. Jerome. The particular circumstances of this prophet’s life are altogether unknown.

Authors are divided as to the time when Nahum prophesied, some fixing it to the reign of Ahaz, others to that of Manasseh, and others to the times of the captivity. St. Jerome places it in the reign of Hezekiah, after the war of Sennacherib in Egypt, which the prophet speaks of as a thing passed.

The subject of Nahum’s prophecy is the destruction of Nineveh, which he describes in the most lively and pathetic manner; and this prophecy was verified in the siege of that city by Astyages in the year of the world 3378, before Christ 622.

NAME. (See _Christian Name_.) The Christian name is given us in baptism. All things being prepared for the baptism of the child, the minister is now to “take it into his hands,” and to ask the godfathers and godmothers to “name” it. For the “Christian name” being given as a badge that we belong to CHRIST, we cannot more properly take it upon us, than when we are enlisted under his banner. We bring one name into the world with us, which we derive from our parents, and which serves to remind us of our original guilt, and that we are born in sin: but this new name is given us at our baptism, to remind us of our new birth, when, being washed in the laver of regeneration, we are thereby cleansed from our natural impurities, and become in a manner new creatures, and solemnly dedicate ourselves to GOD. So that the naming of children at this time hath been thought by many to import something more than ordinary, and to carry with it a mysterious signification. We find something like it even among the heathens; for the Romans had a custom of naming their children on the day of their lustration, (that is, when they were cleansed and washed from their natural pollution,) which was therefore called “Dies Nominalis.” And the Greeks also, when they carried their infants, a little after their birth, about the fire, (which was their ceremony of dedicating or consecrating them to their gods,) were used at the same time to give them their names.

And that the Jews named their children at the time of circumcision, the Holy Scriptures, (Gen. xxi. 3, 4; Luke i. 59, 60; ii. 21,) as well as their own writers, expressly tell us. And though the rite itself of circumcision was changed into that of baptism by our SAVIOUR, yet he made no alteration as to the time and custom of giving the name, but left that to continue under the new, as he had found it under the old dispensation. Accordingly we find this time assigned and used to this purpose ever since; the Christians continuing from the earliest ages to name their children at the time of baptism.—_Wheatly._

NANTES, EDICT OF. An edict of toleration, promulgated by Henry IV. of France in 1598, which restored the Protestants to all the favours which had been granted them in former reigns, and gave them the liberty of serving GOD according to their conscience, and a full participation in all civil rights and privileges. This edict was, at the instigation of the Jesuits, revoked by Louis XIV. in the year 1685.

NARTHEX. (_Gr._ and _Lat._) This name is given by ancient writers to a part of the fabric of the Christian church. There was the exterior or outward, and the interior or inward, _Narthex_.

The exterior narthex, which we may call the ante-temple, consisted of the whole circumference of the outward courts, including the vestibulum or porch, and the atrium or area before the church.

The interior narthex, or ante-temple within the church, (the only part properly so called,) was the first section or division of the fabric, after entering into the church, and was peculiarly allotted to the monks and women, and used for the offices of rogations, supplications, and night watches. Here likewise they placed the dead corpses, whilst the funeral rites were performing. This lower part of the church was the place of the _Energumens_ and the _Audientes_; and hither Jews, heathens, heretics, and schismatics were sometimes allowed to come, in hopes of their conversion by hearing the Scriptures read and sermons preached.

Dr. Beveridge and others seem to place here the font or baptistery, as in our modern churches. But it is certain that, for many ages, the baptistery was a distinct place from the body of the church, and reckoned among the _Exedræ_, or buildings adjoining to the church.

This part of the church was called _Narthex_, because being long, but narrow, and running across the front of the church, it was supposed to resemble a _ferula_, that is, a rod or staff; for any oblong figure was by the Greeks called νάρθηξ, _Narthex_.

NATIONAL COVENANT. (See _Confessions of Faith_.)

NAVE. The central passage of the church, extending from the west end to the transept or choir. The derivation of this word has been a matter of dispute. Some very plausibly derive it from νάος, others from _navis_, a ship, since the nave resembles the hull of a ship turned upside down; and refer both this term and νάος also to the ancient Phœnicians, whose original temples were said to be their vessels thus reversed. At all events it is remarkable that both the old French _nef_, the Italian and Spanish _nave_, and the Latin _navis_, all signify a ship as well as the nave of a church. (See _Churches_ and _Cathedral_.)

NAVICULA; _ship_, or _ark_. A vessel formed “like the keel of a boat,” out of which the frankincense was poured in Bishop Andrewes’ chapel, and Queen Elizabeth’s chapel. _Canterbury’s Doom_, 1646. See _Hiereugia Anglicana_, pp. 4, 5, and 9.

NAZARENES. Christian heretics, so called. This name was originally given to all Christians in general, because JESUS CHRIST was of the city of Nazareth. But afterwards it was restrained to a sect of heretics, who affected to assume it rather than that of Christians. Their religion was a strange jumble of Judaism and Christianity: for they were Jews by birth, were circumcised, kept the sabbath, and other observances of the Mosaical law; and at the same time received the New Testament as well as the Old, acknowledged JESUS CHRIST to be the MESSIAH, and practised the Christian baptism. Theodoret indeed pretends they honoured JESUS CHRIST only as a just and good man; and he places the beginning of their heresy about the time of Domitian. St. Augustine makes them the successors of those whose obstinacy in the like opinions was condemned by the apostolical Council of Jerusalem.

The Nazarenes (as well as the Ebionites) were descended from those Christians, who left Jerusalem a little before the siege, and retired to the country about Jordan, called Perea; whence they are sometimes called Peratics. There were some of them remaining in the time of St. Augustine. They dwelt about Pella in Decapolis, near the river Jordan, and at Berea, a city of Lower Syria. They perfectly understood the Hebrew tongue, in which they read the books of the Old Testament.

These heretics, keeping the mean between the Jews and the Christians, pretended to be friends alike to both: nevertheless, the Christians treated them as abominable heretics, and the Jews detested them more than the other Christians, because they acknowledged JESUS CHRIST to be the MESSIAH. Epiphanius says, they cursed and anathematized them three times a day in their synagogues.—_Broughton._

NEHEMIAH, THE BOOK OF. A canonical book of the Old Testament. Nehemiah was born at Babylon during the captivity, and succeeded Ezra in the government of Judah and Jerusalem; whither he came with a commission from Artaxerxes Longimanus, authorizing him to repair and fortify the city in the same manner as it was before its destruction by the Babylonians.

Nehemiah was a Jew, and was promoted to the office of cup-bearer to the Persian king; and the opportunities he had of being daily in the king’s presence, together with the favour of Esther the queen, procured him the privileges he obtained for building the city, and the settlement of his country. When he came to Jerusalem, he finished the rebuilding of the walls in fifty-two days, and dedicated the gates of the city with great solemnity. Then he reformed some abuses, which had crept in among his countrymen, particularly the extortion of the usurers, by which the poor were so oppressed, as to be forced to sell their lands and children to support themselves and their families. Then he returned to Persia, and came back again with a new commission, by virtue of which he regulated everything relating both to the state and religion of the Jews. The history of these transactions is the subject matter of this Book of Nehemiah.

Nehemiah died at Jerusalem, having governed the people of Judah for about thirty years.

NEOLOGIANS. German Rationalists are so designated; from νέος, _new_, and λόγος, _doctrine_. They are distinguished from mere deists and pantheists, by admitting the principal facts of the Bible, though they attempt to explain away what is miraculous, while they treat the Scriptures with no more of reverence than they would show to any other ancient book, and regard our LORD himself as they would regard any good and wise philosopher.

NESTORIANS. (See _Mother of God_.) The followers of Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, who lived in the fifth century. They believed that in CHRIST there were not only two natures, but two persons; of which the one was _Divine_, even the ETERNAL WORD, and the other, which was _human_, was the man JESUS; that these two persons had only one _aspect_; that the union between the SON of GOD and the SON of man was formed in the moment of the Virgin’s conception, and was never to be dissolved; that it was not, however, an union of nature or of person, but only of will and affection; that CHRIST was therefore to be carefully distinguished from GOD, who dwelt in him as in his temple; and that Mary was to be called the mother of CHRIST, and not the mother of GOD.

This heresy was condemned by the fourth general council, that of Ephesus, A. D. 431; in which all are anathematized who refuse to call the Virgin Mary the mother of GOD. For a full account of this people, see Mr. Badger’s _Nestorians and their Rituals_.

NEWEL. The central column round which the steps of a winding stair are disposed. They are sometimes designed with considerable taste, and carefully executed.

NICENE CREED; sometimes called the _Constantinopolitan Creed_. This creed was chiefly composed by the orthodox fathers of the first general Council of Nice, A. D. 325, to define the Christian faith, in opposition to the heresy of Arius. As sanctioned by this assembly it ended with “I believe in the HOLY GHOST.” The remainder was added by the second general council, held at Constantinople, A. D. 381, in which the heresy of Macedonius, with regard to the Divinity of the HOLY SPIRIT, was condemned. In the fifth century, the Western churches added to this creed the words _filioque_, in conformity with the doctrine, that the HOLY SPIRIT proceeds from the SON, as well as from the FATHER.

The Church for three hundred years had been content to profess in her creed, that CHRIST was the LORD; comprehending, under this title, the highest appellations given to him in Scripture, without stating minutely, or scrutinizing too narrowly, a doctrine proposed rather to us as an object of faith than of understanding. Happy had it been for the Christian world, if this moderation of the Church had been suffered to continue; but Arius, a discontented priest of Alexandria in Egypt, either having conceived a different opinion, or wishing to bring himself into notice by the assertion of a novelty, took upon him to maintain that CHRIST was not a Divine person, in the highest sense, but a creature, superior indeed to human nature, but not a partaker of the supreme GODHEAD.

The publishing of this opinion raised a violent ferment and schism in the Church. Constantine the Roman emperor summoned a council at Nice, in Bithynia, to settle this dispute; and there, in the year 325, Arius’s doctrine was condemned in an assembly of 300 bishops, and that creed framed, which from the name of the city was called the Nicene Creed. And here it is necessary to observe, that the meaning of the three creeds of our Church, and all creeds that can be composed on gospel principles, is nothing more than a declaration of the sense in which we accept the profession made in our baptism. By baptism we are admitted into the Church of CHRIST; by the command of CHRIST we are baptized “in the name of the FATHER, and of the SON, and of the HOLY GHOST.” This is the condition, by which alone we can partake of the Christian covenant; this is the mark by which alone we are distinguished from the professors of every other religion upon earth.

When we repeat a creed, therefore, we do no more than declare our repeated assent to the conditions of the baptismal covenant; and it would be sufficient to do this in the very words that CHRIST enjoins, “I believe in the FATHER, the SON, and the HOLY GHOST,” if explanations had not been demanded, to show what we mean by this declaration. Creeds then do not, properly speaking, contain articles of faith, but an explanation of the sense in which we understand the primary position of our religion. And this view of the matter will show us the reason, why no creed is prescribed in Scripture; why all creeds ever have been, and ever must be, the composition of men.—_Dean Vincent._

The three creeds, which are the three barriers of the faith of our Church, extracted from the Holy Scripture in the purer ages of Christianity, though variously expressed, are yet the same in substance; agreeable to each other; and all agreeable to the word of GOD, and approved all along by the Catholic Church. In these forms she calls upon her members to declare their belief to be consonant to that of the Church universal. The Apostles’ Creed, as the plainest and shortest form, is appointed for common and daily use. The Athanasian, for festivals which relate more immediately to our SAVIOUR; or which are placed at such convenient distances from each other, as that none may be wholly ignorant of the mysteries therein contained. And the Nicene Creed is to be repeated whenever the eucharist is administered according to the institution of our LORD, whose eternal generation, GODHEAD, incarnation, sufferings, and exaltation, are therein summarily contained and acknowledged.—_Archdeacon Yardley._

It is called “the Nicene Creed,” because it was for the most part framed at the great Council of Nice. But because the great Council of Constantinople added the latter part, and brought it to the frame which we now use, therefore it is called also “the Constantinopolitan Creed.” This creed began to be used in churches at the Communion Service immediately after the Gospel, in the year of our LORD 339. [The introduction of it in this place is, however, more commonly referred to Peter the Fuller, bishop of Antioch, about A. D. 471.] Afterwards it was established in the churches of Spain and France, after the custom of the Eastern Church, by the Council of Toledo, and continued down to our times. The reason why this creed follows immediately after the Epistle and Gospel, is the same that was given for the Apostles’ Creed following next after the lessons at morning and evening prayer. To which the canon of Toledo hath added another reason for saying it here, before the people draw near to the holy communion; namely, that the breasts of those who approach to those dreadful mysteries, may be purified by a true and right faith.—_Bp. Sparrow._

The creed is a summary of the doctrine of the gospel, and here is placed next to it, because it is grounded upon it. In the gospel we “believe with our heart unto righteousness;” in the creed we “confess with our mouth unto salvation” (Rom. x. 10); for all the people ought to repeat the creed after the minister. It doth more largely condemn all heresies than the Apostles’ Creed: wherefore it is fitly enjoined to be recited by all before the sacrament, to show that all the communicants are free from heresy, and in the strictest league of union with the Catholic Church; as also to prepare themselves for worthy receiving, by exercising that faith, of which they have so much use at the LORD’S table, as the Council of Toledo ordained in the year 600 [589]. So that every one must openly profess and firmly embrace all these articles, before he can be fit to receive; yea, and while he repeats them with his lips, he must resolve to show forth in his life, that he doth sincerely believe them, by strictly living according to them.—_Dean Comber._

As in the Morning Prayer, so in the Communion Service, for the same reason, after reading the Scripture, we recite the creed: only then we have that of the ancient Latin Church; here that of the ancient Greek.—_Abp. Secker._

Besides the general reasons for repeating the creed, the rehearsal of our faith before the receiving of the holy communion is founded on these two special grounds:—1. It is meet that all should first profess the same faith, who partake of the same mysteries; for surely, if “no stranger, nor uncircumcised person,” could eat of the passover, that typical sacrament, (Exod. xii. 43, 48,) much more no stranger to the Christian faith, nor unbeliever, should partake of the real sacrament of the LORD’S supper. 2. As the acknowledgment of the articles of our Christian faith is part of the vow made at our baptism, so ought the same acknowledgment to be repeated at the LORD’S supper, wherein we renew that vow.—_Dr. Bisse._

Add to this, that every solemn confession of our faith must be looked upon as giving glory and honour to GOD, in recognising his essence and attributes, and the blessings which flow from those sources on mankind: and hence it, in a peculiar manner, befits this holy service of thanks and praise. In this we imitate the most ancient liturgies of the Church; which, when this holy sacrament was celebrated, had an eucharistical form, wherein GOD’S power and goodness were acknowledged in the creation, preservation, and redemption of the world. Thus we, though in a shorter form of undoubted authority, confess to the holy and undivided TRINITY, and distinctly own the Divinity of each person. We commemorate the creation of the world by “GOD the FATHER Almighty.” We acknowledge JESUS CHRIST to be our “LORD;” to have been “begotten” from all eternity, to be “of one substance with the FATHER,” and with him Creator of all things: that “for our salvation he came down from heaven, was made man, suffered, and died” for us. We commemorate his resurrection, ascension, and sitting at GOD’S right hand: express our expectation of his second coming; and declare that “his kingdom shall have no end.” We confess to GOD, that he hath inspired the prophets; that he hath built a Church on the foundation of the apostles; that he hath appointed baptism for the remission of sins; and given us leave to “look for the resurrection of the dead” and an happy eternity.

What more glorious hymn than this can we sing to the honour of GOD? Is it possible to mention anything else that can so much redound to his glory? May not this our service be well styled the eucharist, when we thus give praise and glory to Almighty GOD for the wonderful manifestation of his attributes, and the inestimable blessings he hath bestowed upon us? Let not any one therefore think, that repeating the creed is barely a declaration of his faith to the rest of the congregation: for, besides that, it is a most solemn act of worship, in which we honour and magnify GOD, both for what he is in himself, and for what he hath done for us. And let us all, sensible of this, repeat it with reverential voice and gesture; and lift up our hearts with faith, thankfulness, and humble devotion, whenever we say, “I believe,” &c.—_Archdeacon Yardley._

The Nicene Creed is properly sung in all choirs. Bishop Beveridge says, “We stand at the creeds; for they being confessions of our faith in GOD, as such they come under the proper notion of hymns or songs of praise to him.” The rubric sanctions, that is, enjoins in choirs, the custom: and such has been the usage of most choirs since the Reformation; an usage kept up throughout the Western Church, according to Mr. Palmer, since the year 1012. It is not adapted to chanting, like the Psalms. In our Prayer Book it is divided, like the Apostles’ Creed and the Gloria in excelsis, into three paragraphs, of which the central one has special reference to GOD the SON.—_Jebb._

NICOLAITANS. Heretics who arose in the Christian Church during the time of the apostles, (as appears from Rev. ii. 6, 15,) and are taken to be the fathers of the Gnostics. Some of the ancient fathers affirm that Nicolas, one of the seven first deacons, was the founder of this sect; that being blamed by the apostles for keeping company with his wife, whom he had left before to live in continence, he invented this brutal error to excuse his proceeding, and thought that impurity was a necessary means to attain to eternal happiness: others say that the holy apostles, reproaching him for being jealous of his wife, who was very handsome, he sent for her, and in a great assembly gave her leave to marry whom she pleased: upon which some libertines framed a heresy of their own, and unjustly called it by his name. They denied the Divinity of CHRIST by an hypostatical union, saying, the Divine inhabited, but was not united to, the human nature; they held that all pleasures were good, and that it was lawful to eat meats offered to idols. Becoming too much known by this name, they assumed that of the Gnostics, and divided themselves into other sects, called Phibionites, Stratiotics, Levitics, and Barborites.

NIPTER. (_Gr._ In Latin, _pediluvium_.) The ceremony of _washing feet_. This is performed by the Greek Christians on Good Friday, in imitation of our SAVIOUR, who on that day washed his disciples’ feet with his own hands.

In the monasteries, the abbot represents our SAVIOUR, and twelve of the monks the twelve apostles. Among these the steward and porter have always a place; the former acts the part of St. Peter, and imitates his refusal to let JESUS wash his feet; the latter personates the traitor Judas, and is loaded with scoffs and derision. The office used on this occasion is extant in the _Euchologium_.

NOCTURNS. Services anciently held during the night. In the Breviary, the Psalter is divided into portions, the first of which consists of fourteen Psalms, the second of three, and the third of three. These all form a part of the Sunday office of matins, each of which portions is called a nocturn. These were designed to be read at these nightly assemblies, with other services appointed in order for the various nights.

NOETIANS. Christian heretics in the third century, followers of Noëtus, a philosopher of Ephesus, who pretended that he was another Moses sent by GOD, and that his brother was a new Aaron. His heresy consisted in affirming that there was but one person in the GODHEAD, and that the WORD and the HOLY SPIRIT were but external denominations given to GOD in consequence of different operations: that as creator he is called FATHER; as incarnate, SON; and as descending upon the apostles, the HOLY GHOST.

This heresiarch, being summoned to appear before the assembly of the Church of Ephesus, to give an account of his doctrine, made a very catholic profession of faith; but he had no sooner gained a dozen followers, than he began publicly to teach and spread his opinions. He was excommunicated by the Church of Ephesus, and after his death denied ecclesiastical burial.

Being reprehended by his superiors, he is said to have replied, “What harm have I done? I adore one only GOD; I own none but him. He was born, suffered, and is dead.”

NOMINALISTS. At the restoration of the study of logic in the eleventh century, many disputes took place, trivial in their origin, but important on account of the colour which they gave to religious controversy, concerning the objects of logic. Agreeing that the essential object of logic was the discussion of _universals_, as distinguished from _particular_ or _individual_ things, two parties were formed on the question whether universals are _words_ and _names_ only, or _things_ and _real essences_. Those who declared them to be only names and words, and who of course, therefore, determined that logic was only conversant with words, were called _Nominalists_, and basing their philosophy on that of Aristotle, were principally supported by the talent and authority of Roscellinus. Those who held that _universals_ were _real existences_, and so that logic was conversant with _things_ and _realities_, were called _Realists_. They supported their hypothesis on the authority of Plato. Johannes Scotus Erigena, in the ninth century, had taught this doctrine, but without leaving behind him any school of avowed followers. The controversy with the _Nominalists_ was commenced in the eleventh century, and in the thirteenth the greater part of the schoolmen were _Realists_.

NOMINATION. This is the offering of a clerk to him who has the right of presentation, that he may present him to the ordinary. (For form of Nomination, see _Curacy_.)

The nominator must appoint his clerk within six months after the avoidance, for, if he does not, and the patron presents his clerk before the bishop hath taken any benefit of the lapse, he is bound to admit that clerk.

But where one has the nomination, and another the presentation, if the right of presentation should afterwards come to the queen, it has been held, that he that has the nomination will be entitled to both, because the queen, who is to present, is only an instrument to him who nominates, and it is not becoming the dignity of a queen to be subservient to another; but the nominator should name one to the lord chancellor, who, in the name of the queen, should present to the ordinary.

And as the presentation, so the right of nomination, may be forfeited to the queen. It is true, if the patron, upon a corrupt agreement unknown to the nominator, presents his clerk, this shall not be prejudicial to the nominator within the statute of simony; but if the nominator corruptly agrees to nominate, his right of nomination shall be forfeited to the queen.

NONES. A term employed in the Roman calendar, inserted in all correct editions of the Prayer Book. The nones were the fifth day of each month, excepting in March, May, July, and October, when the nones fell on the 7th day. They were so called from their being the ninth day in each month before the ides.—_Stephens’s Book of Common Prayer_, notes on the Calendar, p. 270.

NONJURORS. Those conscientious men who refused to renounce their oath of allegiance to King James II., and to transfer it to the Prince of Orange. What was at first a necessary separation from the Church of England, degenerated, after a time, into a wilful schism. The history of the Nonjurors is written by Lathbury (_London_, 1845).

NORMAN. The highest development of Romanesque architecture in England, which succeeded the Saxon at the Conquest, and admitted the pointed arch which marks the Transition, about 1145. It must be observed, however, that many buildings, generally called Norman, and which agree with the Norman style in all essential particulars, except in the accident of their being built before 1066, must, architecturally, be classed with this style. The Norman is so absolutely distinguished from all Gothic orders by the round arch, that it is needless to enter into its differentials. Several of its peculiarities will be found under the heads _Buttress_, _Capital_, _Cathedral_, _Mouldings_, _Pier_, _Pillar_.

NORTH SIDE. In the rubric immediately preceding the office for the Holy Communion, the priest is directed to stand at the _north side_ of the table. As this work is not a Dictionary of the English language, it might seem beside our purpose to offer any explanation of those words, which are sufficiently clear, though they have been perplexed by the unreasonable scruples of some of our generation. Johnson gives the following as one of the definitions of _side_, “any part of any body opposed to any other part:” another is, “right or left.” The north side then is that which is opposed to the south; viz. the left side to those who look to the east, where the holy table is placed. By a side is meant that which is _lateral_, as contradistinguished from that which is _opposite_ or _vertical_. A side is the short end of the table, and so the Scotch liturgy understood the word, “the _north side_, or _end thereof_.” The table usually in English churches stands at the end of the chancel: the exceptions are so few as clearly to prove a rule; and it must be obvious to common sense, that when placed differently, the priest’s position there should be the same relatively to the church as if the table stood at the east; that is, at the _left side_ of those who look towards the chancel from the body of the church. Universal custom has been in conformity with the plain meaning of the rule; and the priest always has stood at that which formed the north or left side of the _square table_. Had the intention of the compilers of the liturgy been different, the rubric would have been worded in some such way as this, “the priest standing at the _north-west corner_, or _angle_,” or “_left angle_.” An angle, or corner, is not a side; and could never be so interpreted, unless the table were placed diagonally. The following authorities are explicit.

“The design is, that the priest may be the better seen and heard, which, as our altars are now placed, he cannot be, but at the north or south side. And as Bishop Beveridge has shown, that whenever in the ancient liturgies the minister is directed to stand before the table, the north side of it is always meant.”—_Wheatly._

“This seems to have been ordered, for the purpose of avoiding the fashion of the priest’s standing with his face towards the east, as is the Popish practice.”—_L’ Estrange._

As to the words in the rubric preceding the Collect for the Queen, _the priest standing as before_, Mr. Collis observes, that these mean “not standing as he rehearsed the Commandments; for if that were designed nothing would have been said here. But _standing as before_, namely, as he stood at the north side of the table, before he was ordered to turn to the people. When the Commandments are read by him, he directs himself to the people; when he comes to the collect, he directs himself to the Almighty by prayer.”

NOTES OF THE CHURCH. The necessity of devising some general notes of the Church, and of not entering at once on controversial debates concerning all points of doctrine and discipline, was early perceived by Christian theologians. Tertullian appeals, in refutation of the heresies of his age, to the antiquity of the Church derived from the apostles, and its priority to all heretical communities; Irenæus, to the unity of the Church’s doctrines, and the succession of her bishops from the apostles; St. Augustine, to the consent of nations; St. Jerome, to the continued duration of the Church from the apostles, and the very appellation of the Christian name. In modern times, Bellarmine the Romanist added several other notes, such as,—agreement with the primitive Church in doctrine; union of members among themselves and with their head; sanctity of doctrine and of founders; continuance of miracles and prophecy; confession of adversaries; the unhappy end of those who are opposed to the Church, and the temporal felicity conferred on it. Luther assigned as notes of the true Church, the true and uncorrupted preaching of the gospel; administration of baptism, of the eucharist, and of the keys; a legitimate ministry, public service in a known tongue, and tribulations internally and externally. Calvin reckons only truth of doctrine and right administration of the sacraments, and seems to reject succession. The learned theologians of the Church of England adopt a different view in some respects. Dr. Field admits the following notes of the Church: truth of doctrine; use of sacraments and means instituted by _Christ_; union under lawful ministers; antiquity without change of doctrine; lawful succession, i. e. with true doctrine; and universality in the _successive_ sense, i. e. the prevalence of the Church successively in all nations. Bishop Taylor admits, as notes of the Church, antiquity, duration, succession of bishops, union of members among themselves and with CHRIST, sanctity of doctrine.

Palmer, from whom this account is abridged, takes, as notes of the Church, what the Nicene, or Constantinopolitan, Creed gives, as the Church’s attributes, “ONE, HOLY, Catholic and Apostolic.”

NOVATIANS. A Christian sect, which sprang up in the third century; occasioned by the jealousy which Novatian, a priest of Rome, conceived upon seeing Cornelius raised to the episcopate of the Roman Church, to which he himself aspired. Enraged at the disappointment, he endeavoured to blacken the character of Cornelius, by charging him with a criminal lenity towards those who had apostatized during the persecution of Decius. He maintained, that such persons ought indeed to be exhorted to repentance, but never to be absolved by the Church, reserving their absolution to GOD alone, who had the power and authority to remit sins. Hence he was led to deny, in general, that the Church had the power of remitting mortal sins, upon the offender’s repentance. And at last he went so far as to deny that apostates could ever hope for pardon even from _God_ himself: a doctrine which so terrified some of those who had lapsed and repented, that, in despair, they quite abjured Christianity, and returned to Paganism.

The followers of Novatian added to this original heresy of their master another, which was the unlawfulness of second marriages; against which they were as severe as against apostates; denying communion for ever to such persons as married a second time after baptism, and treating widows who married again as adulteresses.

As these heretics pretended that the Church was corrupted by the communion it granted to sinners, it is no wonder they rebaptized those they gained over to their sect. In baptizing, they used the received forms of the Church, and had the same belief concerning the FATHER, SON, and HOLY GHOST, in whose name they baptized. St. Cyprian rejected their baptism, as he did that of all heretics; but it was admitted by the eighth canon of the Council of Nice.

The Novatians put on the external appearance of great piety and purity; and though they did not refuse the title of Novatians, they assumed the proud appellation of _Catharii_, that is, the Pure, or Puritans; and like the Pharisees among the Jews, they would not suffer other men to come near them, lest their purity should be defiled thereby.

The schism which Novatian had formed in the Roman Church was not confined to Rome, nor to Italy, nor even to the West. It made its way into the East, and subsisted a long time at Alexandria, in several provinces of Asia, at Constantinople, in Scythia, and in Africa. The Novatians abounded particularly in Phrygia and Paphlagonia. Constantine seems to have favoured them a little by a law of the year 326; which preserves to them their churches and burying-places, provided they never belonged to the Catholic Church. But in a famous edict about the year 331, he sets them at the head of the most detestable of all heretics, forbidding them to hold public or private assemblies, confiscating their oratories or churches, and condemning their leaders to banishment. It is pretended this edict had not the designed effect as to the Novatians, by means of Acesius their bishop, who resided at Constantinople, and was in great esteem with the emperor, on account of his virtuous and irreproachable life. The Novatian sect was entirely extinct, or at least reduced to a very inconsiderable party, about the middle of the fifth century.

NOVEMBER, FIFTH OF. (See _Forms of Prayer_.)

NOVICES, in countries where monachism prevails, are those persons who are candidates, or probationers, for a religious life. The time of their probation is called the Noviciate; after which, if their behaviour is approved, they are professed, that is, admitted into the order, and allowed to make the vows, wear the habit, &c.

The novices among the Jesuits are disciplined in a very peculiar manner. To make them the better understand the nature and extent of the obedience they owe to their superiors, they have certain emblematical pictures in their chambers or studies. For example: in the middle of the canvass is a boy stooping down with a piece of timber on his shoulders, with this motto, _fortiter_, upon it. He has a harp in his hand, to intimate the cheerfulness of his submission. On the right hand is a little dog in a rising posture, to show that the novice is to obey with despatch and expedition. His breast is open, to show that his superiors have his heart as well as his limbs at their service. His mouth is represented shut, to show that there must be no grumbling or contesting the point with his superiors; and his ears are stopped, to intimate that he must submit to orders however unacceptable to that sense.

If a novice breaks through any part of this submission, he has a penance enjoined him according to the nature of his misbehaviour. For instance, if he discovers a haughty disposition, he is ordered to go into the infirmary and perform the coarsest offices to the sick and decrepit. If he refuses to do as he is bid, or murmurs at it, he is brought into the refectory at dinner or supper time, and obliged to confess his fault upon his knees before all the company.

NUMBERS, THE BOOK OF. A canonical book of the Old Testament. It is the fourth book of the Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses, and receives its denomination from the numbering of the families of Israel, by Moses and Aaron; who mustered the tribes, and marshalled the army of the Hebrews, in their passage through the wilderness.

A great part of this Book is historical, relating several remarkable events which happened in that journey; as, the sedition of Aaron and Miriam; the rebellion of Korah and his companions; the murmurings of the whole body of the people; Balaam’s prophecy; the miraculous budding of Aaron’s rod, &c. It gives likewise a distinct account of the several stages of journeyings through the wilderness. But the greatest part of this Book is spent in enumerating the several laws and ordinances, not mentioned in the preceding books; such as, the office and number of the Levites; the trial by the waters of jealousy; the rites to be observed by the Nazarites; the making of fringes on the borders of their garments; the law of inheritance; of vows; of the cities of refuge, &c.

The Book of Numbers comprehends the history of about thirty-eight years, though the most part of the things related in it fell out in the first and last of these years, and it does not appear when those things were done which are related in the middle of the Book.

NUMERALS. The designation of twelve priests, in the cathedral of Nola (inferior to the canons).—_Jebb._

NUNS. Those women who devote themselves, in a cloister or nunnery, to a religious life. (See _Monks_.)

There were women, in the ancient Christian Church, who made public and open profession of virginity, before the monastic life, or name, was known in the world; as appears from the writings of Cyprian and Tertullian. These, for distinction’s sake, are sometimes called ecclesiastical virgins, and were commonly enrolled in the canon or _matricula_ of the Church. They differed from the monastic virgins chiefly in this—that they lived privately in their fathers’ houses, whereas the others lived in communities. But their profession of virginity was not so strict as to make it criminal in them to marry afterwards, if they thought fit.

In the following ages, the censures of the Church began to be inflicted upon professed virgins who should marry; and these censures seem to have grown more severe, in proportion to the esteem and value Christians set upon celibacy and the monastic life. Yet there never was any decree for rescinding or making null such marriages.

Some canons allowed virgins to be consecrated at twenty-five years of age, and others at sixteen or seventeen; but time quickly showed, that neither of these terms were so conveniently fixed as they might be. Other canons, therefore, required virgins to be forty years old, before they were veiled, as may be seen in the Councils of Agde and Saragossa. And the imperial laws decreed, that, if any virgin was veiled before that age, either by the violence or hatred of her parents, (which was a case that often happened,) she was at liberty to marry. Hence appears a wide difference between the practice of the ancient Christian Church in this matter, and that of the modern Church of Rome.

As to the consecration of virgins, it had some things peculiar in it. It was usually performed publicly in the church by the bishop. The virgin made a public profession of her resolution, and then the bishop put upon her the accustomed habit of sacred virgins. One part of this habit was a veil, called the _sacrum velamen_; another was a kind of mitre, or coronet, worn on the head. In some places the custom of shaving professed virgins prevailed; as it did in the monasteries of Syria and Egypt, in St. Jerome’s time: but the Council of Gangra strongly condemned this practice, accounting that a woman’s hair was given her by GOD as a mark of subjection. Theodosius the Great added a civil sanction to this ecclesiastical decree: whence it appears that the tonsure of virgins was anciently no allowed custom of the Church, however it came to prevail in the contrary practice of later ages.

As the society of virgins was of great esteem in the Church, so they had some particular honours paid to them. Their persons were sacred, and severe laws were made against any that should presume to offer the least violence to them. The emperor Constantine charged his own revenues with the maintenance of them; and his mother Helena often entertained them and waited upon them at her own table. The Church gave them also a share of her own revenues, and assigned them an honourable station in the churches, whither the most noble and religious matrons used to resort with earnestness to receive their salutations and embraces.

The ancient names of these virgins were _Nonnæ_, _Moniales_, _Sanctimoniales_, and _Ascetriæ_. The term _Nonnæ_ (from whence our English word nuns) is, according to Hospinian, an Egyptian name signifying a virgin.

In the Romish Church, when a young woman is to be professed, that is, to be made a nun, the habit, veil, and ring of the candidate are carried to the altar, and she herself, accompanied by her nearest relations, is conducted to the bishop. Two ancient venerable matrons attend upon her as bridewomen. When the bishop has said mass, the archpriest chants an anthem, the subject of which is, that she ought to have her lamp lighted, because the bridegroom is coming to meet her. Then the bishop calls her in a kind of recitative, to which she answers in the same manner. Being come before the prelate, and on her knees, she attends to the exhortation he makes to her with regard to a religious life, and in the mean time the choir chants the Litanies. Then the bishop, having the crosier in his left hand, pronounces the benediction. She then rises up, and the bishop consecrates the new habit, sprinkling it with holy water. When the candidate has put on her religious habit, she again presents herself before the bishop, and sings on her knees, _Ancilla Christi sum_, &c., i. e. “I am the servant of CHRIST.” Then she receives the veil, and afterwards the ring, by which she is married to JESUS CHRIST; and, lastly, the crown of virginity. When she is crowned, an anathema is denounced against all who shall attempt to break her vows. After the communion, the prelate gives her up to the conduct of the abbess, saying to her: “Take care to preserve pure and spotless this young woman, whom GOD has consecrated,” &c.—_Broughton._

NUNC DIMITTIS. The first words in Latin of the Song of Simeon, “LORD, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace,” appointed as one of the hymns to be used after the second lesson at even-song. It was used in this place in the most ancient times. It is found in the Apostolical Constitutions. And even at the present day this hymn is repeated at evening prayer in the patriarchate of Constantinople. The hymn occurs in the Latin office for compline, from which, and from the vesper service, our office of Evening Prayer was compiled.

After the second evening lesson out of the Epistles of the holy apostles, this hymn is most commonly used. The author of it is supposed to be that holy doctor whom the Jews call Simeon the Just, son of the famous Rabbi Hillel, a man of eminent integrity, and one who opposed the then common opinion of the Messiah’s temporal kingdom. The occasion of composing it was his meeting CHRIST in the temple when he came to be offered there, wherein GOD fulfilled his promise to him, that he should not die till he had seen the Messiah: taking JESUS therefore in his arms, inspired with joy and the HOLY GHOST, he sang this “Nunc dimittis:” and though we cannot see our SAVIOUR with our bodily eyes as he did, yet he is, by the writings of the apostles, daily presented to the eyes of our faith; and if we were as much concerned for heaven, and as loose from the love of this world, as old Simeon was, and as we ought to be, we might, upon the view of CHRIST in His holy word by faith, be daily ready to sing this hymn; which was indited by the SPIRIT, recorded in holy writ, and is adopted into the public service of all Christian Churches, Greek and Latin, Reformed and Roman, and used to be sung in extraordinary by divers saints and martyrs a little before their death.—_Dean Comber._

This hymn, called from the Latin beginning of it “Nunc dimittis,” expresses the gratitude of good old Simeon, “a just man and devout,” as we read in St. Luke ii. 25–32, “and waiting for the consolation of Israel; to whom it was revealed that he should not die till he had seen the LORD’S CHRIST.” Accordingly, “he came by the SPIRIT into the temple; and when the parents brought in the child JESUS, he took him up in his arms, (image to yourselves the scene, I beg you,) and blessed GOD, and said, LORD, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace,” that is, in comfort, “according to thy word; for mine eyes have seen thy salvation, which thou hast prepared” to set “before the face of all people.” And the following sentence hath a strong appearance of being designed by the HOLY GHOST to intimate, (whether the speaker of it perceived the design or not,) that, contrary to the expected and natural order of things, CHRIST should first “be a light to lighten the Gentiles;” then, afterwards, “the glory of GOD’S people Israel.” To perceive the fitness of Simeon’s thanksgiving for our use, it needs only to be remembered, and ever should in repeating it, that we also “have seen the LORD’S salvation.” For though we have not yet beheld our SAVIOUR with our bodily eyes, to that of faith he is exhibited continually in the gospel history and sacraments: we may meet him in his Church; we may converse with him in our private meditations. And this we should think happiness enough for us here, whatever else we want or suffer; and be always prepared, and always willing, to “bless GOD,” and “depart in peace.”—_Abp. Secker._

This hymn comes very properly after the second lesson, which is always taken out of the New Testament, wherein is contained and delivered to us that gospel, the enjoyment and participation of which is the ground and foundation of the whole hymn. It should be added, that this hymn is addressed to GOD; and since it may be used as the personal address of every devout Christian, no one should repeat it after a careless manner; but consider to whom it is repeated, and utter the whole after a suitable manner.—_Dr. Bennet._

NUNCIO. An ambassador from the pope to some prince or state; or a person who attends on the pope’s behalf at a congress, or at an assembly of several ambassadors. A nuncio, in fact, is the pope’s ambassador, as the _internuncio_ is his envoy extraordinary. A nuncio has a jurisdiction, and may delegate judges in all the states where he resides, except in France, where he has no authority beyond that of a simple ambassador. Sometimes a nuncio is invested with the functions of a _legatus natus_. (See _Legate_.)

OATHS. “As we confess that vain and rash swearing is forbidden Christian men by our LORD JESUS CHRIST, and James his apostle, so we judge that the Christian religion doth not prohibit, but that a man may swear when the magistrate requireth, in a cause of faith and charity, so it be done according to the prophet’s teaching, in justice, judgment, and truth.”—_Article_ xxxix. The first oath mentioned in the Holy Scriptures is that of Abraham, Gen. xiv. 22, 23.

The _Oath of Allegiance_ is as follows:—“I, A. B., do sincerely promise and swear, that I will be faithful, and bear true allegiance, to her Majesty, Queen Victoria. So help me GOD.” This is taken by Protestant dissenting ministers, when licensed by the civil magistrates; as is also the following:

_Oath of Supremacy_:—“I, A. B., do swear, that I do from my heart abhor, detest, and abjure, as impious and heretical, that damnable doctrine and position, that princes excommunicated or deprived by the pope, or any authority of the see of Rome, may be deposed or murdered by their subjects, or any other whatsoever. And I do declare, that no foreign prince, person, prelate, state, or potentate, hath or ought to have any jurisdiction, power, pre-eminence, or authority, ecclesiastical or spiritual, within this realm. So help me GOD.”

OBADIAH, THE PROPHECY OF. A canonical book of the Old Testament. This prophecy is contained in one single chapter, and is partly an invective against the cruelty of the Edomites, who mocked and derided the children of Israel, as they passed into captivity, and, with other enemies their confederates, invaded and oppressed these poor strangers, and divided the spoil amongst them; and partly a prediction of the deliverance and salvation of Israel, and of the victory and triumph of the whole Church over her enemies.

The time when this prophecy was delivered is wholly uncertain. The Hebrews believe, that this prophet was the same with the governor of Ahab’s house, mentioned in the First Book of Kings, who hid and fed the hundred prophets, whom Jezebel would have destroyed. Some say he was that Obadiah whom Josiah made overseer of the works of the temple. But most writers make him contemporary with Hosea, Amos, and Joel.

OBIT. An office performed at funerals, when the corpse was in the church before it was buried; it afterwards came to be performed on the anniversary of the death of a benefactor. Thus, in many of our colleges, the obit or anniversary of the death of the founder is piously observed. (See _Commemoration_.) The _obiit Sundays_ (once a quarter) at St. George’s at Windsor, were celebrated formerly with great magnificence, and are to a certain degree still. In Kennet’s Register, p. 765, (as quoted in the Hiereugia Anglicana, p. 211,) there is the following notice. “1662, Sept. 10.—This day was published the service that is performed in the King’s Free Chapel of St. George, in the castle of Windsor, upon Obiit Sunday in the morning, (that is, the Sunday before every quarter day,) and at the offering up of the achievements of the deceased Knights of the Garter.

_The Rubric._ The service is the same that is appointed in the Book of Common Prayer, until you come to the Psalm for the day of the month, instead of which you have these proper Psalms, xxi., cxlvi., cxlvii. After the Psalm the junior canon upon the place cometh out of his stall with the verger before him, and readeth the lesson at the desk, which is taken out of the forty-fourth chapter of Ecclesiasticus. After the lesson Te Deum laudamus is sung. After the Te Deum is ended, they all depart out of the quire in the body of the church to sermon. After sermon is ended, the canons go to the altar, and the quire go to their stalls, and the communion service beginneth. The Epistle is taken out of the twenty-third chapter of Deuteronomy; the Gospel in the fifth of St. John, beginning at the twenty-fourth and ending at the thirtieth verse. After the sacrament (which is always on the Obiit Sunday) is ended, and the blessing given at the altar, the canons go to their stalls, and these following prayers are read:

_Priest._ O Lord, save the king.

Quire. _And mercifully hear us when we call upon thee._

_Collect._ O Lord, our heavenly Father and merciful Saviour, we praise and thank thee, O Lord, &c.

God save our gracious sovereign, and all the companions of the most honourable and noble Order of the Garter.

_Here endeth the obiit service._

The verse and response, O Lord, save the queen, &c., are used daily after the anthem in St. George’s Chapel.—_Jebb._

OBLATION. An offering to GOD.

In the office for the holy communion we pray GOD to “accept our alms and oblations.” The word _oblations_ was added to this prayer for the Church militant here on earth, at the same time that the rubric enjoined, that, if there be a communion, “the priest is then,” just before this prayer, “to place upon the table so much bread and wine as he shall think sufficient.” Hence it is clearly evident that by that word we are to understand the elements of bread and wine, which the priest is to offer solemnly to GOD, as an acknowledgment of his sovereignty over his creatures, and that from henceforth they may be peculiarly his. For in all the Jewish sacrifices, of which the people were partakers, the viands or materials of the feast were first made GOD’S by a solemn oblation, and then afterwards eaten by the communicants, not as man’s, but as GOD’S provision, who, by thus entertaining them at his own table, declared himself reconciled and again in covenant with them. And therefore our blessed SAVIOUR, when he instituted the sacrament of his body and blood, first gave thanks, and blessed the elements, i. e. offered them up to GOD as the Lord of the creatures, as the most ancient Fathers expound that passage; who for that reason, whenever they celebrated the eucharist, always offered the bread and wine for the communion to GOD upon the altar, by this or some such short ejaculation, “LORD, we offer thine own out of what thou hast bountifully given us.” After which they received them, as it were, from him again, in order to convert them into the sacred banquet of the body and blood of his dear SON. Consonant to this, in the First Common Prayer of King Edward VI., the priest was ordered in this place to set the bread and wine upon the altar. But at the second review, to conciliate the ultra-Protestants, this ancient usage appears to have been thrown out. It was however restored at the last review of the Prayer Book in the reign of Charles II., when it was ordered that the bread and wine should be placed solemnly on the table by the priest himself. Whence it appears that the placing of the elements upon the altar before the beginning of the morning service, by the hands of a lay-clerk or sexton, as is sometimes the irreverent practice, is a profane breach of the aforesaid rubric.—_Mede. Wheatly._

The English liturgy is not without a verbal oblation, which occurs at the beginning of the prayers and commemorations. After the elements have been placed on the table, and thus devoted to the service and honour of GOD, the priest prays to GOD thus: “We humbly beseech thee most mercifully to accept our alms and oblations, and to receive these our prayers, which we offer unto thy Divine Majesty.” Here three species of sacrifice or oblation are verbally offered: first, the “_alms_,” which St. Paul describes as a sacrifice well-pleasing to GOD; secondly, the “_oblations_,” namely, the creatures of bread and wine; thirdly, the “_prayers_,” which, according to St. John, are offered with incense on the heavenly altar, and of which the holy Fathers speak as a sacrifice and oblation to GOD.—_Palmer._

In a more extended sense of the word, we mean by _oblations_ whatever religious Christians offer to GOD and the Church, whether in lands or goods. It is probable that the example of St. Paul might incite the primitive Christians to offer these gifts to the Church; for he appointed every one of the Corinthians and Galatians to yield something to _God_ for the saints every LORD’S day: but this being thought too often, therefore Tertullian tells us it was afterwards done every month, and then _ad libitum_: but it was always the custom for communicants to offer something at receiving the sacrament, as well for holy uses, as for relief of the poor, which custom is, or ought to be, observed at this day.

In the first ages of the Church, those _deposita pietatis_, which are mentioned by Tertullian, were all voluntary oblations, and they were received in lieu of tithes; for the Christians at that time lived chiefly in cities, and gave out of their common stock, both to maintain the Church, and those who served at the altar.

But when their numbers increased, and they were spread abroad in the countries, then a more fixed maintenance was necessary for the clergy; but still oblations were made by the people, which, if in the mother Church, then the bishop had half, and the other was divided amongst the clergy; but if offered in a parish church, then the bishop had a third part, and no more.

These oblations, which at first were voluntary, became afterwards, by a continual payment, due by custom.

It is true there are canons which require every one who approaches the altar to make some oblation to it, as a thing convenient to be done.

And it is probable that, in obedience to the canons, it became customary for every man who made a will before the Reformation, to devise something to the high altar of the church where he lived, and something likewise to the mother church or cathedral; and those who were to be buried in the church usually gave something towards its reparations.

But at the great festivals all people were obliged to offer something, not only as convenient, but as a duty; but the proportion was left to the discretion of the giver; and we think, with great reason, for the bounty of the Christians in those ages was so great, that men would build churches on their own lands, on purpose that they might have an equal share of those oblations with the clergy.

And this might be the occasion that the emperors Constantine and Valentinian made laws to prohibit such excessive gifts, which in those days were kept in store-houses built for that very purpose.

But in succeeding ages there was little occasion for such laws, for the zeal of the people was so considerably abated, that, instead of those repositories, the clergy had little chests to contain those gifts, till at last they dwindled into so small a portion, that now, as a quaint writer observes, they can scarce be felt in the parson’s pocket.

We have the authority of Bishop Patrick to show that, in the prayer after the Offertory, the elements are specially intended by the word _oblations_. “We humbly beseech GOD,” he says, “to accept not only our alms, but also our oblations. These are things distinct; and the former, _alms_, signifying that which was given for the relief of the poor, the latter, _oblations_, can signify nothing else but (according to the style of the ancient Church) the bread and wine presented unto GOD.”—_Christian Sacrifice_, p. 77. But it is no less unquestionable, (adds a note in Stephens’s edition of the Common Prayer Book, vol. i. p. 1175,) that this term was also employed to signify money, intended for the maintenance of the clergy, for the service of God, for merciful works of the more spiritual kind, and that it sometimes even denotes the alms for relief of temporal necessities; and numerous authorities exist to prove that, ecclesiastically speaking, “oblations” were not to be confined to the sacred elements _exclusively_: although oblations are expressly distinguished from alms.

The ecclesiastical meanings of the word oblation may be illustrated from the coronation service of Queen Victoria. Her “first oblation” was a pall or altar cloth of gold, and an ingot of gold: the next a sword: and afterwards at the Offertory were two “oblations;” the first being _bread and wine_ for the communion, which were “by the archbishop received from the queen, (who was kneeling,) and reverently placed upon the altar, and decently covered with a fine linen cloth:” with a prayer, “Bless, O LORD, we beseech thee, these thy gifts, and sanctify them unto their holy use,” &c. “Then the queen, kneeling as before, makes her second oblation, a purse of gold;” and then follows a prayer to God “to receive _these oblations_.”

OCTAVE. The octave is the _eighth day_ after any principal festival of the Church. In ancient times it was customary to observe these days with much devotion, including the whole period also from the festival to the octave. It was thought that the subject and occasion of these high festivals called for their being lengthened out in this manner; and the period of eight days was chosen because the Jews celebrated their greater feasts, some for seven days, and the feast of Tabernacles for eight days. Such Jewish institutions being only types and shadows, the Christians thought it fit not to have their commemorations of shorter duration.

In our Prayer Book we retain the observance of the octaves of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Whitsunday, by using, for seven days after each of these festivals, an appropriate “Preface,” in the Communion Service, if that sacrament is administered on any of these days. The preface for Whitsunday is, however, only to be used for _six_ days after, because the seventh (or octave of Whitsunday) would be Trinity Sunday, which has a preface of its own.

The first two days of the octaves of Easter and Whitsunday have special services, and in some cathedrals are observed with nearly the same solemnity as the festival itself. It appears by the _Pietas Londinensis_, published in 1714, that in the church of St. Dunstan in the West, the holy communion was administered on every day during the octaves of Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide.—_Jebb._

OFFERING DAYS. “The four general offering days,” Bishop Cosin says, “in the Church of England enjoined by convocation in 1536, [ought to be 1537,] were Christmas Day, St. John Baptist’s Day, St. Michael’s Day, [Easter Day.] Which order is in some places still observed, and the king and queen in their chapel royal, or wherever they be at church on those days, never omit it, but arise from their seat and go in solemn manner to present their offering upon their knees at God’s altar. And then is read by the priest or bishop attending, the sentence here prescribed, 1 Cor. ix.”—_Jebb._

OFFERTORY. So called, because it is that part of the Communion Service in which the _offerings_ are made. The custom of making oblations at the communion is certainly apostolical, as appears from 1 Cor. xvi. 2: “On the first day of the week let every one lay by him in store as GOD hath prospered him.” Which custom continued down to the following ages, as appears from different passages in Justin Martyr, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, St. Ambrose, and other ancient writers. Out of those offerings, which were not always in money, but in bread, wine, corn, &c., were taken as much bread and wine as served for the celebration of the communion at the time; but if any persons were under public infamy, by reason of any ill actions by them committed, their offerings were not to be received. These offerings in the primitive times were so considerable, that they were divided into four portions; one for the relief of the poor; the second the bishop retained for his maintenance; the third was for the maintenance of the church and its ornaments; and the fourth for the clergy. The office of the Offertory was used in Walafrid Strabo’s time, who lived in the middle of the ninth century; and it was so long before his time, that he could not tell to whom to ascribe its original.—_Dr. Nicholls._

Formerly, Mr. Palmer observes, this anthem was probably sung in choirs. The sentences at the Offertory are set to varied melodies, in Marbeck’s book, according to the licence given in King Edward VI.’s First Book, either to sing or say them. This licence is withdrawn by the rubric as it now stands, so altered in King Edward’s Second Book, since the saying of the sentences by the priest is expressly enjoined. Of the old custom a vestige is preserved in the ceremony of the installation of Knights of the Garter, and formerly was at coronations.

OFFICIAL. The official is the person to whom cognisance of causes is committed by such as have an ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The official of an archdeacon stands in like relation to him as the chancellor does to the bishop.

OGEE. (_Ogive_, French.) An inflected curve; a curve formed of two segments of a circle, one struck from one side, and the other from the other side of the same right line. This curve occurs chiefly in mouldings, and is principally characteristic of the Decorated style; but it occurs in other styles also, and has several variations according to its place and date. The word is used in French as a generic term for pointed architecture.

OPHITÆ (from ὄφις, _a serpent_); also called _Serpentinians_. A ridiculous sort of heretics, who had for their leader a man called Euphrates. They entertained almost the same fantastic opinions that were holden by the other Egyptian Gnostics concerning the _æons_, the _eternal matter_, the _creation of the world_ in opposition to the will of GOD, the _rulers of the seven planets_ that presided over this world, the _tyranny of Demiurge_, and also concerning CHRIST united to the man JESUS, in order to destroy the empire of this usurper. But besides these, they maintained the following particular tenet (whence they received the name of _Ophites_): “That the _Serpent_ by which our first parents were deceived, was either CHRIST himself, or _Sophia_, [_Wisdom_,] concealed under the form of that animal;” and in consequence of this opinion they are said to have nourished a certain number of serpents, which they looked upon as sacred, and to which they offered a sort of worship, a subordinate kind of divine honours. There is some curious information about the Ophitæ in the lately discovered work of Hippolytus.

OPTION. An archbishop had the choice or option of any one dignity or benefice in the gift of every bishop consecrated or confirmed by him, which he may confer on his chaplain, or whom else he pleases. This was styled his _option_. The privilege has been relinquished by English archbishops since 1845, in consequence of a construction put on some words in the cathedral act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 113, sect. 42). “That it shall not be lawful for any spiritual person to sell or _assign_ any patronage or presentation belonging to him by virtue of any dignity or spiritual office held by him.”

Bishop Sherlock, on his appointment to the see of London in 1749, had a dispute with Archbishop Herring as to the right of option. A compromise took place: but the bishop printed a pamphlet on the subject in 1755. It never was published, and but 50 copies were printed.—_Heylin’s Life of Bishop Sherlock_, prefixed to his Works, vol. i. lx.

OPUS OPERATUM. An expression frequently occurring in discussions respecting the efficacy of the sacraments, &c., importing a necessary spiritual effect flowing from the outward administration, (from _the thing done_,) irrespective of the moral qualities of the recipient. This doctrine is alleged as one of the corruptions of the Church of Rome, and, if carried out, would obviously equalize, in a great measure, the benefits received by the worthy and the unworthy who approach the altar, and would justify the administration of baptism to the heathen, &c., not only on consent, but by the application of physical force.

In a certain sense it is unquestionably true, that all the appointed means of grace have an effect _ex opere operato_, inasmuch as the act itself, though inefficacious in its own nature, is an institution of GOD, and consecrated by him as an instrument not to be made void at the caprice of man. Thus, the preaching of the gospel is inevitably a savour of life or of death. The administration of baptism is invariably an admission into the Church. But that the use of an appointed ordinance goes beyond this, and results in all cases in a moral effect on the individual, and in the insuring of higher portions of Divine grace _ex necessitate_, is contrary to the views of the Church, the doctrine of Scripture, and the preservation of man’s free agency.

ORARIUM. (See _Stole_.)

ORATORIO. In Church music, a musical drama, of which the subject is always sacred, and intended to be performed in a church. The origin of this kind of spiritual and musical drama, which has now run into great excesses, is found in the plan of Filippo Neri, in the early part of the sixteenth century, to arrest the attention of those to whom he preached, by procuring the execution of pieces of sacred music of more than common interest before and after his sermon. This custom, which commenced in the congregation of the Oratory, (whence the name Oratorio,) was imitated by all the societies of the same foundation, and soon became so popular, that the best masters, both in composition and in execution, were found to take a part in it. The performance in the time of Filippo Neri himself was scarcely more than a cantata, but it soon after assumed a more perfectly dramatic form, being distributed between several persons, and accompanied with action and scenic representation, so as to present much of the character of a musical mystery. (See _Moralities_.) In this way many sacred subjects were performed, such as Job and his friends, the Good Samaritan, and the Prodigal Son.

_Oratorio_ derived its name from the Oratorio, or chapel in the church of St. Girolamo della Carita at Rome, where Filippo Neri’s confraternity assembles. (See _Priests of the Oratory_.)

In England, oratorios have been much used in our cathedrals. Among the most celebrated oratorios are _the Messiah_ of Handel, and _the Creation_ of Haydn.

ORATORY. A name given by Christians to certain places of religious worship.

In ecclesiastical antiquity, the term houses of prayer, or _oratories_, is frequently given to churches in general, of which there are innumerable instances in ancient Christian writers. But in some canons the name _oratory_ seems confined to private chapels, or places of worship set up for the convenience of private families, yet still depending on the parochial churches, and differing from them in this, that they were only places of prayer, but not for celebrating the communion; or, if that were at any time allowed to private families, yet, at least, upon great and solemn festivals, they were to resort for communion to the parish churches.—_Broughton._

ORATORY, PRIESTS OF THE. There are two congregations of monks, one in Italy, the other in France, which are called by this name.

The priests of the oratory in Italy had for their founder, Philip de Neri, a native of Florence, who, in the year 1548, founded at Rome the Confraternity of the Holy Trinity. This society originally consisted of but fifteen poor persons, who assembled in the church of St. Saviour _in campo_, every first Sunday in the month, to practise the exercises of piety prescribed by the holy founder. The pope gave leave to assemble in the church of St. Girolamo dell Carita, from the _Oratorio_ or chapel in which church they derived their name. Afterwards, their number increasing, by the addition to the society of several persons of distinction, Neri proceeded to establish an hospital for the reception of poor pilgrims, who, coming to Rome to visit the tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul, were obliged, for want of a lodging, to lie in the streets, and at the doors of the churches. For this charitable purpose, Pope Paul IV. gave to the society the parochial church of St. Benedict, close by which church was built an hospital so large, that, in the Jubilee year, 1600, it received 44,500 men, and 25,500 women, who came in pilgrimage to Rome.

Philip Neri, besides this charitable foundation for pilgrims, held spiritual conferences at Rome, in a large chamber accommodated in the form of an oratory: in which he was assisted by the famous Baronius, author of the “Ecclesiastical Annals.” Here were delivered lectures of religion and morality, and the auditors were instructed in ecclesiastical history. The assembly always ended with prayers, and hymns to the glory of GOD; after which, the founder, and his companions, visited the churches and hospitals, and took care of the sick. And now it was that this religious society began to be called _Priests of the Oratory_.

In 1574, the Florentines at Rome, with the permission of Pope Gregory XIII., built a very spacious oratory, in which Neri continued his religious assemblies. The pope likewise gave him the parochial church of Vallicella, and, the same year, approved the constitutions he had drawn up for the government of his congregation, of which St. Philip himself was the first general.

This new institute soon made a great progress, and divers other establishments were made on the same model; particularly at Naples, Milan, Fermo, and Palermo. The founder having resigned the office of general, he was succeeded therein by Baronius, who was afterwards promoted to the dignity of a cardinal. Neri died the 25th of May, 1595, and was canonized in 1622 by Pope Gregory XV. After his death, this congregation made a further progress in Italy, and has produced several cardinals and eminent writers, as Baronius, Oderic Rainaldi, and others.

The priests of the Oratory in France were established upon the model of those in Italy, and owe their rise to Cardinal Berulle, a native of Champagne; who resolved upon this foundation, in order to revive the splendour of the ecclesiastical state, which was greatly sunk through the miseries of the civil wars, the increase of heresies, and a general corruption of manners. To this end he assembled a community of ecclesiastics, in 1611, in the suburb of St. James, where is at present the famous monastery of Val-de-Grace. They obtained the king’s letters patent for their establishment; and, in 1613, Pope Paul V. approved this congregation under the title of the Oratory of JESUS.

This congregation consisted of two sorts of persons; the one, as it were, incorporated, the other only associates. The former governed the houses of this institute; the latter were only employed in forming themselves to the life and manners of ecclesiastics. And this was the true spirit of this congregation, in which they taught neither human learning, nor theology, but only the virtues of the ecclesiastical life.

After the death of Cardinal Berulle, which happened the 2nd of October, 1629, the priests of the Oratory made a great progress in France and other countries. This order had eleven houses in the Low Countries, one at Liege, two in the county of Avignon, and one in Savoy, besides fifty-eight in France. The first house, which was, as it were, the mother of all the rest, was that of the street St. Honoré, at Paris, where the general resided. The priests of this congregation were not, properly speaking, monks, being obliged to no vows, and their institute being purely ecclesiastical or sacerdotal.—_Broughton._ The Oratorians have lately appeared in England.

ORDEAL. An appeal to the judgment of Almighty GOD, in criminal cases, when the innocence or guilt of the accused rested on insufficient evidence.

Among the Saxons and Normans, if any person was charged with theft, adultery, murder, treason, perjury, &c., in these cases, if the person neither pleaded guilty, nor could be convicted by legal evidence, it was either in the prosecutor’s or judge’s power to put him upon the ordeal; and provided he passed through this test unhurt, he was discharged; otherwise he was put into the hands of justice, to be punished as the law directed, in case he had been cast by the ordinary forms of prosecution. For we are to observe, that this trial by ordeal was not designed for the punishment of those in whose cases the ordinary forms had miscarried; the intention of it was rather to clear the truth, where it could not be otherwise discovered, and make way for the execution of the law.

There are several sorts of this inquiry; the trial was sometimes made by cold, and sometimes by scalding, water; sometimes by ploughshares, or bars of iron, heated burning hot; sometimes the accused purged their innocence by receiving the sacrament; and sometimes by eating a piece of barley bread called the corsned.

In the trial by cold water, the persons suspected were thrown naked into a pond, or river: if they sank they were acquitted, but if they floated upon the river without any swimming postures it was taken for an evidence of guilt.

When scalding water was the test, they were to plunge their arm in a tub, or kettle, to the elbow; if this was done without any signs of pain, or marks of scalding, the person was discharged; but if there was the least complaint under the operation, or any scar or impression to be seen, it was taken for proof against him. Slaves, peasants, and people of mean condition, were put upon this water ordeal.

Persons of figure and quality were generally tried by the burning iron. This ordeal had different circumstances in proportion to the crimes objected. If the person was only impeached for a single crime, the iron was to weigh but one pound: but if he was prosecuted upon several articles, the weight of the iron was to increase proportionably; and here the person impeached was either to hold a burning ball of iron in his hand, and move with it to a certain distance, or else to walk barefoot upon heated ploughshares, placed about a yard from each other. If after this trial his hands and feet were untouched, and he discovered no signs of feeling any pain, he was discharged by the court; but if the matter fell out otherwise, he was remitted to the punishment of the law.

Before the person accused was brought to the ordeal, he was obliged to swear his innocence, and sometimes receive the holy eucharist.

The Christians of this age had a strong reliance upon this way of trial, not in the least doubting but that GOD would suspend the force of nature, and clear the truth by a supernatural interposition. If we may believe the records of those times, we shall find that innocent persons were frequently rescued, in a surprising manner, perhaps by some skilful management on the part of the authorities aware of the fact.

To proceed to some of the preliminaries of the ordeal. After the charge was legally brought in, the person impeached was to spend three days in fasting and prayer. At the day of the trial, which was made in the church, the priest, appearing in the habit of his function, took up the iron which lay before the altar, and, repeating the hymn of the Three Children, put it into the fire. This being done, he proceeded to some forms of benediction over the fire and iron; after which, he sprinkled the iron with holy water, and made the sign of the cross in the name of the Blessed TRINITY: upon which the person accused passed through the test.

The ceremony of the scalding water ordeal was much the same. But when the trial was to be made by cold water, the three days’ fast and the other religious circumstances being premised, the person suspected drank a draught of holy water, to which the priest added an imprecation in case he was guilty: then the water, into which the presumed criminal was to be thrown, had a sort of exorcising form of prayer said over it; by which the element was, as it were, conjured, by the most solemn expressions, to detect the guilty and discover the truth.

The bread called the _corsned_ was another way of trial. The person prosecuted took an ounce of it fasting, or sometimes the same quantity in cheese, and sometimes the holy eucharist. Immediately before this was done, the priest read the Litany proper to the occasion, and proceeded to another prayer, in which he desired that GOD would please to bring the truth of the matter in question to light, and that the evil spirits might have no power to perplex the inquiry, and prevent the discovery; that if the person was guilty, the morsel might stick in his throat and find no passage; that his face might turn pale, his limbs be convulsed, and an horrible alteration appear in his whole body; but if innocent, he desired that which the party received might make its way easily into his stomach, and turn to health and nourishment.

Notwithstanding the commonness of this custom in England, and other parts of Christendom, it began to be disliked at last, and fell several times under the censure of the Church and State: thus Louis, and Lotharius his successor, emperors of Germany, positively forbade the ordeal by cold water. The trial likewise by scalding water, and burning iron, was condemned by Pope Stephen V. It is probable they might think it a rash way of proceeding, and a tempting of GOD; and that it was unreasonable to put innocence upon supernatural proof, and pronounce a man guilty, unless he had a miracle to acquit him. The first public discountenance of it from the State which we meet with in England, was in the third year of King Henry III. Most of the judges in their circuits received an order from the king and council not to put any person upon the trial ordeal, in regard it was prohibited by the court of Rome. This order of the king and council, Sir Edward Coke, as Sir Henry Spelman observes, mistakes for an act of parliament. It is true, as that learned antiquary goes on to say, at that time of day, a public regulation, passed in council, and sealed with the king’s seal, had the force of a law. It must, however, be said, this prohibition does not run to the judges of all the circuits; but, it may be, the rest of the justices might receive the same instructions another way. And though we meet with no express law afterwards to this purpose, yet this method of trial, standing condemned by the canons, languished by degrees, and at last grew quite out of practice.

ORDER. The rules or laws of a monastic institution; and afterwards, in a secondary sense, the several monastics living under the same rule or order. Thus the _Order of Clugni_ signifies literally the new rule of discipline prescribed by Odo to the Benedictines already assembled in the monastery of Clugni; but secondarily, and in the more popular sense, the great body of monastic institutions, wherever established, which voluntarily subjected themselves to the same rule.

ORDERS, HOLY. (See _Bishop_, _Clergy_, _Deacon_, _Ordinal_, _Ordination_, _Presbyter_, _Priest_.) “It is evident unto all men diligently reading the Holy Scriptures and ancient authors, that from the apostles’ time there have been these orders of ministers in CHRIST’S Church; bishops, priests, and deacons. Which offices were evermore had in such reverent estimation, that no man might presume to execute any of them except he were first called, tried, examined, and known to have such qualities as are requisite for the same; and also by public prayer, with imposition of hands, were approved and admitted thereunto by lawful authority. And therefore, to the intent that these orders might be continued and reverently used and esteemed, in the united Church of England and Ireland, no man shall be accounted or taken to be a bishop, priest, or deacon in the united Church of England or Ireland, or suffered to execute any of the said functions, except he be called, tried, examined, and admitted thereunto, according to the form hereafter following, or hath _had formerly episcopal consecration or ordination_.”—_Preface to the English Ordinal._

As it is here said, in the ancient Church these three orders of ministry, as established by CHRIST and his apostles, universally prevailed. But, besides the bishops, priests, and deacons, there were, in most of the Churches, other ecclesiastical persons of inferior rank, who were allowed to take part in the ministrations of religion. These constituted what are called the _inferior orders_, and in some of the ancient canons they have the name of “clergy.”

There is this great difference between the three holy orders and the others, that the former are everywhere mentioned as those degrees of men whose ministrations were known and distinguished, and without which no Church was looked upon as complete; but to show that the inferior orders were never thought to be necessary in the same degree, let it be considered, that different Churches, or the same Church in different ages, had more or fewer of the inferior orders. In some were only _readers_; in others, _subdeacons_, _exorcists_, _and acolyths_. The Apostolic Canons mention only _subdeacons_, _readers_, _and singers_. The Laodicean enumerate these, and also _exorcists and ostiaries_. But while there was no standing rule respecting these merely ecclesiastical orders, the three essential grades of the ministry were found in all parts of the Church.

In the Church of England, the following are the regulations respecting admission to Holy Orders observed in the various dioceses, as given in Hodgson’s “Instructions.”

Persons desirous of being admitted as candidates for deacon’s orders, are recommended to make a written application to the bishop,[10] six months before the time of ordination, stating their age, college, academical degree, and the usual place of their residence; together with the names of any persons of respectability to whom they are best known, and to whom the bishop may apply, if he thinks fit, for further information concerning them.

The following six papers are to be sent by a candidate for deacon’s orders, to the bishop in whose diocese the curacy which is to serve as a title is situate, three weeks before the day of ordination, or at such other time as the bishop shall appoint; and in due time he will be informed by the bishop’s secretary when and where to attend for examination.

1. Letters testimonial from his college; and in case the candidate shall have quitted college, he must also present letters testimonial for the period elapsed since he quitted college, in the following form, signed by three beneficed clergymen, and countersigned by the bishop of the diocese in which their benefices are respectively situate, if they are not beneficed in the diocese of the bishop to whom the candidate applies for ordination.

2. Form of letters testimonial for orders.

“To the [11]Right Reverend ——, by Divine permission Lord Bishop of —— [_the bishop in whose diocese the curacy conferring the title is situate_].

Whereas our beloved in Christ, A. B., bachelor of arts, (_or other degree_,) of —— college, in the university of ——, hath declared to us his intention of offering himself as a candidate for the sacred office of a deacon, and for that end hath requested of us letters testimonial of his good life and conversation; we therefore, whose names are hereunto subscribed, do testify that the said A. B. hath been personally known to us for the space of[12]—— last past; that we have had opportunities of observing his conduct; that during the whole of that time we verily believe that he lived piously, soberly, and honestly; nor have we at any time heard anything to the contrary thereof; nor hath he at any time, as far as we know or believe, held, written, or taught anything contrary to the doctrine or discipline of the united Church of England and Ireland; and, moreover, we believe him, in our consciences, to be, as to his moral conduct, a person worthy to be admitted to the sacred order of deacons.

In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names, this —— day of ——, in the year of our Lord 18—.

[13]C. D. rector of ——. E. F. vicar of ——. G. H. rector of ——.”

[_Countersignature._]

3. Form of notice or “Si quis,” and of the certificate of the same having been published in the church of the parish where the candidate usually resides, to be presented by the candidate if he shall have quitted college.

“Notice is hereby given, that A. B., bachelor of arts, (_or other degree_,) of —— college, Oxford, [_or_ Cambridge,] and now resident in this parish, intends to offer himself a candidate for the holy office of a deacon, at the ensuing ordination of the Lord Bishop of ——;[14] and if any person knows any just cause or impediment for which he ought not to be admitted into holy orders, he is now to declare the same, or to signify the same forthwith to the Lord Bishop of ——.

We do hereby certify, that the above notice was publicly read by the undersigned C. D., in the parish church of ——, in the county of ——, during the time of Divine service on Sunday the —— day of last [_or_ instant], and no impediment was alleged.

Witness our hands this —— day of ——, in the year of our Lord 18—.

C. D. officiating minister. E. F. churchwarden.”

4. Certificate from the divinity professor in the university, that the candidate has duly attended his lectures. Also a certificate from any other professor whose lectures the candidate may have been directed by the bishop to attend.

5. Certificate of the candidate’s baptism, from the register book of the parish where he was baptized, duly signed, by the officiating minister, to show that he has completed his age of twenty-three years; and in case he shall have attained that age, but cannot produce a certificate of his baptism, then his father or mother, or other competent person, must make a declaration, before a justice of the peace, of the actual time of his birth: and here it may be necessary to remark, that by an act of the 44 Geo. III. c. 43, intituled “An Act to enforce the due observance of the canons and rubric respecting the ages of persons to be admitted into the sacred order of deacon and priest,” it is enacted, that thenceforth no person shall be admitted a deacon before he shall have attained the age of three and twenty years complete; and that no person shall be admitted a priest before he shall have attained the age of four and twenty years complete: and that if a person shall be admitted a deacon before he shall have attained the age of twenty-three years complete, or a priest before he shall have attained the age of twenty-four years complete, such admission shall be void in law; and the person so admitted shall be incapable of holding any ecclesiastical preferment.

6. The form of a nomination to serve as a title for orders, if the incumbent is non-resident.

To the Right Reverend ——, Lord Bishop of ——.

These are to certify your lordship, that I, C. D., rector [_or_ vicar, &c.] of ——, in the county of ——, and your lordship’s diocese of ——, do hereby nominate A. B., bachelor of arts, (_or other degree_,) of —— college in the university of ——, to perform the office of curate in my church of —— aforesaid; and do promise to allow him the yearly stipend of —— pounds, to be paid by equal quarterly payments, [_as to amount of stipend, see title “Stipends payable to Curates,”_] with the surplice fees, amounting on an average to —— pounds per annum, (_if they are intended to be allowed_,) and the use of the glebe-house, garden, and offices, which he is to occupy (_if that be the fact; if not, state the reason, and name where and what distance[15] from the church the curate purposes to reside_): and I do hereby state to your lordship, that the said A. B. does not intend to serve, as curate, in any other parish, nor to officiate in any other church or chapel (_if such be the fact, otherwise state the real fact_); that the net annual value of my said benefice, estimated according to the act of parliament 1 & 2 Victoria, c. 106, sects. 8 and 10, is —— pounds, and the population thereof, according to the latest returns of population made under the authority of parliament, is ——. That there is only one church belonging to my said benefice (_if there be another church or chapel, state the fact_); and that I was admitted to the said benefice on the —— day of —— 18—.[16] “And I do hereby promise and engage with your lordship and the said A. B., that I will continue to employ the said A. B., in the office of curate in my said church, until he shall be otherwise provided of some ecclesiastical preferment, unless, for any fault by him committed, he shall be lawfully removed from the same; and I hereby solemnly declare that I do not fraudulently give this certificate, to entitle the said A. B. to receive holy orders, but with a real intention to employ him in my said church, according to what is before expressed.”

Witness my hand this —— day of ——, in the year of our Lord 18—.

[_Signature and address of_] C. D.

_Declaration [to be written at the foot of the Nomination]._

“We the before-named C. D. and A. B. do declare to the said Lord Bishop of ——, as follows; namely, I the said C. D. do declare that I _bonâ fide_ intend to pay, and I the said A. B. do declare that I _bonâ fide_ intend to receive, the whole actual stipend mentioned in the foregoing nomination and statement, without any abatement in respect of rent or consideration for the use of the glebe-house, garden, and offices thereby agreed to be assigned, and without any other deduction or reservation whatsoever.

Witness our hands this —— day of ——, 18—.

[_Signatures of_] C. D. A. B.”

6. (_a_) The form of nomination to serve as a title for orders, if the incumbent is resident.

The same form as No. 6, so far as “quarterly payments;” then proceed as follows:—And I do hereby state to your lordship, that the said A. B. intends to reside in the said parish, in a house [_describe its situation, so as clearly to identify it_], distant from my church —— mile [_if_ A. B. _does not intend to reside in the parish, then state at what place he intends to reside, and its distance from the said church_]; that the said A. B. does not intend to serve, as curate, any other parish, nor to officiate in any other church or chapel (_if such be the fact, otherwise state the real fact_); and I do hereby promise and engage with your lordship, and so on [_in the same form as No. 6, to the end_].

Witness my hand this —— day of ——, 18—. [_Signature and address of_] C. D.

The declaration to be written at the foot of the nomination is to be in the same form as No. 6, so far as the word “statement,” after which proceed as follows:—“Without any deduction or reservation whatsoever.

Witness our hands this —— day of ——, 18—.

[_Signatures of_] C. D. A. B.”

It is proper to observe, that the following declaration is to be subscribed previous to ordination, in the bishop’s presence, by all persons who are to be ordained:—

“I, A. B., do willingly, and from my heart, subscribe to the thirty-nine articles of religion of the united Church of England and Ireland, and to the three articles in the thirty-sixth canon; and to all things therein contained.”

N. B.—The following are the three articles referred to:

“1. That the Queen’s majesty, under GOD, is the only supreme governor of this realm, and of all other her highness’s dominions and countries, as well in all spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes, as temporal; and that no foreign prince, person, prelate, state, or potentate hath, or ought to have, any jurisdiction, power, superiority, pre-eminence, or authority, ecclesiastical or spiritual, within her majesty’s said realms, dominions, and countries.

“2. That the Book of Common Prayer, and of ordering of bishops, priests, and deacons, containeth in it nothing contrary to the word of GOD, and that it may lawfully so be used; and that he himself will use the form in the said book prescribed, in public prayer and administration of the sacraments, and none other.

“3. That he alloweth the book of articles of religion, agreed upon by the archbishops and bishops of both provinces and the whole clergy, in the convocation holden at London, in the year of our LORD one thousand five hundred sixty and two; and that he acknowledgeth all and every the articles therein contained, being in number nine and thirty, besides the ratification, to be agreeable to the word of GOD.”

_Oaths to be taken by those who are to be ordained, at the time of Ordination._

THE OATH OF ALLEGIANCE.

“I, A. B., do sincerely promise and swear, that I will be faithful, and bear true allegiance to her Majesty Queen Victoria. So help me GOD.”

THE OATH OF SUPREMACY.

“I, A. B., do swear, that I do from my heart abhor, detest, and abjure, as impious and heretical, that damnable doctrine and position, that princes excommunicated or deprived by the pope, or any authority of the see of Rome, may be deposed or murdered by their subjects, or any other whatsoever. And I do declare, that no foreign prince, person, prelate, state, or potentate hath, or ought to have, any jurisdiction, power, superiority, pre-eminence, or authority, ecclesiastical or spiritual, within this realm. So help me GOD.”

The act of parliament 59 Geo. III. c. 60, contains directions for the use and guidance of candidates for orders who are to officiate as clergymen in the colonies, or for her Majesty’s foreign possessions.

_Instructions as to Priest’s orders._[17]

The following papers are to be sent by a candidate for priest’s orders to the bishop, three weeks before the day of ordination, or at such other time as the bishop shall appoint, and in due time he will be informed by the bishop’s secretary when and where to attend for examination.

Where a candidate applies for priest’s orders to the same bishop who ordained him deacon, the papers 1 and 2 only are required.

1. Letters testimonial of his sound doctrine, good life, and behaviour, for the time elapsed since he was ordained deacon, signed by three beneficed clergymen, and countersigned by the bishop of the diocese in which their benefices are respectively situate, if not beneficed in the diocese of the bishop to whom the candidate applies for ordination. (See _Form of Testimonial, in Instructions as to Deacon’s Orders, No. 2_.)

2. Notice, or “Si quis,” and certificate of the publication thereof. (See _Form thereof, in the Instructions as to Deacon’s Orders, No. 3_.)

In case the candidate was ordained deacon by the bishop of another diocese, he must produce not only the papers, Nos. 1 and 2, but also the following papers, Nos. 3, 4, and 5.

As it is not common for a deacon to be ordained priest by any other than the bishop who admitted him to deacon’s orders, a candidate applying to the bishop of another diocese must, in the first instance, state to him the particular circumstances which occasion the application, the curacy which he served, and for what period.

3. Letters of deacon’s orders.

4. A certificate of baptism.

5. Nomination, if not already licensed.

The same subscriptions and oaths are made and taken by candidates for priest’s orders, as by candidates for deacon’s orders.

With respect to foreign Protestants, Palmer observes: “We are not bound to condemn Presbyterian orders in every case: for instance, the appointment of ministers by the Protestants in Germany during the Reformation, was most probably _invalid_; and yet, considering their difficulties, the fact of their appeal to a general council, their expectation of reunion with the Church, and therefore the impossibility of establishing a rival hierarchy, I think we are not bound to condemn their appointments of ministers, as many learned and orthodox writers have done; who, however, seem not to have observed the peculiarities of their position, and to have supposed that they were at once definitively separated from the Roman churches. Certain differences of opinion, then, in reference to the question of Presbyterian ordinations, may exist without any material inconvenience.

“That ordinations by mere presbyters are, (however _excusable_ under circumstances of great difficulty,) in fact, _unauthorized and invalid_, is the more usual sentiment of theologians, and is most accordant with Scripture, and with the practice of the Catholic Church in general, and of our Churches in particular, which do not recognise any such ordinations.”

ORDERS OF MONKS. The several orders of monks are distinguished in this manner by their habits. The White Friars are canons regular of the order of St. Augustine. Grey Friars are Cistercian monks, who changed their black habit into a grey one. The Black Friars are Benedictines.

ORDINAL. The Ordinal is that book which contains the forms observed in the Church for making, ordaining, and consecrating, bishops, priests, and deacons. In the liturgy established in the second year of King Edward VI., there was also a form of consecrating and ordaining of bishops, priests, and deacons, not much differing from the present form. Afterwards, by the 3 & 4 Edward VI. c. 10, it was enacted that all books heretofore used for the service of the Church, other than such as shall be set forth by the king’s majesty, shall be clearly abolished (s. 1). And by the 5 & 6 Edward VI. c. 1, it is thus enacted: The king, with the assent of the lords and commons in parliament, has annexed the Book of Common Prayer to this present statute, adding also a form and manner of making and consecrating of archbishops, bishops, priests, and deacons, to be of like force and authority as the Book of Common Prayer. And, by Art. 36: “The book of consecration of archbishops and bishops, and ordering of priests and deacons, lately set forth in the time of Edward VI., and confirmed at the same time by authority of parliament, doth contain all things necessary to such consecration and ordering; neither hath it anything that of itself is superstitious and ungodly. And therefore whosoever are consecrated or ordered according to the rites of that book, since the second year of the forenamed King Edward unto this time, or hereafter shall be consecrated or ordered according to the same rites, we declare all such to be rightly ordered, and lawfully consecrated and ordered.” And by Canon 8: “Whosoever shall affirm or teach, that the form and manner of making and consecrating bishops, priests, and deacons, containeth anything that is repugnant to the word of GOD; or that they who are made bishops, priests, and deacons, in that form, are not lawfully made, nor ought to be accounted either by themselves or others to be truly either bishops, priests, or deacons, until they have some other calling to those Divine offices, let him be excommunicated, _ipso facto_, not to be restored until he repent and publicly revoke such his wicked errors.”

The form in which orders are conferred in our Church is this: “The bishop, with the priests present, shall lay their hands severally upon the head of every one that receiveth the order of priesthood; the receivers humbly kneeling, and the bishop saying, ‘Receive the HOLY GHOST for the office and work of a priest, in the Church of GOD, _now committed unto thee_ by the imposition of our hands. Whose sins thou dost forgive, they are forgiven; and whose sins thou dost retain, they are retained. And be thou a faithful dispenser of the word of GOD, and of his holy sacraments: in the name of the FATHER, and of the SON, and of the HOLY GHOST.’” In the office for the ordering of deacons, the bishop lays on his hands, but does not use the words, “Receive the HOLY GHOST,” &c., or grant authority to forgive or retain sins. In the office for the consecration of bishops, the form is thus: “Then the archbishop and bishops present shall lay their hands upon the head of the elected bishop, kneeling before them on his knees, the archbishop saying, ‘Receive the HOLY GHOST for the office and work of a bishop in the Church of GOD, now committed unto thee by the laying on of our hands, in the name of the FATHER, and of the SON, and of the HOLY GHOST. Amen. And remember that thou stir up _the grace of_ GOD _which is given thee_ BY _the imposition of our hands_, for GOD hath not given us the spirit of fear, but of power, and love, and soberness.’”

Several Protestant dissenting communities have taken it upon themselves to lay on hands when a person is elected to the dissenting ministry; but none, that we are aware of, have ever assumed the solemn office of thus conferring the grace of GOD by the imposition of human hands, which would clearly be blasphemous, except there existed a commission from GOD to do so, which commission, without the apostolical succession, cannot be proved, unless by miracle. This form has given great offence to many conscientious ultra-Protestants. Attempts are sometimes made to explain the words away; but such explanations have been seldom found satisfactory, except to those whose interest it is to be satisfied. It is evident that they are to be understood simply, clearly, unequivocally, to express that the grace of GOD is given by the imposition of the bishop’s hands; and that if we speak of this as superstitious or ungodly, we are, as may be seen from the 36th Article and the 8th Canon, under the anathema of our Church. On the other hand, the comfort is indescribably great to those who believe that grace ministerial is thus conveyed in attending the ministry of the Church; the efficacy of the ministrations of whose ministers depends not on the merit or talent of the individual, but on the grace of GOD, of which he is the authorized, though unworthy, dispenser.

ORDINANCES OF THE CHURCH. Rites ordained by GOD to be means of grace, such as, 1. Baptism (Matt. xxviii. 19); 2. The LORD’S supper (Matt. xxvi. 26; 1 Cor. xi. 24, &c.); 3. Preaching and reading the word (Mark xvi. 15; Rom. x. 15); 4. Hearing the gospel (Mark iv. 24; Rom. x. 17); 5. Public and private prayer (1 Cor. xiv. 15, 19; Matt. vi. 6; Ps. v. 1, 7); 6. Singing of psalms (Col. iii. 16; Eph. v. 19); 7. Fasting (Matt. ix. 15; Joel ii. 12); 8. Solemn thanksgiving (Ps. ix. 14; 1 Thess. v. 18). See _Rites_.

ORDINARY. The person who has ecclesiastical jurisdiction, as of course and of common right, in opposition to persons who are extraordinarily appointed. In some acts of parliament we find the bishop called ordinary, and so he is taken at the common law, as having ordinary jurisdiction in causes ecclesiastical; albeit, in a more general acceptation, the word _Ordinary_ signifies any judge authorized to take cognizance of causes in his own proper right, as he is a magistrate, and not by way of deputation or delegation.

ORDINATION. (See _Orders_.) The apostles appointed bishops, priests, and deacons, to be the standing guides and governors of the Church; and because there should be a succession of them continued in all ages, for the peace and preservation of those churches which they had planted, therefore it is necessary that there should be a power lodged somewhere, to set apart some distinct orders of men to those public offices, and this is called ordination. Many dissenting sects hold it necessary that there should be such a power, but they dispute where it is. Some affirm that a man ought not to take upon him the ministry without a lawful call, which is very true. They likewise agree that ordination ought to be continued, and they define it to be a solemn setting apart of some person to a church office; but they say it is only to be done by preaching presbyters, and that those who are not set apart themselves for the work of the ministry, have no power to join in setting apart others for that purpose; and this form of ordination was proposed to the parliament, in the year 1643, by an assembly of those persons, in order to be ratified. There is another sort of people who hold that where there are no such preaching presbyters, in such case, other persons, sufficiently qualified and approved for their gifts and graces by other ministers, being chosen by the people, and set apart for the ministry, by prayer and fasting in the congregation, may exercise that office, so that some place the power of ordination in simple presbyters, and others in the people. There are others who maintain that ordination is not to be justified by Scripture, and that the word itself signifies a lifting up of hands, and is used in Scripture for giving a vote, which in all popular assemblies is customary even at this day: from whence they infer that the Christian churches were at first democratical, that is, the whole congregation chose their pastor; and that by virtue of such choice he did not pretend to any peculiar jurisdiction distinct from others, but he was only approved by the congregation for his parts, and appointed to instruct the people, to visit the sick, and to perform all other offices of a minister, and at other times he followed his trade; and that the Christians in those days had no notion how a pastor could pretend to any succession to qualify him for the ministry, for that the pretence of dispensing divine things by a mere human constitution was such an absurdity that it could not be reconciled to reason.

This and many more such calumnies were cast on ordination, and the bishops themselves were called ordination-mongers; but it was by those who alleged that the purity of the Christian religion, and the good and orderly government of the world, had been much better provided for without any clergy. But we will show from Scripture, from antiquity, and from the concurrent testimony of the Fathers, that bishops had, and ought to have, the power of ordination.

When our SAVIOUR established the Christian Church, he made his apostles governors thereof, and vested them with a power to ordain others to the ministry; and, accordingly, they ordained the seven deacons, and consecrated St. James bishop of Jerusalem, and he ordained presbyters of that church. That Timothy, as soon as he was made bishop of Ephesus by the great apostle of the Gentiles, but not before, had this power of ordination, is allowed by St. Chrysostom himself, who magnified the power of presbyters more than any of the Fathers; and he proves it thus, viz. because St. Paul gave Timothy a caution, not to admit any one rashly to an ecclesiastical office. It is true he likewise bid him not to despise the gift which was given to him by prophecy, with laying on of the hands of the company of elders; but he could not mean by those words an assembly of ordinary presbyters, for as such they could not have conferred any extraordinary commission, especially upon Timothy, because he was, at that very time, a bishop, and ordained by St. Paul himself. He had a jurisdiction over all the presbyters of Asia; for he had power given him by that apostle to inquire into their conversation and abilities, and then to admit them into that holy office, if he found them qualified, and not otherwise. Titus had the same power throughout that populous island of Crete; and these things are so plain, that they must deny the authority of the Scriptures, who deny the power of ordination to be originally in bishops: and therefore they have invented a senseless objection, viz. that though Timothy and Titus were superior to presbyters, yet their power was but temporary; for they were chosen by the apostles at that time, upon a particular occasion, to preside in the assemblies of presbyters, to moderate the affairs of those churches, which power was to determine at the expiration of their commission. But this cannot be proved by history, or any records. It is a mere invention, contrived to make a party between those two distinct orders of men; and it can have no foundation in Scripture, from the promiscuous use of the words bishop and presbyter: for though it is true that the last is used to show the humility of a bishop, yet it is as true that the word apostle is likewise used to show his superiority. So that, in the primitive times, bishops ordained as bishops, and not as presbyters; for in those days, as it has been already observed, bishops and presbyters were accounted distinct in order, whatever has of late years been advanced to the contrary. Therefore, the objection that a bishop and presbyter were neither distinct in order or office; that though the apostles, and those who immediately succeeded them, exercised a large jurisdiction, yet it was granted to them by our SAVIOUR as they were apostles, and did in no wise concern their successors, to whom he gave no such authority, nor any manner of superiority over their fellow presbyters,—these, and such like, are doctrines which neither agree with the Scripture, nor with the Fathers; they are contrary to the plain and constant usage in the Church for 1600 years, during all which time all Christian churches were governed by bishops.

By the 31st canon of the Church of England it is ordained: “Forasmuch as the ancient Fathers of the Church, led by the example of the apostles, appointed prayers and fasts to be used at the solemn ordaining of ministers, and to that purpose allotted certain times, in which only sacred orders might be given and conferred, we, following their holy and religious example, do constitute and decree, that no deacons or ministers be made or ordained, but only on Sundays immediately following _jejunia quatuor temporum_, commonly called Ember Weeks, appointed in ancient time for prayer and fasting, (purposely for this cause at the first institution,) and so continued at this day in the Church of England.” (See _Ember Days_.)

ORGAN. The greatest of all instruments of music, consisting of pipes, or flutes, made vocal by wind, which is supplied by bellows, and acted on by keys touched by the hands and feet. The Latin word _organum_, means an instrument in general; (just as we now employ the word organ;) but in the course of time it was more specially applied, in a more limited sense, to instruments of music, and specially to that great vehicle of sound, which is in part a combination of many instruments, and is an orchestra in itself. The first organ was made by Ctesibius of Alexandria, about 200 years B. C., (as appears from Athenæus, iv. 75,) with pipes of bronze and lead, with keys, levers, and slides: the wind from a bellows, in which the pressure of water supplied the place of the weight now placed on the bellows. This sort of organ was called hydraulic; and continued in use so late as the ninth century. An epigram of Julian the Apostate, in the middle of the fourth century, describes it as played with the _fingers_, not with the _fists_, and as having copper pipes. (_Brunck, Analecta_ ii. 403.) St. Augustine describes it as “_grande, et inflata follibus_.” It is also spoken of by Ammianus Marcellinus; and exactly described by Claudian, in the fourth century; and Cassiodorus (in the fifth century) defines it as a _tower_, made with various pipes, inflated by bellows, and played on by the fingers, and as having great sweetness and power. It was never used in the Greek Church. Its first ecclesiastical use in the West is a matter of obscurity. Bellarmine states, though on doubtful authority, that, in 660, Pope Vitalian introduced it into the church service at Rome. D. Rimbault, in his very interesting notes to Roger North’s Memoirs of Music, (p. 48,) says, that it was introduced into the English service by Theodore and Adrian, emissaries of Vitalian; and from a passage in the writings of Adhelm, bishop of Sherborne, who died in 709, it appears that the external case was gilt, (“_auratis capsis_,”) and that the pipes were numerous: “maxima _millenis_ organa _flabris_.” All ecclesiastical historians relate, that in 757 the Eastern emperor Constantine Copronymus sent an organ to Pepin, which was placed, as affirmed by M. Hamel, (Manuel des Facteurs des Orgues,) in a church at Compiegne. In 811, ambassadors from Constantinople brought two organs to Charlemagne. However, it is supposed that its use did not become generally known in France till 826, when a Venetian priest introduced what is supposed to be an hydraulic organ. In the same century, Walafred Strabo says, Louis le Debonnaire gave an organ to Aix la Chapelle. In 994, according to Petronius, there were organs at Erfurt and Magdeburg. In 951, Wulstan relates that Elphege, bishop of Winchester, gave an organ to Winchester with 400 pipes, 40 keys, and (if his meaning is clear) 26 pairs of bellows, played by two organists. (See _Turner’s Anglo-Saxons_, book ix. c. 9.) In the tenth century, Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, gave an organ to Malmesbury, described by William of Malmesbury as having copper pipes. At the same time an organ was given to Ramsey church, with copper pipes, “emitting a sweet melody and far-resounding peal,” played on feast days. (See _Turner_, as before.) In the twelfth century, an organ is mentioned in the abbey of Fécamp. And Gervas the monk, describing Canterbury cathedral as he knew it before the fire in 1172, says, that it had arches to carry organs.

The above notices suffice to show the error of Bingham’s statement, that organs were not used in churches till after Thomas Aquinas’ time in 1250. Aquinas merely specifies _harps_ and _psalteries_, as not used, “which our Church does not assume, lest she should seem to judaize.” The south of France, as also the south of Italy, long retained Oriental customs in their churches; thus at Lyons organs were for a long time unemployed. Cardinal Caietan says, the organ was not used in the primitive Church, and gives this as a reason why it is not used in the pope’s chapel. A tenacious respect for antiquity seems to be the only reason which forbids its use in the Greek churches: since, in some branches of that communion, as in Russia, vocal harmony in the sacred offices is carried to great perfection. Hospinian, an ultra-Protestant writer, contends against the use of it, on the authority of St. Paul.

So strongly prejudiced were other writers of the ultra-Protestant school against organs that Newte, in his preface to Dodwell on Music, after mentioning the report of Balæus, that organs were introduced in the year 660, adds, “or rather that it may not want the mark of the beast of the Revelation, as the Magdeburg continuators say, 666.” It is difficult to understand the principle of the objection. The ordering of the instrumental as well as oral music in the temple was a matter, be it remembered, of Divine institution: thus in 2 Chron. xxix. 25. “And he set the Levites in the house of the Lord with cymbals, with psalteries, and with harps, according to the commandment of David, and of Gad the king’s seer, and Nathan the prophet: _for so was the commandment of the Lord by his prophets_.” To be consistent, all oral song, nay, the words of the sacred songs themselves, ought to be silenced also.

At the time of the Reformation, organs were considered as among the vilest remnants of Popery, by all the more enthusiastic partisans of Protestantism. And by those who carried out the principles of ultra-Protestantism to their legitimate extent at the great Rebellion, organs were so generally demolished, that scarcely an instrument could be found in England at the Restoration; and foreigners were brought over to play on some of those which were then erected. It is satisfactory to see such prejudices wearing away. We now find those whose horror at fasting, or at self-denials, or at turning to the east in prayer, or at preaching in a surplice, as the Prayer Book directs, or implies, or at bowing to the altar, or at preferring prayer to preaching, &c., is unfeigned, and who see in these observances nothing but Popery, nevertheless expending large sums of money to erect organs, which are now heard to sound in their very meeting-houses. We believe the Kirk of Scotland is alone consistent in this respect, and true to the principles of their ultra-Protestant forefathers; the members of that Establishment do not even yet tolerate what at the Reformation was called “a squeaking abomination.”

The organ in the Anglican Church had been the regular accompaniment of the choral service for some hundred years before the Reformation. It is still used in cathedrals, collegiate and royal churches and chapels, more frequently than abroad; where it is more employed for symphonies than for an accompaniment, and that in general only on Sundays, holy-days, and eves; whereas in regular English choirs it is used at least twice daily, accompanying the psalms, canticles, and anthems, and those parts of the service which are allowed by the rubric to be sung, including the responses and litanies on more solemn occasions. In ancient times (till the great Rebellion) organs were more common in the college chapels at the universities than now. The general introduction of organs into London parish churches, however, did not take place till after the Restoration. Their use appears never to have been very general, even in cathedrals, in Ireland; and in Scotland it is supposed that they were not introduced till the 15th century.

The phrase _pair of organs_ occurs in many old books. It had its origin probably in the two _stops_ which were common in the smaller mediæval organs: possibly, however, to the two organs, which in the middle ages, as now, entered into the construction of the larger instruments. These large organs consist in reality of three or four instruments, each having its separate sound-board and set of keys; viz. 1. The great organ, for choruses and louder passages: 2. The choir organ, softer than the former, used for the verse passages, &c., and the alternate chant of the psalms; generally placed in front of the great organ; not called from _chair_, as some suppose, (as being placed behind the organist’s _chair_,) but from the choir: as appears from _Dugd. Mon._ ed. 1830, ii. 103, “when in the 15th century the abbot of Croyland gave two organs to his church; the greater one being placed in the nave, the lesser in the choir.” 3. The swell, an English invention, formerly the third manual, played what was called the echo; which is still occasionally found abroad. 4. The pedal organ, or that which is played by the feet. Foreign organs have frequently four rows of manuals, and two of pedals.

It appears from Mr. Hamel’s work, already mentioned, that the organ of the middle ages was by no means so small as is commonly imagined by those who have been misled by ancient monuments and drawings. In the 16th century began the construction of those enormous machines, for which Germany is so renowned: and in consequence it became customary in the north of Europe to transfer the organ from one side of the choir to the chancel screen, (the worst position possible,) or the west end. The improvement of the organ has been progressively advancing ever since.

It may be considered consistent with the object of a Church Dictionary to conclude this long article with some observation on an objection often made to the employment in sacred music of what are wrongly called the _imitative_ stops of the organ. In reality very few of its stops are imitative. The organ is properly a collection of several instruments, which a most complicated machinery enables the organist to play at the same time. The trumpet, the bassoon, and hautboy stops, for example, are each a set of real instruments of these names, differing from those usually so called, only in being inflated by a bellows, not by the mouth, and each giving but one note, and played on by keys. Thus when the psalmist calls on us to praise him with the sound of the trumpet, it is a _literal_ response to his summons to accompany the voice with the stop of that name.

See _Hamel_, Manuel des Facteurs des Orgues, (comprehending _Bedos’_ great work;) and _Roger North’s Memoirs of Music, edited by Rimbault_, already referred to; _Burney and Hawkins’s Histories of Music_; and _Burney’s Musical Tour_.

The ORGAN mentioned in Scripture as the invention of Jubal, (Gen. iv. 21,) and in Job xxi. 12, and Ps. cl. 4, is in the Hebrew _Huggab_, meaning, as Parkhurst supposes, a fastening or joining together. It is supposed by Calmet (see _Music_) to have been like the ancient Pandean pipes, a set of unequal flutes played by the mouth. As used in Gen. iv. it seems to indicate wind instruments generally; but its form and capacity is altogether unknown.

ORGANIST. An ecclesiastical officer, whose business it is to play upon the organ in churches. In ancient times there was no stated organist, the vicars choral being responsible for this duty in turn. In cathedrals and choral foundations, he is, or ought to be, an essential member of the collegiate body. The duty of English cathedral organists is responsible, arduous, and of a sacred character. They are bound to attend twice every day; and in order to be efficient, ought to be skilful musicians, profound harmonists, versed in the knowledge of both instrumental and vocal harmony, and endued with religious feeling. No pains ought to be spared by the governing members of collegiate bodies to render the office not only respectable and efficient, but religious also.

ORIGINAL SIN. “Original sin standeth not in the following of Adam (as the _Pelagians_ do vainly talk); but it is the fault and corruption of the nature of every man that naturally is engendered of the offspring of Adam; whereby man is very far gone from original righteousness, and is of his own nature inclined to evil, so that the flesh lusteth always contrary to the spirit; and therefore in every person born into this world, it deserveth GOD’S wrath and damnation. And this infection of nature doth remain, yea, in them that are regenerated; whereby the lust of the flesh, called in the Greek _phronema sarkos_, which some do expound the wisdom, some sensuality, some the affection, some the desire of the flesh, is not subject to the law of GOD. And although there is no condemnation for them that believe, and are baptized,” [_renatis_, i. e. born again, is the word used in the Latin copy,] “yet the apostle doth confess, that concupiscence and lust hath of itself the nature of sin.”—_Article_ ix. This article was intended to oppose the notion of the School divines, who maintained that the infection of our nature is not a mental, but a mere corporeal taint; that the body alone receives and transmits the contagion, while the soul proceeds, in all cases, immaculate from the hands of the Creator. Original sin they directly opposed to original righteousness, and this they considered, not as something connatural with man, but as a superinduced habit, or adventitious ornament, the removal of which could not prove detrimental to the native powers of the mind. Thus the School divines maintained, in opposition to our Articles, that the lapse of Adam conveys to us solely _imputed_ guilt, the corporeal infection which they admitted, not being sin itself, but the subject matter; not _peccatum_, but _fomes peccati_. The Lutherans taught that original sin is a corruption of our nature in a general sense, the depravation of the mental faculties and the corporeal appetites. The Calvinists maintain that lust and concupiscence are truly and properly sin.

The Scriptures teach us that the sin of Adam not only made him liable to death, but that it also changed the upright nature in which he was originally formed, into one that was prone to wickedness; and that this liability to death, and propensity to sin, were entailed from him upon the whole race of mankind: “By one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned.” (Rom. v. 12.) “As by the offence of one, judgment came upon all men to condemnation, even so, by the righteousness of one, the free gift came upon all men unto justification of life.” (ver. 18.) “By one man’s disobedience many were made sinners.” (ver. 19.) “Through the offence of one, many be dead.” (ver. 15.) “By one man’s offence death reigned by one.” (ver. 17.) “By man came death.” (1 Cor. xv. 21.) “In Adam all die.” (ver. 22.) “The imagination of man’s heart is evil from his youth.” (Gen. viii. 21.) “There is no man that sinneth not.” (1 Kings viii. 46.) “God made man upright, but they found out many inventions.” (Ecc. vii. 29.) “If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us.” (1 John i. 8.) “The heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked.” (Jer. xvii. 9.) “The flesh is weak.” (Matt. xxvi. 41.) “The flesh lusteth against the spirit, and the spirit against the flesh, and these are contrary the one to the other, so that ye cannot do the things that ye would.” (Gal. v. 17.) “I see another law in my members warring against the law of my mind, and bringing me into captivity to the law of sin, which is in my members.” (Rom. vii. 23.) The general corruption of human nature, in consequence of Adam’s disobedience, was acknowledged by the ancient Fathers of the Christian Church. The term _Original Sin_ was first used by Augustine, and before his time it was called the old guilt—the ancient wound—the common curse—the old sin, &c.—_Tomline._

In Scripture this is called “the sin that dwelleth in us” (Rom. vii. 17); “the body of sin” (vi. 6); “the law of sin and death” (viii. 2); “lust” (vii. 7); “the sin which so easily besets us” (Heb. xii. 1); “the flesh” (Gal. v. 16); “the old man” (Eph. iv. 22); “the likeness of Adam” (Gen. v. 3).

The corruption of nature called “original sin” is derived by continual descent from father to son; wherewith all the powers of the soul and body are infected, and that in all men equally. And then, actual sin arising from hence, the understanding is blinded with ignorance and infidelity. The memory is prone to forget the good things which the understanding hath conceived. The will is disobedient to the will of GOD, understood and remembered by us, (the freedom of holiness, which it had at the first, being now lost,) and is wholly bent to sin. The affections are ready to overrule the will, and are subject to all disorder. And the conscience itself is distempered and polluted.—_Usher._

Let us look into the world, let us look into ourselves, and we shall see sufficient proofs of this original corruption; even in our infancy it shows itself in many instances of obstinacy and perverseness; and as we grow up it increases with our years; and unless timely checked by our utmost care and diligence, (through the assistance of Divine grace,) produces habits of all manner of iniquity. Let the proud deist boast of the dignity of his nature, the sufficiency of his reason, and the excellency of his moral attainments; but let us Christians not be ashamed to own our own misery and our guilt; that our understandings are darkened, our wills corrupted, and our whole nature depraved: then may we apply to the Physician of our souls for the succours of his grace, which alone can help and relieve us.—_Waldo._

ORIGENISTS. Heretics, in the fourth century, so called, because they pretended to draw their opinions from the writings of the famous Origen, a priest of Alexandria.

The Origenists made their first appearance in Italy in 397. Rufinus of Aquileia, a priest of Alexandria, had studied the works of Origen with so much application, that he adopted that writer’s Platonic notions for Catholic truths. Full of these ideas, he went to Jerusalem, where Origen had a great many partisans. There he made his court to Melania, a Roman lady, who had embraced Origen’s opinions. Afterwards he came to Rome with this lady, who was greatly esteemed in that city. Here he set out with an outward show of simplicity, and pretended, after the example of Origen, an universal contempt of all worldly things. This made him looked upon as one who lived up to the highest Christian perfection. Rufinus took advantage of this prejudice in his favour to propagate his opinions, in which the credit of Melania was of great use to him. And now he began to have a great number of followers, and to form a considerable sect. But another Roman lady, named Marcella, having acquainted Pope Anastasius, that Rufinus and Melania were spreading very dangerous opinions in Rome, under the veil of piety, the holy father examined into the fact, and forbade them to teach any more. Rufinus and Melania submitted to the prohibition; Melania returned to Jerusalem, and Rufinus to Aquileia. However, the opinions they had broached continued to be maintained and defended by many learned men, who were therefore distinguished by the name of Origenists.

The errors ascribed to the Origenists are in number nine, and are as follows:—

1. The souls of men were holy intelligences, who enjoyed the presence of GOD; but being tired with the Divine contemplation, they degenerated; and as their first fervour was greatly abated, the Greeks therefore called the soul νους, from the word νοσεω, which signifies to slacken or grow cold.

2. Our SAVIOUR’S soul was united to the WORD, before his conception, and before he was born of the Holy Virgin.

3. The body of our SAVIOUR JESUS CHRIST was first formed entire in the Virgin’s womb; and afterwards his soul, which long before had been united to the WORD, came and was joined to it.

4. The WORD of GOD has been successively united with all the angelical natures; insomuch that it has been a cherub, seraph, and all the celestial virtues, one after another.

5. After the resurrection, the bodies of men will be of a spherical figure, and not of their present erect stature.

6. The heavens, sun, moon, and stars, are animated bodies, and have an intelligent soul.

7. In future ages, our SAVIOUR JESUS CHRIST will be crucified for the salvation of the devils, as he has already been for that of men.

8. The power of GOD is not infinite, and was so exhausted in the creation of things, that he has no more left.

9. The punishment of the devils, and of the damned, will continue only for a certain limited time.

These nine errors are distinctly recited by the second Council of Constantinople, at the end of a letter of the emperor Justinian against Origen. The recital of them is immediately followed by an anathema against Origen, and all who maintained his opinions: in which it is remarkable, that the council excommunicated Origen near three hundred years after his death.

The heresy of the Origenists spread widely in Egypt, and especially among the monks. Several eminent bishops opposed them, particularly Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, who, in the year 399, assembled a council in that city, in which the monks inhabiting the mountain of Nitria were condemned as Origenists.

Avitus, a Spanish priest, revived the errors of the Origenists in Spain, about the year 415; and probably it was against the followers of this Avitus, that the Council of Toledo was held in 633.

ORNAMENTS OF THE CHURCH. The common feelings of our nature would suggest the decent adornment of the house of our GOD: “Shall we,” in the words of our homily, “be so mindful of our common base houses, deputed to so low occupying, and be forgetful toward that house of GOD wherein be administered the words of our eternal salvation; wherein are entreated the sacraments and mysteries of our redemption; _the fountain of the regeneration_ is there presented unto us; the partaking of the body and blood of our SAVIOUR CHRIST is there offered unto us; and shall we not esteem the place where so heavenly things are handled?”

The following are the chief enactments of the Church and the State, with reference to the ornaments of the church. By the rubric before the Common Prayer, as also by the 1st of Elizabeth, c. 2, “Such ornaments of the church, and of the ministers thereof, at all times of their ministration, shall be retained and be in use as were in this Church of England, by authority of parliament, in the second year of the reign of King Edward the Sixth.”

_Reynolds._ “The archdeacons shall take care that the clothes of the altar be decent and in good order; that the church have fit books both for singing and reading; and at least two sacerdotal vestments.”

By the statute of _Circumspecte agatis_, 13 Edward I. st. iv. “The king to his judges sendeth greeting:—Use yourselves circumspectly in all matters concerning the prelates, where they do punish for that the church is not conveniently decked: in which case the spiritual judge shall have power to take knowledge, notwithstanding the king’s prohibition.”

“Not conveniently decked.” For the law allows the ecclesiastical court to have cognizance in this case, of providing decent ornaments for the celebration of Divine service.

Canon 85. “The churchwardens or questmen shall take care that all things in the church be kept in such an orderly and decent sort, without dust, or anything that may be either noisome or unseemly, as best becometh the house of GOD, and is prescribed in a homily to that effect.”

Canon 82. “Whereas we have no doubt but that in all churches within the realm of England, convenient and decent tables are provided and placed for the celebration of the holy communion; we appoint that the same tables shall from time to time be kept and repaired in sufficient and seemly manner, and covered in time of Divine service with a carpet of silk or other decent stuff, thought meet by the ordinary of the place, (if any question be made of it,) and with a fair linen cloth at the time of the ministration, as becometh that table, and so stand, saving when the said holy communion is to be administered.”

In ancient times, the bishops preached standing upon the steps of the altar. Afterwards it was found more convenient to have pulpits erected for that purpose.

And by Canon 83. “The churchwardens or questmen, at the common charge of the parishioners, in every church, shall provide a comely and decent pulpit, to be set in a convenient place within the same, by the discretion of the ordinary of the place (if any question do arise); and to be there seemly kept for the preaching of GOD’S word.”

Canon 82. “And likewise a convenient seat shall be made at the charge of the parish, for the minister to read service in.”

Canon 58. “Every minister saying the public prayers, or ministering the sacraments or other rites of the Church, shall wear a decent and comely surplice with sleeves, to be provided at the charge of the parish. And if any question arise touching the matter, decency, or comeliness thereof, the same shall be decided by the discretion of the ordinary.”

Canon 81. “According to a former constitution, (viz. among the constitutions of 1570,) too much neglected in many places, we appoint, that there shall be a font of stone in every church and chapel where baptism is to be ministered: the same to be set in the ancient usual places. In which only font the minister shall baptize publicly.”

In an act in the 27 Henry VIII. it was enacted, that money collected for the poor should be kept in the common coffer or box standing in the church of every parish.

And by Canon 84. “The churchwardens shall provide and have, within three months after the publishing of these constitutions, a strong chest, with a hole in the upper part thereof, to be provided at the charge of the parish, (if there be none such already provided,) having three keys; of which one shall remain in the custody of the parson, vicar, or curate, and the other two in the custody of the churchwardens for the time being; which chest they shall set and fasten in the most convenient place, to the intent the parishioners may put into it their alms for their poor neighbours. And the parson, vicar, or curate shall diligently, from time to time, and especially when men make their testaments, call upon, exhort, and move their neighbours, to confer and give as they may well spare to the said chest: declaring unto them, that whereas heretofore they have been diligent to bestow much substance otherwise than GOD commanded, upon superstitious uses, now they ought at this time to be much more ready to help the poor and needy, knowing that to relieve the poor is a sacrifice which pleaseth GOD: and that also, whatsoever is given for their comfort, is given to CHRIST himself, and is so accepted of Him, that He will mercifully reward the same. The which alms and devotion of the people, the keepers of the keys shall yearly, quarterly, or oftener, (as need requireth,) take out of the chest, and distribute the same in the presence of most of the parish, or of six of the chief of them, to be truly and faithfully delivered to their most poor and needy neighbours.”

Rubric. “Whilst the sentences of the offertory are reading, the deacons, churchwardens, or other fit persons appointed for that purpose, shall receive the alms for the poor, and other devotions of the people, in a decent basin, to be provided by the parish for that purpose.”

This offertory was anciently an oblation for the use of the priest; but at the Reformation it was changed into alms for the poor.

Canon 20. “The churchwardens against the time of every communion shall, at the charge of the parish, with the advice and direction of the minister, provide a sufficient quantity of fine white bread, and of good and wholesome wine: which wine we require to be brought to the communion table in a clean and sweet standing pot, or stoop of pewter, if not of purer metal.”

_Winchelsea._ “The parishioners shall find at their own charge, the _chalice_, or _cup_, for the wine.”

Which, says Lyndwood, “although expressed in the singular number, yet is not intended to exclude more than one, where more are necessary.”

_Winchelsea._ The parishioners, at their own charge, shall find _bells_ with _ropes_.

_Winchelsea._ The parishioners shall find, at their own charge, a _bier_ for the dead.

“If any parishes be yet unfurnished of the _Bible_ of the largest volume, the churchwardens shall, within convenient time, provide the same at the charge of the parish.”

By Canon 80. “The churchwardens or questmen of every church and chapel shall, at the charge of the parish, provide the Book of Common Prayer, lately explained in some few points, by his Majesty’s authority according to the laws and his Highness’s prerogative in that behalf; and that, with all convenient speed, but, at the furthest, within two months after the publishing of these our constitutions.”

By the 1 _Eliz_. c. 2. _The Book of Common Prayer_ shall be provided at the charge of the parishioners of every parish and cathedral church. (s. 19.)

By the 13 & 14 _Charles II._ c. 4. “A true printed copy of the (present) _Book of Common Prayer_ shall, at the costs and charges of the parishioners of every parish church and chapelry, cathedral, church, college, and hall, be provided before the feast of St. Bartholomew, 1662, on pain of £3 a month for so long time as they shall be unprovided thereof.” (s. 2.)

Canon 80. “If any parishes be yet unfurnished of the _Book of Homilies_ allowed by authority, the churchwardens shall, within convenient time, provide the same at the charge of the parish.”

By Canon 17. “In every parish church and chapel shall be provided one _parchment book_ at the charge of the parish, wherein shall be written the day and year of every christening, wedding, and burial within the parish; and for the safe keeping thereof, the churchwardens, at the charge of the parish, shall provide one sure _coffer_, with three locks and keys, whereof one to remain with the minister, and the other two with the churchwardens severally.”

Canon 99. “The _table of degrees of marriages prohibited_ shall be, in every church, publicly set up at the charge of the parish.”

Canon 82. “The _Ten Commandments_ shall be set, at the charge of the parish, upon the east end of every church and chapel, where the people may best see and read the same.”

Canon 82. “And other chosen _sentences_ shall, at the like charge, be written upon the walls of the said churches and chapels in places convenient.”

Lord Coke says, “Concerning the building or erecting of _tombs_, _sepulchres_, or _monuments_ for the deceased in church, chancel, common chapel, or churchyard, in convenient manner, it is lawful; for it is the last work of charity that can be done for the deceased; who, whilst he lived, was a living temple of the HOLY GHOST, with a reverent regard and Christian hope of a joyful resurrection. And the defacing of them is punishable by the common law, and those who build or erect the same shall have the action during their lives, and, after their decease, the heir of the deceased shall have the action. But the building or erecting the sepulchre, tomb, or other monument, ought not to be to the hinderance of the celebration of Divine service.”

Of _grave-stones_, (he says,) _winding-sheets_, _coats of arms_, _penons_, or other _ensigns of honour_, hung up, laid, or placed in memory of the dead, the property remains in the executors; and they may have actions against such as break, deface, or carry them away, or an appeal of felony.

But Sir Simon Degge says, he conceives that this must be intended, by licence of the bishop, or consent of the parson and churchwardens.

Dr. Watson says, this is to be understood of such monuments only as are set up in the aisles belonging to particular persons; or if they be set up in any other part of the church, he supposes it is to be understood that they were placed there with the incumbent’s consent.

And Dr. Gibson observing thereupon says thus:—“Monuments, coat armour, and other ensigns of honour, set up in memory of the deceased, may not be removed at the pleasure of the ordinary or incumbent. On the contrary, if either they or any other person shall take away or deface them, the person who set them up shall have an action against them during his life, and after his death the heir of the deceased shall have the same, who (as they say) is inheritable to arms, and the like, as to heir-looms: and it avails not that they are annexed to the freehold, though that is in the parson. But this, as he conceives, is to be understood with one limitation; if they were set up with consent of the ordinary; for though (as my Lord Coke says) tombs, sepulchres, or monuments may be erected for the deceased, in church or chancel, in convenient manner, the ordinary must be allowed the proper judge of that conveniency; inasmuch as such erecting, he adds, ought not to be to the hinderance of the celebration of Divine service. And if they are erected without consent, and upon inquiry and inspection be found to the hinderance of Divine service, he thinks it will not be denied that in such case the ordinary has sufficient authority to decree a removal, without any danger of an action at law.”

If any _superstitious pictures_ are in a window of a church or aisle, it is not lawful for any to break them without licence of the ordinary: and in _Pricket’s case_, Wray, chief justice, bound the offender to good behaviour.

Besides what has been observed in particular, there are many other articles for which no provision is made by any special law, and therefore must be referred to the general power of the churchwardens, with the consent of the major part of the parishioners as aforesaid, and under the direction of the ordinary; such as the erecting _galleries_, adding new _bells_, (and of consequence, as it seems, salaries for the ringers,) _organs_, _clock_, _chimes_, _king’s arms_, _pulpit cloths_, _hearse cloth_, _rushes or mats_, _vestry furniture_, and such like. The soil and freehold of the church and churchyard is in the parson; but the fee simple of the glebe is in abeyance. And if the walls, windows, or doors of the church be broken by any person, or the trees in the churchyard be cut down, or grass there be eaten up by a stranger; the incumbent of the rectory (or his tenant, if they be let) may have his actions for the damages. But the goods of the church do not belong to the incumbent, but to the parishioners; and if they be taken away or broken, the churchwardens shall have their action of trespass at the common law.

The magnificence of the first Jewish temple was acceptable to GOD; and the too sparing contributions of the people towards the second, was severely reproved; and therefore no one can justly complain, that the ornaments now made use of in our churches are too many, or expensive. Far from us be all ornaments unbecoming the worship of a spirit, or the gravity of a church; but it has an ill aspect when men think that well enough in GOD’S house, which they would not endure in the meanest offices of their own. It is not enough barely to devote churches to the public services of religion, unless they are set apart with the solemn rites of a formal dedication. By these solemnities the founders were accustomed to surrender all the right they had in them, and make GOD himself the sole owner. And whoever gave any lands or endowments to the service of GOD, gave it in a formal writing, sealed and witnessed, (as is now usual in common transactions,) the tender of the gift being made upon the altar, by the donor on his knees. At the consecration of both the tabernacle and the temple of the Jews, it pleased the Almighty to give a manifest sign that he then took possession of them. (Ex. xl. 34; 1 Kings viii. 10, 11.)—_Wheatly._

Temples, and other utensils designed by GOD himself, are holy as related to him by that designation. Temples, utensils, lands, &c. devoted and lawfully separated by man, for holy uses, are holy as justly related to GOD by that lawful separation. To say, as some do, that they are indeed consecrated and separated, but not holy, is to be ridiculously wise by self-contradiction, and the masterly use of the word holy contrary to custom and terms. Ministers are more holy than temples, lands, or utensils, as being more nearly related to holy things. And things separated by GOD himself are more holy than those justly separated by man. And so of days.—_Baxter._

Can we judge it a thing seemly for any man to go about the building of an house to the GOD of heaven, with no other appearance than if his end were to rear up a kitchen, or a parlour, for his own use? or when a work of such a nature is finished, remaineth there nothing but presently to use it, and so an end? Albeit the true worship of GOD be to GOD in itself acceptable, who respecteth not so much in what place, as with what affection he is served; and therefore Moses in the midst of the sea, Job on the dunghill, Ezekiah in bed, Jeremy in mire, Jonas in the whale, Daniel in the den, the Children in the furnace, the Thief on the cross, Peter and Paul in prison, calling unto GOD were heard, as St. Basil noteth, manifest notwithstanding it is, that the very majesty and holiness of the place where GOD is worshipped hath in regard of us great virtue, force, and efficacy, for that it serveth as a sensible help to stir up devotion.—_Hooker._

The reader who desires to possess a perfect knowledge on this head, is referred to Bingham’s “Origines Ecclesiasticæ,” or _Antiquities of the Christian Church_, b. viii.

ORTHODOXY. (Ὀρθὸς and δοκέω.) Soundness of doctrine.

Of course the question here to be decided is, What _is_ soundness of doctrine? If two men take Scripture for their guide, and professing to have no other guide, come to opposite conclusions, it is quite clear that neither has a right to decide that the other is not orthodox. On this principle it is as uncharitable and illogical for the Trinitarian to call the Socinian not orthodox, as it is for the Socinian to predicate the same of the Trinitarian. But if we interpret Scripture by the sense of the Church, then we may consistently call those orthodox who hold the doctrines which she deduces from Scripture, and those heterodox who do not hold those doctrines. So that orthodoxy means soundness of doctrine, the doctrine being proved to be sound by reference to the consentient testimony of Scripture and the Church. Hence perhaps it is, that as those low-churchmen, who repudiate Socinian notions, are by some called evangelicals, so high-churchmen are designated orthodox. Both titles, if intended to be applied _exclusively_, are applied incorrectly.

ORTLIBENSES. (_Lat._) A sect, or branch, of the ancient Vaudois or Waldenses.

The Ortlibenses denied there was a Trinity before the nativity of JESUS CHRIST, who, according to them, was not till that time the SON of GOD. To these two persons of the GODHEAD they added a third, during the preaching of JESUS CHRIST; namely, St. Peter, whom they acknowledged to be the HOLY GHOST. They held the eternity of the world; but had no notion of the resurrection of the body, or the immortality of the soul. Notwithstanding which, they maintained (perhaps by way of irony) that there would be a final judgment, at which time the pope and the emperor would become proselytes to their sect.

They denied the death and resurrection of JESUS CHRIST. His cross, they pretended, was penance and their own abstemious way of life: this, they said, was the cross our SAVIOUR bore. They ascribed all the virtue of baptism to the merit of him who administered it. They were of opinion, that Jews might be saved without baptism, provided they embraced their sect. They boldly asserted, that they themselves were the only true mystical body, that is to say, the Church of CHRIST.

PACIFICATION, EDICTS OF, were decrees or edicts, granted by the kings of France to the Protestants, for appeasing the troubles occasioned by their persecution.

The first edict of pacification was granted by Charles IX., in January, 1562, permitting the free exercise of the reformed religion near all the cities and towns of the realm. March 19, 1563, the same king granted a second edict of pacification, at Amboise, permitting the free exercise of the reformed religion in the houses of gentlemen and lords high-justiciaries (or those that had the power of life and death) to their families and dependants only; and allowing other Protestants to have their sermons in such towns as they had them in before the seventh of March; obliging them withal to quit the churches they had possessed themselves of during the troubles. Another, called the edict of Lonjumeau, ordering the execution of that of Amboise, was published March 27, 1558, after a treaty of peace. This pacification was of but short continuance; for Charles, perceiving a general insurrection of the Huguenots, revoked the said edicts in September, 1568, forbidding the exercise of the Protestant religion, and commanding all the ministers to depart the kingdom in fifteen days. But, on the eighth of August, 1570, he made peace with them again, and published an edict on the eleventh, allowing the lords high-justiciaries to have sermons in their houses for all comers, and granting other Protestants two public exercises in each government. He likewise gave them four cautionary towns, viz. Rochelle, Montauban, Cognac, and La Charité, to be places of security for them during the space of two years. Nevertheless, in August, 1572, he authorized the Bartholomew massacre, and at the same time issued a declaration, forbidding the exercise of the Protestant religion.

Henry III., in April, 1576, made peace with the Protestants, and the edict of pacification was published in parliament, May 14, permitting them to build churches, and have sermons where they pleased. The Guisian faction, enraged at this general liberty, began the famous league for defence of the Catholic religion, which became so formidable, that it obliged the king to assemble the states of the kingdom at Blois, in December, 1576; where it was enacted, that there should be but one religion in France, and that the Protestant ministers should be all banished. In 1577, the king, to pacify the troubles, published an edict in parliament, October 8th, granting the same liberty to the reformed which they had before. However, in July, 1585, the league obliged him to publish another edict, revoking all former concessions to the Protestants, and ordering them to depart the kingdom in six months, or turn Papists. This edict was followed by more to the same purpose.

Henry IV. coming to the crown, published a declaration, July 4, 1591, abolishing the edicts against the Protestants. This edict was verified in the parliament of Chalons; but the troubles prevented the verification of it in the parliaments of the other provinces; so that the Protestants had not the free exercise of their religion in any place but where they were masters, and had banished the Romish religion. In April, 1598, the king published a new edict of pacification at Nantes, granting the Protestants the free exercise of their religion in all places where they had the same in 1596 and 1597, and one exercise in each bailiwick.

This edict of Nantes was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 1610, and by Louis XIV. in 1652. But his letter, in 1685, abolished it entirely; since which time the Protestants ceased to be tolerated in France till the Revolution.—_Broughton._

PÆDO-BAPTISM. (From παῖς, _a child_, and βαπτίζω, _to baptize_.) The baptism of children. (See _Baptism of Infants_.)

PALL, or PALLIUM. The word pallium properly signifies a cloak, thrown over the shoulders: afterwards it came to denote a sort of cape or tippet, and hence the ecclesiastical designation in the Western Church.

The origin of the pall, which has been generally worn by the Western metropolitans, is disputed; but whoever considers the ancient figures of it which are found in manuscripts, &c., will see that it was originally only a stole wound round the neck, with the ends hanging down behind and before. In the East the pall is called _omophorion_, and has been used, at least, since the time of Chrysostom. It is used by all the Eastern bishops, above the phenolion or vestment, during the eucharist; and, as used by them, resembles the ancient pall much more nearly than that worn by the Western metropolitans.—_Palmer._

The pall was part of the imperial habit, and originally granted by the emperors to the patriarchs. Thus Constantine gave the use of the pall to the bishop of Rome; and Anthimus, patriarch of Constantinople, being expelled his see, is said to have returned the pall to the emperor Justinian; which implies his having received it from him. And the reason of the royal consent in this manner seems to be, because it was high treason to wear any part of the imperial habit without licence.

In after ages, when the see of Rome had carried its authority to the highest pitch, under Pope Innocent III., that pontiff, in the Lateran Council, A. D. 1215, decreed the pall to be a mark and distinction, intimating the plenitude of the apostolic power, and that neither the function nor title of archbishop should be assumed without it; and this, not only when a bishop was preferred to the degree of archbishop, but likewise in case of translations, when an archbishop was removed from one see to another. It was decreed, likewise, that every archbishop should be buried in his pall, that his successor might make no use of it, but be obliged to apply to the pope for another. By these means the court of Rome brought vast sums of money into its exchequer.

In the Romish Church the following is the description of the pall as given by Romish writers. The pallium is a part of the pontifical dress worn only by the pope, archbishops, and patriarchs. It is a white woollen band of about three fingers’ breadth, made round, and worn over the shoulders, crossed in front with one end hanging down over the breast; the other behind it is ornamented with purple crosses, and fastened by three golden needles or pins. It is made of the wool of perfectly white sheep, which are yearly, on the festival of St. Agnes, offered and blessed at the celebration of the holy eucharist, in the church dedicated to her in the Nomentan Way in Rome. The sheep are received by two canons of the church of St. John Lateran, who deliver them into the charge of the subdeacons of the Apostolic College, and they then are kept and fed by them until the time for shearing them arrives. The palliums are always made of this wool, and when made they are brought to the church of St. Peter and St. Paul, and are placed upon the altar over their tomb on the eve of their festival, and are left there the whole night, and on the following day are delivered to the subdeacons, whose office it is to take charge of them. The pope alone _always_ wears the pallium, and wherever he officiates, to signify his assumed authority over all other particular churches. Archbishops and patriarchs receive it from him, and cannot wear it, except in their own churches, and only on certain great festivals when they celebrate the mass.

An archbishop in the Romish Church, although he be consecrated as bishop, and have taken possession, cannot before he has petitioned for, and received and paid for the pallium, either call himself archbishop, or perform such acts as belong to the “greater jurisdiction;” those, namely, which he exercises not as a bishop, but as archbishop, such as to summon a council, or to visit his province, &c. He can, however, when his election has been confirmed, and before he receives the pallium, depute his functions, in the matter of ordaining bishops, to his suffragans, who may lawfully exercise them by his command. If, however, any archbishop in the Romish Church, before he receives the pallium, perform those offices which result immediately from the possession of it, such as, for instance, those relating to orders and to the chrism, &c., the acts themselves are valid, but the archbishop offends against the canons and laws of the Church.

The pall is still retained as an heraldic ensign, in the arms of the archbishops of Canterbury, Armagh, and Dublin, and formerly constituted those of the archbishop of York also.

PALL is also used for a covering; as the black cloth which covers the coffin at funerals, and sometimes for an _altar cloth_. Thus at the coronation, the sovereign makes an oblation of a _pall_, or _altar cloth of gold_.

PALM SUNDAY. The Sunday next before Easter, so called from palm branches being strewed on the road by the multitude, when our SAVIOUR made his triumphal entry into Jerusalem.

This week, immediately preceding the feast of Easter, is more especially designed to fit us for that great solemnity; and, to that end, is to be spent in more than ordinary piety and devotion. It was anciently called sometimes the Great Week, sometimes the Holy Week, because it hath a larger service than any other week, every day having a second service appointed for it, in which are rehearsed at large the sufferings of CHRIST, as they are described by the four evangelists; that by hearing and reading the history of his passion, we may be better prepared for the mystery of his resurrection; that, by his rising from the dead, we may be quickened to newness of life. This day, which begins this holy week, is called by the name of Palm Sunday, being the day on which our SAVIOUR entered Jerusalem with great joy; some spreading their garments, others cutting down branches of palm, carrying them in their hands, and strewing them in the way, which hath been remembered with great solemnity.—_Dr. Hole._

In the missals this Sunday is called Palm Sunday; and in many parts of England it still retains its ancient name. On this day, till the æra of the Reformation, the people in solemn procession carried in their hands palms, or branches of some other tree, in commemoration of CHRIST’S triumphal entry into Jerusalem five days before his death. The palms were then placed on the altar by the clerks, before the time of the celebration of the eucharist; and numerous benedictory collects were pronounced over them by the priest.—_Shepherd._

The collect for the day puts us in mind of the tender love of GOD towards mankind, in sending his SON, not only to take upon him our flesh, but to suffer in it the death of the cross for our sins; to the intent, “that all mankind should follow the example of his great humility;” and thence teaches us to pray, “that we may both follow the example of his patience, and also be made partakers of his resurrection.”

The Epistle for the day presents us to this purpose with the highest and best pattern for our imitation, even the SON of GOD, who hath done and suffered all these great things for us.

This Gospel, with the rest that follow on each day of this holy week, gives us an ample account of the death and passion of our blessed SAVIOUR, together with the many circumstances that went before and came after it.—_Dr. Hole._

PANTHEISM. (Πᾶν, _all_; Θεὸς, _God_.) A subtle kind of atheism, which makes GOD and the universe the same, and so denies the existence and sovereignty of any GOD over the universe. It is to be feared that much of the mere natural religion of the present day partakes of the character of Pantheism.

PAPA. (Πάππας, Greek.) A name originally given to the bishops of the Christian Church, though now it is become in the West the pretended prerogative and sole privilege of the pope, or bishop of Rome. The word signifies no more than _father_.

Tertullian, speaking indefinitely of any Christian bishop who absolves penitents, gives him the name of _Benedictus Papa_. Heraclas, bishop of Alexandria, has the same title given him. St. Jerome gives the title of _Papa_ to Athanasius, Epiphanius, and Paulinus; and, writing often to St. Augustine, he always inscribes his epistles _Beatissimo Papæ Augustino_.

The name _Papa_ was sometimes given to the inferior clergy, who were called _Papæ Pisinni_, that is, _little fathers_; in comparison of whom Balsamon calls presbyters _Protopapæ_, i.e. _chief fathers_.

The Greek Christians have continued to give the name _Papa_ to their priests. And there is, in all Oriental cathedrals, and at Messina in Sicily, (where Oriental customs are largely retained,) there was formerly an ecclesiastical dignitary styled _Protopapa_, who, besides a jurisdiction over several churches, had a particular respect paid him by the cathedral. For, upon Whitsunday, the prebendaries went in procession to the _Protopapa’s_ church, (called the _Catholic_,) and attended him to the cathedral, where he sang solemn _Vespers_, according to the Greek rituals, and was afterwards waited upon back to his own church with the same pompous respect. The Vespers, and the Epistle and Gospel, at Pentecost, are still sung by Greek priests.—_Pirri-Sicilia Sacra._ (See _Pops_.)

PAPISTS. (See _Popery_ and _Roman Catholics_. For the form of reconciling Papists to the Church of England, see _Abjuration_.)

PARABLE. The parabolical, enigmatical, figurative, and sententious way of speaking was the language of the Eastern sages and learned men; and nothing was more insupportable than to hear a fool utter parables: “The legs of the lame are not equal; so is a parable in the mouth of fools.” (Prov. xxvi. 7.)

It is generally applied, as in the New Testament, to a figurative discourse, or a story with a typical meaning; but in the Old Testament, it sometimes signifies a mere discourse: as _Job’s parable_, which occupies many chapters of the book of Job (xxvi.——xxxi. inclusive). The same title is applied by its inspired composer to the seventy-eighth Psalm, (ver. 2,) which is historical, not deeply mystical, like the forty-ninth.

Our SAVIOUR in the Gospel seldom speaks to the people but in parables: thereby verifying the prophecy of Isaiah, (vi. 9,) that the people should see without knowing, and hear without understanding, in the midst of instruction. Some parables in the New Testament are supposed to be true histories. In others our SAVIOUR seems to allude to some points of history in those times; as that describing a king who went into a far country to receive a kingdom. This may hint at the history of Archelaus, who, after the death of his father, Herod the Great, went to Rome, to receive from Augustus the confirmation of his father’s will, by which he had the kingdom of Judea left to him.

PARABOLANI. (_Lat._) In the ancient Christian Church were certain officers, deputed to attend upon the sick, and to take care of them all the time of their weakness.

At Alexandria, the Parabolani were incorporated into a society, to the number of 500 or 600, elected by the bishop of the place, and under his direction. But that this was not an order peculiar to the Church of Alexandria is very evident, because there is mention made of Parabolani at Ephesus at the time of the second council held there. (A. D. 449.)

They were called _Parabolani_ from their undertaking a most dangerous and hazardous office, (παραβολον εργον,) in attending the sick, especially in infectious and pestilential diseases. The Greeks used to call those παραβολοι, who hired themselves out to fight with wild beasts in the amphitheatre; for the word παραβαλλειν signifies exposing a man’s life to danger. In this sense, the Christians were often called Parabolani by the heathens, because they were so ready to expose their lives to martyrdom. And, upon the like account, the name _Parabolani_ was given to the officers we are speaking of.

These Parabolani, being men of a bold and daring spirit, were ready upon all occasions to engage in any quarrel that should happen in Church or State, as they seem to have done in the dispute between Cyril the bishop and Orestes the governor of Alexandria. Wherefore the emperor Theodosius put them under the inspection of the Præfectus Augustalis, and strictly prohibited them to appear at any public shows, or in the common council of the city, or in the courts of judicature, unless any of them had a cause of his own, or appeared as syndic for the whole body. Which shows that the civil government always looked upon the Parabolani as a formidable body of men, and kept a watchful eye over them, that, while they were serving the Church, they might not do any disservice to the State.—_Bingham._

PARACLETE. A comforter and advocate; a title applied to GOD the HOLY GHOST. (John xv. 26.)—See _Holy Ghost_.

PARACLETICE, (_Gr._,) among the Greek Christians, is a book of anthems, or hymns, so called, because they chiefly tend to comfort the sinner, or because they are partly invocatory, consisting of pious addresses to GOD and the saints.

The hymns or anthems in this book are not appropriated to particular days, but contain something proper to be recited every day, in the mass, vespers, matins, and other offices.

Allatius finds great fault with this book, and says there are many things in it disrespectful to the Virgin Mary, and many things ascribed to her against all reason and equity; that it affirms that John the Baptist, after his death, preached CHRIST in hell; and that CHRIST himself, when he descended into hell, freed all mankind from the punishments of that place and the power of the devil.

PARAPET. A low wall protecting the gutter in the roof of churches or other buildings. Early parapets are universally plain, but, with the Decorated style, they begin to be panelled, and sometimes pierced with various patterns, and in the Perpendicular they are very frequently crenellated.

PARAPHRASE. (_Chaldaic._) It is commonly believed that the first translation of the holy Bible was in Chaldee, and that the ignorance of the Jews in the Hebrew tongue, after the Babylonish captivity, was the occasion of that version, called the Targum, or Chaldee paraphrase, which was neither done by one author, nor at the same time, nor made upon all the books of the Old Testament. The first upon the Pentateuch was done by Onkelos, a proselyte, who lived about the time of our SAVIOUR, if we believe the Hebrew authors; the second upon the Pentateuch is attributed to Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, who is not the same with the Theodotion, which in Greek has the same signification as Jonathan in Hebrew; that is, the gift of GOD. The third upon the same book is called the Targum Hierosolymitanum, or the Jerusalem paraphrase; the author of which is not certainly known, nor the time when it was composed. Schikard believes it to bear the same date as the Targum of Jerusalem, which was written about 300 years after the last destruction of the temple, burnt in the seventieth year after our LORD’S incarnation. There are, besides these, three paraphrases upon the books of Moses; another upon the Psalms, Job, and Proverbs; there is also one upon the Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, but the author not known; and we have a Chaldee paraphrase upon Joshua, Judges, Kings, and the Prophets, by Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, who, according to the Jews, had before written the paraphrase upon the Pentateuch.

Several learned men believe that all the rabbins say concerning the Chaldee paraphrase is fabulous, and that the oldest of all the translations is that of the Septuagint: it is also added that they are later than St. Jerome, who, having great acquaintance with the most learned rabbins, and having written so much upon that subject, could not fail of speaking of the Chaldee paraphrases, if there had been any such in his time. The Jews affirm they were composed in the time of the prophets, and they have them in so great veneration, that they are obliged to read in their synagogue a section of Onkelos’ paraphrase, when they have read a Hebrew text in the Bible.

PARCLOSE. Screens separating chapels, especially those at the east end of the aisles, from the body of the church, are called _parcloses_.

PARDONS. (See _Indulgences_.) In the Romish Church, _pardons_ or _indulgences_ are releasement from the temporal punishment of sin; the power of granting which is supposed to be lodged in the pope, to be dispensed by him to the bishops and inferior clergy, for the benefit of penitents throughout the Church. In the theory of pardons, the point is assumed, that holy men may accomplish more than is strictly required of them by the Divine law; that there is a meritorious value in this overplus; that such value is transferable, and that it is deposited in the spiritual treasury of the Church, subject to the disposal of the pope, to be, on certain conditions, applied to the benefit of those whose deficiencies stand in need of such a compensation. A distinction is then drawn between the temporal and the eternal punishment of sin; the former of which not only embraces penances, and all satisfactions for sin in the present life, but also the pains of purgatory in the next. These are supposed to be within the control and jurisdiction of the Church; and, in the case of any individual, may be ameliorated or terminated by the imputation of so much of the overabundant merits of the saints, &c., as may be necessary to balance the deficiencies of the sufferer.

The privilege of selling pardons, it is well known, was frequently granted by the pope to monastic bodies in every part of the Church; and the scandals and disorders consequent upon them, was one of the first moving causes of the Reformation. Against these most pernicious and soul-destroying errors, the Church of England protests in her twenty-second Article: “The Romish doctrine concerning purgatory, _pardons_, worshipping, and adoration, as well of images as of relics, and also of invocation of saints, is a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the word of GOD.”

In treating this subject we will first show what the Romish doctrine is, and then how repugnant it is to Scripture.

As for the first, what their doctrine concerning pardons is, it is difficult to determine; they have had so many crotchets about it, that one can scarce tell where to find them. We shall endeavour to explain it in these following propositions:—

First, They assert, as Bellarmine saith, that “many holy men have suffered more for GOD and righteousness’ sake than the guilt of the temporal punishment, which they were obnoxious to for faults committed by them, could exact.”

Secondly, Hence they say, as Johannes de Turrecremata, “That one can satisfy for another, or one can acceptably perform satisfactory punishment for another,” viz. “because they suffer more than is due to their own sins; and seeing all sufferings are satisfactory, what they undergo more than is due to their own is satisfactory for other men’s sins.”

Thirdly, “Seeing they who thus undergo satisfactory punishments for others do not appoint the fruit of this their satisfaction to any particular persons, it therefore,” as Roffensis saith, “becomes profitable to the whole Church in common, so that it is now called the common treasury of the Church, to wit, that from thence may be fetched whatsoever any others lack of due satisfaction.”

Fourthly, “This common treasure,” saith Bellarmine, “is the foundation of pardons.” So that, as he saith, “the Church hath power to apply this treasure of satisfaction, and by this to grant our pardons.”

By this, therefore, we may have some sight into this great mystery, and perceive what they mean by pardons. For as Laymanus the Jesuit saith, “A pardon or indulgence is the remission of a temporal punishment due to GOD without the sacrament, by the application of the satisfaction of CHRIST and the saints.” Or, as Gregorius de Valentia saith, “An ecclesiastical pardon or indulgence is a relaxation of a temporal punishment by GOD’S judgment due to actual sins, after the remission of the fault made without the sacrament (of penance), by the application of the superabundant satisfaction of CHRIST and the saints, by him who hath lawful authority to do it.” But let us hear what a pope himself saith concerning these pardons. Leo X., in his decretal, ann. 1518, saith, “The pope of Rome may, for reasonable causes, grant to the same saints of CHRIST who, charity uniting them, are members of CHRIST, whether they be in this life or in purgatory, pardons out of the superabundancy of the merits of CHRIST and the saints; and that be used, for the living as well as for the dead, by his apostolic power of granting pardons, to dispense or distribute the treasure of the merits of CHRIST and the saints, to confer the indulgence itself, after the manner of an absolution, or transfer it after the manner of a suffrage.” So that, as Durandus saith, “The Church can communicate from this treasure to any one, or several, for their sins, in part or in whole, according as it pleases the Church to communicate more or less from the treasure.” And hence it is that we find it said in the book of indulgences or pardons, that “Pope Sylvester and Gregory, that consecrated the Lateran Church, gave so many pardons, that none could number them but GOD; Boniface being witness, who said, ‘if men knew the pardons of the Lateran Church, they would not need to go by sea to the holy sepulchre. In the chapel of the saints are twenty-eight stairs that stood before the house of Pilate in Jerusalem. Whosoever shall ascend those stairs with devotion hath, for every sin, nine years of pardons; but he that ascends them kneeling, he shall free one soul out of purgatory.’” So that it seems the pope can not only give me a pardon for sins past, but to come; yea, and not only give me a pardon for my own sins, but power to pardon other men’s sins, else I could not redeem a soul from purgatory.

We have been the larger in the opening of this great Romish mystery, because we need do no more than open it; for, being thus opened, it shows itself to be a ridiculous and impious doctrine, utterly repugnant to the Scriptures. For this doctrine, thus explained, is grounded upon works of supererogation; for it is from the treasury of these good works that the Romish Church fetches all her pardons. Now this is but a bad foundation, contrary to Scripture, reason, and Fathers; as we have seen in the fourteenth Article. And if the foundation be rotten, the superstructure cannot be sound. Again, this doctrine supposes one man may and doth satisfy for another; whereas the Scriptures hold forth “CHRIST [as] our propitiation,” (1 John ii. 2,) “Who trode the wine-press of his Father’s wrath alone” (Isaiah lxiii. 3). Lastly, this doctrine supposes that a pope, a priest, a finite creature, can pardon sins; whereas the Scripture holds forth this as the prerogative only of the true GOD. For “who is a GOD like unto thee,” saith the prophet Micah, “that pardoneth iniquities?” (Mic. vii. 18.) And therefore the scribes and Pharisees, when they said, “Who can forgive sins but GOD alone?” (Luke v. 21,) what they said, though wickedly said by them, not acknowledging CHRIST to be GOD, and so not to have that power, yet it was truly said in itself: for, had not CHRIST been GOD, he would have had no more power to forgive sins than the pope.

And whatsoever the doctors of the Romish Church now hold, we are sure the Fathers of old constantly affirmed that it was GOD only could forgive sin. So Chrysostom saith, “For none can pardon sins but only GOD.” Euthymius, “None can truly pardon sins, but he alone who beholds the thoughts of men.” Gregory, “Thou who alone sparest, who alone forgivest sins. For who can forgive sins but GOD alone?” Ambrose, “For this cannot be common to any man with CHRIST to forgive sins. This is his gift only who took away the sins of the world.” Certainly the Fathers never thought of the pope’s pardons, when they let such and the like sentences slip from them. Nay, and Athanasius was so confident that it was GOD only could pardon sin, that he brings this as an argument against the Arians, to prove that CHRIST was GOD, because he could pardon sin. “But how,” saith he, “if the WORD was a creature, could he loose the sentence of GOD, and pardon sin?” It being written by the prophets that this belongs to GOD; for “who is a GOD like to thee, pardoning sins, and passing by transgressions?” For GOD said, “Thou art earth, and unto earth thou shalt return.” So that men are mortal: and how then was it possible that sin should be pardoned or loosed by creatures? Yet CHRIST loosed and pardoned them. Certainly had the pope’s pardons been heard of in that age, this would have been but a weak argument. For Arius might easily have answered, “It doth not follow, that, because CHRIST could pardon sin, he was therefore GOD; for the pope is not GOD, and yet he can pardon sin.” But thus we see the Fathers confidently averring, it is GOD only can pardon sins, and therefore that the pope cannot pardon them by any means whatsoever, unless he be GOD, which as yet they do not assert. And so that the Romish doctrine concerning pardons is a fond thing, repugnant to the Scriptures.—_Beveridge._

PARISH. A parish is that circuit of ground which is committed to the charge of one parson or vicar, or other minister having cure of souls therein. A _reputed parish_ is where there is a parochial chapel, with all parochial rites entirely independent of the mother-church, as to sacraments, marriages, burials, repairs, &c. (See _Chapel_.)

The word _parish_ is from the Greek word παροικία, (_paroichia_,) which signifies _sojourning_, or living _as a stranger_ or inmate; for so it is used among the classical Greek writers. The Septuagint translate the Hebrew word ‏גר‎, (_Ger_,) _peregrinus_, by πάροικος, (Gen. xv. 13, &c.,) and the word ‏מגור‎, (_Magor_,) _peregrinatio_, by παροικία. (Ps. cxix. 54.)

The primitive Christians received a great part of their customs, and also their phraseology from the Jews; who, when they travelled abroad, and many of them were settled in any town, either built them a synagogue, or else procured a large room, where they performed their public worship; and all that were strangers in that place met there at the times of public devotion. This brotherhood of Jews, which was mixed with the inhabitants of the place, they called the παροικία, or the _society of the sojourners_. At the beginning of Christianity, the Christians were in the same condition with the Jews, they being themselves either Jews, or Jewish proselytes, or living in a retired condition, sequestered from the world, and little mixing with affairs. Upon which account St. Peter addresses them ὡς παροικοὺς, &c., _as strangers and pilgrims_. (1 Pet. ii. 11.) This number of strangers in the heathen cities was called the παροικία, over which there was set, by apostolical authority, a bishop, a προεσθώς, a _cazan_, (an inspector,) or a _rhosh cohel_ (a head of the congregation); all which names denoted the episcopal authority, and which in little time centred in the one most usual name, of ἐπίσκοπος, or bishop, as is plainly seen by the Ignatian epistles. So that the ἐπίσκοπος and παροικία became relative terms; he that had the superintendency of the congregation, whether one or more, was called the bishop, and the congregation under his care was called the παροικία. Hence, in the most early time of the Greek Church, the word παροικία was used to signify, what we now call a _diocese_; and thus, in the apostolic canons, a bishop that leaves his diocese παροικίαν for another is to be reduced to lay-communion. Hence it is said, “The bishop of the diocese παροικιας of Alexandria departed this life.” And again, “the glory παροικιας of the diocese of Cæsarea.” The Latins took up the same way of expression, from the Greek, denoting a diocese by the word _parochia_, which mode of expression lasted till after the time of Charlemagne.

But it is to be observed, that when the word _parochia_ signified a diocese, the word _diocesis_ signified a parish. So in the Council of Agatha, _presbyter dum diocesin tenet_, “whilst the presbyter is in possession of his living.” And in the third Council of Orleans, _diocesis_ is the same with _basilica_, a parish church. But in the seventh or eighth century, when parish churches began frequently to be founded in villages, the old names shifted, and _diocesis_ was used to denote the extent of the bishop’s jurisdiction; and _parochia_, the place where the presbyter’s care was limited.

That the word παροικία was not exclusively applied to a _parish_, and that a bishop’s diocese was not anciently confined to a _single_ parish, as it has been asserted by the advocates for Presbyterianism, see Maurice’s “Defence of Diocesan Episcopacy,” and Scater’s “Original Draught of the Primitive Church.”

How ancient the division of parishes is, may at present be difficult to ascertain; for it seems to be agreed on all hands, that, in the early ages of Christianity in this island, parishes were unknown, or at least signified the same that a _diocese_ does now. There was then no appropriation of ecclesiastical dues to any particular Church; but every man was at liberty to contribute his tithes to whatever priest or church he pleased, provided only that he did it to some; or if he made no special appointment or appropriation thereof, they were paid into the hands of the bishop, whose duty it was to distribute them among the clergy, and for other pious purposes, according to his own discretion. Mr. Camden says, England was divided into parishes by Archbishop Honorius, about the year 630. Sir Henry Hobart lays it down, that parishes were first erected by the Council of Lateran, which was held A. D. 1179. Each widely differing from the other, and both of them perhaps from the truth; which will probably be found in the medium between the two extremes: for Mr. Selden has clearly shown, that the clergy lived in common without any division of parishes, long after the time mentioned by Camden; and it appears from the Saxon laws, that parishes were in being long before the date of that Council of Lateran, to which they are ascribed by Hobart.

Many parish churches were founded in great towns and villages in Italy, Spain, and France, during the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, under the cathedral church of the bishop; and though they were later in England, yet there are some instances as early as the year 700: for about that time Bede relates, that the bishop of Hexham consecrated a parish church in the manor of one Pach, a Saxon earl, and not long after for one Addi. Nay, before this he relates of Birinus, first bishop of the West Saxons, that he built and dedicated several churches in his diocese of Dorchester. When Egbert, archbishop of York, made his constitutions, about the year 750, they seem to be growing up apace. By that canon, “_Unusquisque sacerdos ecclesiam suam cum omni diligentia ædificet_.”—_Spelman._ And he forbids that the tithes formerly paid to the mother-church should be paid to the new-built oratories. By the time of Edward the Confessor these parishes were grown so numerous, that complaint was made that the clergy were impoverished thereby. After which time the division of parishes was not much altered; for the survey of England in Doomsday Book is not very different from our later ones.—_Nicholls._

Before the establishment of parishes in England, the bishops sent out their clergy (who lived with them) to preach to the people as occasion required; but as Christianity extended, and the number of converts increased, this method became inconvenient, and a resident clergy was found expedient. Parishes were then formed, and churches were built, and endowed by lords of manors and others; and hence arose the patronage of laymen.

The cause of the great difference in the extent of different parishes is this: that churches were most of them built by lords of the manor for their tenants; and so the parish was of the size of the lord’s manor.

In 1520, according to a book made out by Cardinal Wolsey, the number of parish churches is reckoned 9407, but Chamberlain makes them 9913. Camden reckons 9284. The number of charity briefs issued was according to an account in Burns’ “Ecclesiastical Law,” 10,489. Formerly Archdeacon Plymley, in his charge to the clergy of Salop, 1793, says that, from the “Liber Regis,” there were in England and Wales 5098 rectories, 3687 vicarages, and 2970 churches, neither rectorial nor vicarial; in all 11,755 churches in the 10,000 parishes. It is scarcely necessary to add, that both churches and parishes have much increased since that period.

As to divisions and consolidations of parishes, see 58 Geo. III. c. 45; 59 Geo. III. c. 134; 8 & 9 Vic. c. 70. See also 3 & 4 Vic. c. 60, sec. 6.

PARSON. (_Persona ecclesiæ._) _Parson_ properly signifies the rector of a parish church, because, during the time of his incumbency, he represents the Church, and in the eye of the law sustains the _person_ thereof, as well in suing as in being sued, in any action touching the same. _Parson imparsonee_ (_persona impersonata_) is he that, as lawful incumbent, is in actual possession of a parish church, and with whom the church is full, whether it be presentative or impropriate. The word persona is however applied in ancient documents to others besides parochial incumbents, that is, to ecclesiastical officers who had a personal responsibility for the services and duties proper to their churches. (See _Persona_.)

PARSONAGE. The parson’s residence. It is applicable both to rectories and to vicarages, and indeed to the official residences of all incumbents of parishes, parochial districts, or chapelries. As to giving of lands for parsonages, see 55 Geo. III. c. 147.

PARVISE. A chamber over a church porch. The parvise was most likely always a kind of _domus inclusa_ for some officer of the church, as, for instance, the sacristan; and from the frequent occurrence of an altar in the east window, we may presume that it was sometimes a temporary lodging for a priest.

PASCH. The festival of Easter.

PASCHAL. Pertaining to the Passover. The lamb offered in this Jewish festival being a prominent type of CHRIST, the terms _paschal_ and paschal lamb are often used in application to the REDEEMER. An example occurs in the proper preface for Easter Day, in the Communion Office, thus: “Thy SON JESUS CHRIST our LORD, for he is the very _Paschal_ Lamb, which was offered for us, and hath taken away the sin of the world,” &c.

PASSALORYNCHITES, or PATTALORYNCHIANS. Certain heretics, the followers of Montanus, who made profession of never speaking, and for that purpose always held their fingers upon their mouths, grounding it upon certain words of the 140th Psalm. They began to appear in the second age; and St. Jerome testifies, that even in his time he found some of them in Galatia, as he travelled to Ancyra.

PASSING BELL. By the sixth canon it is enjoined, “When any is passing out of this life, a bell shall be tolled, and the minister shall not then slack to do his last duty. And after the party’s death (if so it fall out) there shall be rung no more but one short peal, and one other before the burial, and one other after the burial.”

PASSION WEEK. So we denominate the week immediately preceding the festival of _Easter_, because in that week our SAVIOUR’S _passion_ and death happened.

The primitive Christians called it _Hebdomas Magna_, or the _Great Week_. No one can better describe it to us than St. Chrysostom, who says, “It was called the Great Week, not because it consisted of longer days, or more in number, than other weeks, but because at this time great things were wrought for us by our LORD. For in this week the ancient tyranny of the devil was dissolved, death was extinct, the strong man was bound, his goods were spoiled, sin was abolished, the curse was destroyed, paradise was opened, heaven became accessible, men and angels were joined together, the middle wall of partition was broken down, the barriers were taken out of the way, the GOD of peace made peace between things in heaven and things in earth; therefore it is called the _Great Week_. And as this is the head of all other weeks, so the Great _Sabbath_ is the head of this week. Therefore, in this week, many increase their labours; some adding to their fastings, others to their watchings; others give more liberal alms, testifying the greatness of the Divine goodness by their care of good works, and more intense piety and holy living. As the Jews went forth to meet CHRIST, when he had raised Lazarus from the dead, so now not only one city, but all the world, go forth to meet him, not with palm branches in their hands, but with alms-deeds, humanity, virtue, fastings, tears, prayers, watchings, and all kinds of piety, which they offer to CHRIST their LORD. And not only we, but the emperors of the world, honour this week, making it a time of vacation from all civil business. The imperial letters are sent abroad at this time, commanding all prisoners to be set at liberty from their chains. For, as our LORD, when he descended into hell, set free those that were detained by death; so the servants, according to their power, imitating the kindness of their LORD, loose men from their corporal bonds, when they have no power to relax the spiritual.”

It is plain from hence, that the ancient Christians paid an extraordinary regard to this Holy Week, and that this consisted in additional exercises of devotion, longer fastings, more liberal alms, vacation from all civil business, and a general release of prisoners, some particular cases of criminals only excepted.

The _Thursday_ in this week, which was the day on which CHRIST was betrayed, was observed with some peculiar customs. In some churches, the communion was administered in the evening after supper, in imitation of the communion of the apostles at our LORD’S last supper. On this day the _Competentes_, or candidates of baptism, publicly rehearsed the creed before the bishops or presbyters in the church. And on this day it was customary for servants to receive the communion. The modern ritualists call this day _Maundy Thursday_. (See _Maundy Thursday_.)

The _Friday_ was called _Good Friday_, or _Pasch_ of the _Cross_, in opposition to _Easter_, or the _Pasch_ of the _Resurrection_. On this day, not only penitents were absolved, but a general absolution and indulgence was proclaimed to all the people, observing the day with fasting, prayers, and contrition.

The Saturday of this week was known by the name of the _Great Sabbath_. It had many peculiarities belonging to it. For this was the only Sabbath throughout the year that the Greek churches, and some of the Western, kept as a fast; all other Saturdays, or Sabbaths, being observed as festivals. On this day they continued to fast, not only till evening, but till cock-crowing in the morning, which was the supposed time of our SAVIOUR’S resurrection. And the preceding time of the night was spent in Divine service, praying, preaching, and baptizing such of the catechumens as presented themselves. A remnant of which custom seems still to be kept up in the Latin offices, which prescribe the reading of numerous chapters from the Holy Scriptures, called prophecies, with prayers, &c. interspersed. Eusebius tells us that, in the time of Constantine, this vigil was kept with great pomp. For that emperor set up lofty pillars of wax, to burn as torches all over the city, so that the night seemed to outshine the sun at noonday. The fifth Sunday in Lent is called in the Roman office, Passion Sunday, that name being applied to it in reference to our LORD’S prediction on that day of his approaching passion. And some persons call the week, of which Passion Sunday is the first day, Passion Week; and the real Passion Week they call Holy Week. This is, however, a piece of pedantry, founded on a mistake.

PASSOVER. (_Pesach_, Heb., which signifies _a leap_, _a passage_.) (_Pascha_, in the LXX.) The Passover was a solemn festival of the Jews, instituted in commemoration of their coming out of Egypt, because the night before their departure the destroying angel, that slew the first-born of the Egyptians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews without entering them, because they were marked with the blood of the lamb, which for this reason was called the paschal lamb.

PASTOR. Literally, a shepherd; figuratively, the bishop of a diocese, or the priest of a parish, whose people are, likewise, figuratively called their flock. It is employed in this sense in one of the prayers for the Ember Week, and in the Ordination Services.

PASTORAL STAFF. (See _Crosier_.) It is mentioned in one of the rubrics of King Edward VI.’s First Prayer Book, which is still the law of the Church, according to the present rubric as to the “ornament of the Church,” which prescribes that the bishop shall in his public ministrations, besides his proper vestments, have “his pastoral staff in his hand, or else borne or holden by his chaplain.”

PATEN. The plate on which the sacred bread in the eucharist is laid. The original word signifies a wide open dish. It occurs in our Communion Office, at consecration, “here the priest is to take the _paten_ into his hands.”

PATRIARCHS. (From the Greek πατριὰ, _family_, and ἄρχων, _head_ or _ruler_.) Patriarchs among Christians are ecclesiastical dignitaries, or bishops, so called from their _paternal authority_ in the Church.

In the ancient Christian Church, patriarchs were next in order to metropolitans or primates. They were originally styled archbishops, and exarchs of a diocese. For the name archbishop was anciently a more extensive title than now, and scarce given to any but those whose jurisdiction extended over a whole imperial diocese, as the bishops of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, &c. After the setting up the patriarchal power, the name archbishop was appropriated to the patriarchs.

The first time we meet with the name patriarch given to any bishop by public authority of the Church, is in the Council of Chalcedon, which mentions the most holy _patriarchs_, particularly Leo, patriarch of great Rome. Among private authors, the first who mentions patriarchs by name is Socrates, who wrote his history about the year 440, eleven years before the Council of Chalcedon. But though we cannot trace the name any higher, yet the power itself was much earlier. The Romanists carry it up to the time of the apostles. Others fix it to a little before the Council of Nice. Others ascribe its rise to that very council. In a matter so obscure, and so variously controverted among learned men, it is no easy matter to determine where the right lies. But, however it be, the fourth century affords pregnant proofs of the establishment and growth of the patriarchal power.

The power of patriarchs was not one and the same precisely in all churches, but differed according to the different customs of places and countries, or the pleasure of kings or councils. The patriarch of Constantinople grew to be a patriarch over the patriarchs of Ephesus and Cæsarea. And the patriarch of Alexandria had some prerogatives which no other patriarchs besides himself enjoyed. Such was the right of consecrating and approving every single bishop under his jurisdiction.

The general privileges of the patriarchate were these following:—First, the patriarchs ordained all the metropolitans under them; but they themselves were to be ordained by a diocesan synod. Secondly, they had the power of convening all their metropolitans and provincial bishops to a diocesan synod. Thirdly, they had the privilege of receiving appeals from metropolitans and provincial synods, and reversing their decrees. In the fourth place, they might inquire into the administration of metropolitans, and censure them in case of heresy or misdemeanour. By virtue of this power, Chrysostom deposed Gerontius, bishop of Nicomedia. Fifthly, a patriarch had power to delegate, or send a metropolitan into any part of his diocese, as his commissioner, to hear and determine ecclesiastical causes in his name. Sixthly, the metropolitans did nothing of moment without consulting the patriarchs. Seventhly, it was the patriarch’s office to publish both ecclesiastical and civil laws, which concerned the Church. The last privilege of patriarchs was, that they were all co-ordinate and independent of one another. After ages, it is true, made great alteration in this matter.

Learned men reckon up thirteen patriarchs in those early ages, that is, one in every capital city of each diocese in the Romish empire. The patriarchs were as follows:—

The patriarchs of Antioch and Ephesus, in Asia.

The patriarch of Cæsarea, in Cappadocia.

The patriarch of Thessalonica, in Macedonia.

The patriarch of Sirmium, in Illyricum.

The patriarchs of Rome and Milan, in Italy.

The patriarchs of Alexandria and Carthage, in Egypt.

The patriarch of Lyons, in France.

The patriarch of Toledo, in Spain.

The patriarch of York, in Britain.

The patriarch of Constantinople, styled the _Œcumenical, or Universal Patriarch_.

All these were independent of one another, till Rome by encroachment, and Constantinople by law, gained a superiority over some of the rest. The subordinate patriarchs, nevertheless, still retained the title of _exarchs_ of the diocese, and continued to sit and vote in councils.

The title of patriarch is still kept up in the Greek Church; the supreme head of which is the patriarch of Constantinople, who pays a large sum (sometimes ten, sometimes twenty, thousand crowns) to the Grand Seignor, for his instalment. His revenue amounts to near forty thousand crowns a year, arising from the sale of bishoprics and other benefices; besides that every priest in Constantinople pays him a crown per annum. There are about 150 bishops and archbishops dependent on this patriarch.

After the patriarch of Constantinople, the richest is the patriarch of Jerusalem. The patriarch of Antioch is the poorest of them all. The patriarch of Alexandria is very powerful: he assumes the title of Grand Judge of the whole world. But what distinguishes him more than all the rest from the patriarch of Constantinople is, his being less exposed to the avarice and resentments of the Turks.

The patriarch of Constantinople is elected by the archbishops and bishops, with the consent and approbation of the Grand Seignor, who presents the new patriarch with a white horse, a black capuch, a crosier, and an embroidered caftan. The bishop of Heraclea, as chief archbishop, has a right to consecrate him. This prelate, dressed in pontifical robes, conducts the patriarch to his throne, and vests him with the cross, mitre, and other ornaments. He is attended to the church by some of the officers of the Porte, who read over his letters patent at the church door, with a strict charge to the people to own him as their head, to maintain him suitably to his dignity, and to pay his debts, under penalty of bastinado and confiscation of their effects.

The Jews had their patriarchs, who were governors set up upon the destruction of Jerusalem. One of these had his residence at Tiberias, and another at Babylon; who were the heads of the Jews dispersed throughout the Roman and Persian empires. They continued in great power and dignity till the latter end of the fourth century, about which time the order ceased.

PATRIMONY. A name anciently given to church estates, or revenues. Thus we find mentioned, in the letters of St. Gregory, not only the patrimony of the Roman Church, but those likewise of the Churches of Rimini, Milan, and Ravenna. This name, therefore, does not peculiarly signify any sovereign dominion or jurisdiction, belonging to the Roman Church, or the pope.

Churches, in cities whose inhabitants were but of modern subsistence, had no estates left to them out of their own district: but those in imperial cities, such as Rome, Ravenna, and Milan, where senators, and persons of the first rank, inhabited, were endowed with estates in divers parts of the world. St. Gregory mentions the patrimony of the Church of Ravenna in Sicily, and another of the Church of Milan in that kingdom. The Roman Church had patrimonies in France, Africa, Sicily, in the Cottian Alps, and in many other countries. The same St. Gregory had a lawsuit with the bishop of Ravenna for the patrimonies of the two Churches, which afterwards ended by agreement.

PATRIPASSIANS. (_A patre passo._) A denomination that arose in the second century. Praxeas, a man of genius and learning, denied any real distinction between the FATHER, SON, and HOLY GHOST, and maintained that the FATHER, sole Creator of all things, had united to himself the human nature of CHRIST. Hence his followers were called Monarchians, because of their denying a plurality of persons in the Deity; and also Patripassians, because they believed that the FATHER was so intimately united with the man CHRIST, his SON, that he suffered with him the anguish of an afflicted life, and the torments of an ignominious death. It does not appear that this sect formed to itself any separate place of worship, or removed from the ordinary assemblies of Christians.

PATRON. The person who has the right to present to a benefice. The greatest part of the benefices in England are presentative; the thanes or lords, who built and endowed churches, having first agreed with the bishops that they should have the privilege of presenting fit clerks to serve and receive the profits of the churches founded by them; which right is continued to their posterity, and those who have purchased of them. See the 14 & 15 Vic. c. 97, for a new legislative right of patronage to builders and endowers of new churches.

PAUL, ST., THE CONVERSION OF. A festival of the Christian Church, observed on the twenty-fifth of January.

The Church chooses to commemorate St. Paul by his Conversion, because, as it was wonderful in itself, and a miraculous effect of the powerful grace of GOD, so was it highly beneficial to the Church of CHRIST: for, while the other apostles had their particular provinces, he had the care of all the Churches, and by his indefatigable labours contributed very much to the propagation of the gospel throughout the world.

It is remarkable of this great apostle of the Gentiles, that, after his conversion, he changed his name, being called before Saul, a name famous among the tribe of Benjamin (to which he belonged) ever since the first king of Israel, Saul, was chosen out of that tribe. The name Paul, which he afterwards assumed, related to the Roman corporation where he was born; though some have thought it was in memory of his converting Sergius Paulus, the Roman governor.

Among other reasons which may be assigned for the miraculous conversion of St. Paul, the most considerable seems to be, that this might add the greater weight and authority to his preaching; which was necessary, considering the great share he was to have in planting Christianity in the world. Add to this, that St. Paul appears to have had a very honest mind, and to have been influenced with a regard only to what he thought truth; but being prejudiced by education, and pushed on by the heat of his natural temper, was transported with furious zeal; and therefore GOD was pleased to “show mercy to him,” because what he did was done “ignorantly, in unbelief;” and in a miraculous manner to convince him of the truth of that religion which he persecuted.

PAUL’S, ST., CROSS. (See _Cross_.)

PAULIANISTS. The Paulianists derive their name from Paulus Samosatensis, who was elected bishop of Antioch, A. D. 260. He maintained, amongst other errors, that our LORD was a mere man, and had not come down from heaven. He was condemned and deposed by a council at Antioch, A. D. 272. One of the canons of Nice required the Paulianists to be rebaptized, because in baptizing they did not use the only lawful form according to our SAVIOUR’S command.

PAULICIANS. Heretics in the seventh century, disciples of Constantine, a native of Armenia, and a favourer of the errors of Manes.

As the name of Manicheans was become odious to all nations, he gave those of his sect the title of Paulicians, on pretence that they followed only the doctrine of St. Paul.

One of their most detestable maxims was, not to give alms to the poor, that they might not contribute to the support of creatures who were the work of the bad god.

The sect of the Paulicians did not spread much till the reign of the emperor Nicephorus, who began to reign in 801. The protection of this prince drew great numbers to their party. But the empress Theodora, regent during the minority of Michel, published an edict, obliging them to follow the Catholic faith, or to depart out of the empire. Many of them chose rather to suffer death than to obey; and several, who lay concealed, afterwards took up arms against the emperor Basil, the Macedonian.

PAX. A small tablet of silver, or some fit material, often very elaborately ornamented, by means of which the kiss of peace was, in the mediæval Church, circulated through the congregation. It was introduced when the primitive kiss of peace, which used to circulate throughout the Christian assemblies, was discontinued on account of some appearance of scandal which had grown out of it. In the place of this, a small tablet of silver or ivory, or some appropriate material, having first received the kiss of the priest, was presented by him to the deacon, and by him again to the people, by all of whom it was kissed in order; thus receiving and transmitting from each to all the symbol of Christian love and unity, without any possibility of offence.

In the Syrian churches, the following seems to be the way in which the same thing is symbolized. In a part of the prayers, which has a reference to the birth of CHRIST, on pronouncing the words “Peace on earth, good will towards men,” the attending ministers take the officiating priest’s right hand between both their hands, and so pass _the peace_ to the congregation, each of whom takes his neighbour’s right hand, and salutes him with the word _peace_. In the Romish Church the Pax is still used. By the Church of England it was omitted at the Reformation as a useless ceremony. Though the _pax_ as an ornament is found among the ornaments of the altar, preserved in many churches after the Reformation.—See _Hiereugia Anglicana_.

PAX VOBISCUM. (_Lat._) In English, “Peace be with you.” A form of salutation frequently made use of in the offices of the ancient Christian Church.

First, It was usual for the bishop to salute the people, in this form, at his first entrance into the church. This is often mentioned by St. Chrysostom, who derives it from apostolical practice.

Secondly, The reader began the reading of the lessons with this form. St. Cyprian plainly alludes to this, when, speaking of a new reader, whom he had ordained to that office, he says, _Auspicatus est Pacem, dum dedicat lectionem_; he began to use the salutation, _Peace be with you_, when he first began to read. The third Council of Carthage took away this privilege from the readers, and gave it to the deacons, or other superior ministers of the church.

Thirdly, In many places, the sermon was introduced with this form of salutation, and often ended with it.

Fourthly, It was always used at the consecration of the eucharist: and,

Lastly, At the dismission of the congregation. And, whenever it was said by the officiating minister, the people always answered, _And with thy spirit_.

St. Chrysostom lays open the original intent and design of this practice. For he says, it was an ancient custom in the apostles’ days, when the rulers of the Church had the gift of inspiration, for the people to say to the preacher, _Peace be with thy spirit_; acknowledging thereby that they were under the guidance and direction of the Spirit of GOD.

In our own liturgy we use an equivalent salutation, namely. _The Lord be with you_; to which the people answer, (as the primitive Christians did,) _And with thy spirit_. It occurs but twice in our Prayer Book, i. e. after the Creed at Morning and Evening Prayer. In the First Book of King Edward it followed the versicles, immediately preceding the collect for the day: besides being used more than once in other offices.

PECULIARS. Those parishes and places are called peculiars, which are exempted from the jurisdiction of the proper ordinary of the diocese where they lie. These exempt jurisdictions are so called, not because they are under no ordinary, but because they are not under the ordinary of the diocese, but have one of their own. They are a remnant of Popery. The pope, before the Reformation, by a usurped authority, in defiance of the canons of the Church, exempted them from the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese. At the Reformation, by an oversight, they were not restored to the jurisdiction of the diocesan, but remained under the sovereign, or under such other person, as by custom or purchase obtained the right of superintendence.

The act 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, which constituted the ecclesiastical commission, empowered the commissioners “to propose those parishes, churches, or chapelries which are locally situate in any diocese, but subject to any peculiar jurisdiction, other than the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese in which the same are locally situate, shall be only subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese within which such parishes, churches, or chapelries are locally situate.” (Sect. 10.) In consequence of recommendations by the commissioners, peculiars have been abolished in most, if not all, dioceses of England.

PELAGIANS. Heretics who first appeared about the latter end of the fourth, or beginning of the fifth, century.

Pelagius, author of this sect, was a Briton, being born in Wales. His name, in the British language, was Morgan, which signifies sea-born; from whence he had his Latin name Pelagius. He is said to have been a monk by profession; but probably was no otherwise such than as those were so called who led stricter lives than others within their own houses. Some of our ancient historians pretend that he was abbot of Bangor. But this is not likely, because the British monasteries (according to a learned author) were of a later date. St. Augustine gives him the character of a very pious man, and a Christian of no vulgar rank. According to the same father, he travelled to Rome, where he associated himself with persons of the greatest learning and figure. Here he instructed several young persons, particularly Cœlestius and Julianus; as also Timasius and Jacobus, who afterwards renounced his doctrine, and applied themselves to St. Augustine. During this time he wrote his “Commentaries on St. Paul’s Epistles,” and his Letters to Melania and Demetrias.

Pelagius, being charged with heresy, left Rome, and went into Africa, where he was present at the famous conference held at Carthage, between the Catholics and Donatists. From Carthage he travelled into Egypt, and at last went to Jerusalem, where he settled. He was accused before the Council of Diospolis in Palestine, where he recanted his opinions; but relapsing, and discovering the insincerity of his recantation, he was afterwards condemned by several councils in Africa, and by a synod at Antioch. Pelagius died somewhere in the East, but where is uncertain. His principal tenets, as we find them charged upon his disciple Cœlestius by the Church of Carthage, were these:

I. That Adam was by nature mortal, and, whether he had sinned or not, would certainly have died.

II. That the consequences of Adam’s sin were confined to his person, and the rest of mankind received no disadvantage thereby.

III. That the law qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with the gospel.

IV. That, before the coming of our SAVIOUR, some men lived without sin.

V. That new-born infants are in the same condition with Adam before his fall.

VI. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in virtue of our SAVIOUR’S resurrection.

VII. That a man may keep the commands of GOD without difficulty, and preserve himself in a perfect state of innocence.

VIII. That rich men cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven, unless they part with all their estate.

IX. That the grace of GOD is not granted for the performance of every moral act; the liberty of the will, and information in points of duty, being sufficient for this purpose.

X. That the grace of GOD is given in proportion to our merits.

XI. That none can be called the sons of GOD, but those who are perfectly free from sin.

XII. That our victory over temptation is not gained by GOD’S assistance, but by the liberty of the will.

The heresy of Pelagius, notwithstanding its condemnation, made its way into Britain, where its author was born; being conveyed thither by one Agricola, the son of Severianus, a Pelagian bishop of Gaul. The orthodox party were very diligent in opposing its progress, and for that purpose requested the Gallican bishops to send over some persons of eminence to manage the contest. Those chosen for this purpose were Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, and Lupus, bishop of Troyes; who, arriving in Britain, held a famous conference with the Pelagians at St. Alban’s, in which the latter were put to silence, and the people gave sentence, by their acclamations, for Germanus and Lupus. The Pelagian error respecting original sin is noticed in our ninth Article.

PENANCE. (_Pœnitentia_, Latin.) As repentance is the principle and inward feeling of sorrow for sin, which we are determined to forsake, so penance is the outward profession of that sorrow. An account of penance in the primitive Church may be seen in Bingham, and more concisely in Coleman, from whom we shall quote in this article. Penance, in the Christian Church, is an imitation of the discipline of the Jewish synagogue; or, rather, it is a continuation of the same institution. Excommunication in the Christian Church is essentially the same as expulsion from the synagogue of the Jews; and the penances of the offender, required for his restoration to his former condition, were not materially different in the Jewish and Christian Churches. The principal point of distinction consisted in this, that the sentence of excommunication affected the civil relations of the offender under the Jewish economy; but in the Christian Church it affected only his relations to that body. Neither the spirit of the primitive institutions of the Church, nor its situation, nor constitution in the first three centuries, was at all compatible with the intermingling or confounding of civil and religious privileges or penalties.

The act of excommunication was, at first, an exclusion of the offender from the LORD’S supper, and from the _agapæ_. The term itself implies separation from the communion. The practice was derived from the injunction of the apostle, 1 Cor. v. 11, “With such an one no not _to eat_.” From the context, and from 1 Cor. x. 16–18; xi. 20–34, it clearly appears that the apostle refers, not to common meals, and the ordinary intercourse of life, but to these religious festivals.

Examples of penitence or repentance occur in the Old Testament; neither are there wanting instances, not merely of individuals, but of a whole city or people, performing certain acts of penance,—fasting, mourning, &c. (Nehem. ix. and Jonah iii.) But these acts of humiliation were essentially different, in their relations to individuals, from Christian penance.

We have, however, in the New Testament, an instance of the excommunication of an offending member, and of his restoration to the fellowship of the Church by penance, agreeably to the authority of St. Paul, 1 Cor. v. 1–8; 2 Cor. ii. 5–11. This sentence of exclusion from the Church was pronounced _by the assembled body_, and in the name of the LORD JESUS CHRIST. By this sentence, the offender was separated from the people of the LORD, with whom he had been joined by baptism, and was reduced to his former condition as a heathen man, subject to the power of Satan, and of evil spirits. This is, perhaps, the true import of delivering such an one up to Satan.

A similar act of excommunication is described briefly in 1 Cor. xvi. 22, “If any man love not the LORD JESUS CHRIST, let him be anathema maranatha.” The μαράν ἀθὰ corresponds, in sense, with the Hebrew ‏חרם‎, and denotes a thing devoted to utter destruction; (which, however, is by some supposed to be the Syro-Chaldaic ‏מרנא אתה‎, expressed in the Greek character, meaning, “The Lord cometh.”) (See _Maranatha_.) The whole sentence implies that the Church leaves the subject of it to the LORD, who cometh to execute judgment upon him. All that the apostle requires of the Corinthians is, that they should exclude him from their communion and fellowship; so that he should no longer be regarded as one of their body. He pronounces no further judgment upon the offender, but leaves him to the judgment of GOD. “What have I to do to judge them that are without?” (ver. 12,) i. e. those who are not Christians, to which class the excommunicated person would belong. “Do not ye judge them that are within?” i. e. full members of the Church. But them that are without GOD judgeth; or rather _will judge_, κρινεῖ, as the reading should be. It appears from 2 Cor. ii. 1–11, that the Church had not restored such to the privileges of communion, but were willing to do so; and that the apostle very gladly authorized the measure.

It is important to remark that, in the primitive Church, penance related only to such as had been excluded from the communion of the Church. Its immediate object was, not the forgiveness of the offender by the LORD GOD, but his reconciliation with the Church. It could, therefore, relate only to open and scandalous offences. _De occultis non judicat ecclesia_—the Church takes no cognizance of secret sins—was an ancient maxim of the Church. The early Fathers say expressly, that the Church offers pardon only for offences committed against her. The forgiveness of all sin she refers to GOD himself. _Omnia autem_, says Cyprian, Ep. 55, _remisimus Deo omnipotenti, in cujus potestate sunt omnia reservata_. Such are the concurring sentiments of most of the early writers on this subject. It was reserved for a later age to confound these important distinctions, and to arrogate to the Church the prerogative of forgiving sins.

The readmission of penitents into the Church was the subject of frequent controversy with the early Fathers, and ancient religious sects. Some contended that those who had once been excluded from the Church for their crimes, ought never again to be received to her fellowship and communion. But the Church generally were disposed to exercise a more charitable and forgiving spirit.

PENANCE. In the law of England, penance is an ecclesiastical punishment or penalty, used in the discipline of the Church of England, by which an offender is obliged to give a public satisfaction to the Church for scandal done by his evil example. For small offences and scandals, a public satisfaction or penance is required to be made before the minister, churchwardens, and some of the parishioners, as the ecclesiastical judge shall think fit to decree. These penances may be moderated at the discretion of the judge, or commuted for money to be devoted to pious uses. In the case of incest or incontinency the offender is sometimes enjoined to do public penance in the cathedral, the parish church, or the market-place, bare-legged, bare-headed, and in a white sheet, and to make open confession of his crime in a form of words prescribed by the judge. This sort of punishment, however, being contrary to the spirit of the age, and the profligate being found to make parties to abet the offender, it has fallen into desuetude.

PENANCE, THE SACRAMENT OF. The Romanists define penance a sacrament, wherein a person, who has the requisite dispositions, receives absolution at the hands of the priest, of all sins committed since baptism. (See _Auricular Confession_, _Satisfaction_, _Purgatory_, _Absolution_.)

The Council of Trent (sess. 14, can. 1) has expressly decreed, that every one is accursed who shall affirm that penance is not truly and properly a sacrament instituted by CHRIST in the universal Church, for reconciling those Christians to the Divine majesty who have fallen into sin after baptism; and this sacrament, it is declared, consists of two parts—the matter and the form: the matter is the act of the penitent, including contrition, confession, and satisfaction; the form of it is the act of absolution on the part of the priest. Accordingly it is enjoined, that it is the duty of every man, who hath fallen after baptism, to confess his sins once a year, at least, to a priest; that this confession is to be secret; for public confession is neither commanded nor expedient; and that it must be exact and particular, including every kind and act of sin, with all the circumstances attending it. When the penitent has so done, the priest pronounces an absolution, which is not conditional or declarative only, but absolute and judicial. This secret or auricular confession was first decreed and established in the fourth Council of Lateran, under Innocent III., in 1215 (cap. 21). And the decree of this council was afterwards confirmed and enlarged in the Council of Florence, and in that of Trent, which ordains that confession was instituted by CHRIST; that, by the law of GOD, it is necessary to salvation, and that it has always been practised in the Christian Church. As for the penances imposed on the penitent by way of satisfaction, they have been commonly the repetition of certain forms of devotion, as Paternosters or Ave-Marias, the payment of stipulated sums, pilgrimages, fasts, or various species of corporeal discipline. But the most formidable penance, in the estimation of many who have belonged to the Roman communion, has been the temporary pains of purgatory. But, under all the penalties which are inflicted or threatened in the Romish Church, it has provided relief by its indulgences, and by its prayers or masses for the dead, performed professedly for relieving and rescuing the souls that are detained in purgatory.

The reader need scarcely be reminded how entirely opposed all this is to the doctrine of the Church of England. The Church of Rome affirms “penance” to be a “sacrament,” instituted by CHRIST himself, and secret “confession” to be one of its constituent parts, instituted by the Divine law; and she anathematizes those who contradict her:—the Church of England denies “penance” to be a sacrament of the gospel; affirms it to have “grown of the corrupt following of the apostles;” and “not to have” the proper “nature of a sacrament,” as “not having any visible sign or ceremony ordained of GOD;” and of course denies the sacramental character of “confession.” The Church of Rome pronounces, that, by the Divine law, “all persons” must confess their sins to the priest:—the Church of England limits her provisions for confession to “sick persons.” The Church of Rome pronounces that all persons are “bound” to confess:—the Church of England directs, that the sick “be moved” to make confession. The Church of Rome insists upon a confession of “all sins whatsoever:”—the Church of England recommends “a special confession of sins,” if the sick person “feel his conscience troubled with any weighty matter.” The Church of Rome represents penance as instituted for reconciling penitents to GOD “as often as they fall into sin after baptism;” and imposes confession “once a year:”—the Church of England advises it on a peculiar occasion. And the purpose of the Church of England in so advising it evidently is the special relief of a troubled conscience: whereas the Church of Rome pronounces it to be “necessary to forgiveness of sin and to salvation;” and denounces with an anathema “any one who shall say, that confession is only useful for the instruction and consolation of the penitent.” And let it be observed, in the first place, that as the Church of England, in her Commination Service, speaks of the ancient ordinance of _open penance_ as “a discipline” the restoration of which is “much to be wished,” she hereby recognises the ancient systems essentially different from that of Rome: namely, _a public_ expression of sorrow and repentance, to satisfy the congregation, scandalized by the offence; not as a private purchase of indemnity to the individual: and, in the next place, when she uses the word _penance_, in the second exhortation in the same service, “Seeking to bring forth worthy fruits of penance,” she but quotes the words of John the Baptist, (St. Luke iii. 8,) and thus identifies _penance_ with _repentance_, μετάνοια, that is, change of mind or heart. So that the outward penance is the mere outward symbol of the inward repentance.

PENITENTIAL. A collection of canons in the Romish Church, which appointed the time and manner of penance to be regularly imposed for every sin, and forms of prayer that were to be used for the receiving of those who entered into penance, and reconciling penitents by solemn absolution; a method chiefly introduced in the time of the degeneracy of the Church.

PENITENTIAL PSALMS. (See _Psalms_.)

PENITENTIARIES, in the ancient Christian Church, were certain presbyters, or priests, appointed in every church, to receive the private confessions of the people; not in prejudice to the public discipline, nor with a power of granting absolution before any penance was performed, but to facilitate the exercise of public discipline, by acquainting men what sins the laws of the Church required to be expiated by public penance, and by directing them in the performance of it; and only to appoint private penance for such private crimes as were not proper to be publicly censured, either for fear of doing harm to the penitent himself, or giving scandal to the Church.

The office of penitentiary priests was abrogated by Nectarius, bishop of Constantinople, in the reign of Theodosius, upon a certain accident that happened in the church. A gentlewoman, coming to the penitentiary, made a confession of the sins she had committed since her baptism. The penitentiary enjoined her to fast and pray. Soon after she came again, and confessed that, during the course of her penance, one of the deacons of the Church had defiled her. This occasioned the deacon to be cast out of the Church, and gave great offence to the people. Whereupon the bishop, by the advice of a presbyter named Eudæmon, took away the penitentiary’s office, leaving every one to his own conscience; this being the only way to free the Church from reproach.—_Bingham._

Nectarius’s example was followed by all the bishops of the East, who took away their penitentiaries. However, the office continued in use in the Western Churches, and chiefly at Rome. A dignitary in many of the foreign cathedrals is so called.

PENITENTS. (See _Penance_.) Penance in the primitive Church, as Coleman from Augusti remarks, was wholly a voluntary act on the part of those who were subject to it. The Church not only would not enforce it, but they refused even to urge or invite any to submit to this discipline. It was to be sought as a favour, not inflicted as a penalty. But the offending person had no authority or permission to prescribe his own duties as a penitent. When once he had resolved to seek the forgiveness and reconciliation of the Church, it was exclusively the prerogative of that body to prescribe the conditions on which this was to be effected. No one could even be received as a candidate for penance, without permission first obtained of the bishop, or presiding elder.

The duties required of penitents consisted essentially in the following particulars:

1. Penitents of the first three classes were required to kneel in worship, whilst the faithful were permitted to stand.

2. All were required to make known their penitential sorrow by an open and public confession of their sin. This confession was to be made, not before the bishop or the priesthood, but in the presence of the whole Church, with sighs, and tears, and lamentations. These expressions of grief they were to renew and continue so long as they remained in the first or lowest class of penitents, entreating at the same time, in their behalf, the prayers and intercessions of the faithful. Some idea of the nature of these demonstrations of penitence may be formed from a record of them contained in the works of Cyprian. Almost all the canons lay much stress upon the sighs and tears accompanying these effusions.

3. Throughout the whole term of penance, all expressions of joy were to be restrained, and all ornaments of dress to be laid aside. The penitents were required, literally, to wear sackcloth, and to cover their heads with ashes. Nor were these acts of humiliation restricted to Ash Wednesday merely, but then especially they were required.

4. The men were required to cut short their hair, and to shave their beards, in token of sorrow. The women were to appear with dishevelled hair, and wearing a peculiar kind of veil.

5. During the whole term of penance, bathing, feasting, and sensual gratifications, allowable at other times, were prohibited. In the spirit of these regulations, marriage was also forbidden.

6. Besides these restrictions and rules of a negative character, there were certain positive requirements with which the penitents were expected to comply.

They were obliged to be present, and to perform their part, at every religious assembly, whether public or private; a regulation which neither believers nor catechumens were required to observe.

They were expected to abound in deeds of charity and benevolence, particularly in almsgiving to the poor.

Especially were they to perform the duties of the _parabolani_, in giving attendance upon the sick, and in taking care of them. These offices of kindness they were expected particularly to bestow upon such as were affected with contagious diseases.

It was also their duty to assist at the burial of the dead. The regulations last mentioned are supposed to have been peculiar to the Church of Africa.

These duties and regulations collectively were sometimes included under the general term εξομολόγησις, _confession_. By this was understood not only words, but works; both, in connexion, being the appropriate means of manifesting sorrow for sin, and the purpose of amendment.

PENITENTS IN POPISH COUNTRIES. There are, in Popish countries, particularly in Italy, several fraternities (as they are called) of penitents, distinguished by the different shape and colour of their habits. These are secular societies, who have their rules, statutes, and churches; and make public processions under their particular cross or banner. Of these there are more than a hundred; the most considerable of which are as follows:—

I. White Penitents. These are of different sorts at Rome. The most ancient is that of Gonfalon, instituted in 1264, in the church of St. Mary Major: in imitation of which four others were established in the church of Ara-Cœli; the first under the title of the Nativity of our LORD; the second under the invocation of the Holy Virgin; the third under the protection of the Holy Innocents; and the fourth under the patronage of St. Helena. The brethren of this fraternity, every year, give portions to a certain number of young girls, in order to their being married. Their habit is a kind of white sackcloth, and on the shoulder is a circle, in the middle of which is a red and white cross.

II. Black Penitents. The most considerable of these are the Brethren of Mercy, or St. John Baptist. This fraternity was instituted in 1488, by some Florentines, in order to assist criminals at the time of their death, and during their imprisonment. On the day of execution, they walk in procession before them, singing the seven Penitential Psalms, and the Litanies; and, after they are dead, they take them down from the gibbet, and bury them. Their habit is black sackcloth. There are others whose business is to bury such persons as are found dead in the streets. They wear a death’s head on one side of their habit.

III. Blue Penitents. All these are remarkable only for the different colours of their habits. IV. Grey Penitents. „ V. Red Penitents. „ VI. Green Penitents. „ VII. Violet Penitents. „

The Church of Rome wrongly renders our word _repentance_ by _penance_, penance being an attendant on repentance: and she has erred in making penance a sacrament in the same sense as baptism and the LORD’S supper. This our Church condemns, but she speaks of the ancient discipline of the Church in a manner which greatly shocks ultra-Protestants. We allude to the following address in the Commination Service:—“Brethren, in the Primitive Church there was a godly discipline, and, at the beginning of Lent, such persons as stood convicted of notorious sin _were put to open penance_, and punished in this world, _that their souls might be saved in_ the day of the LORD; and that others, admonished by their example, might be the more afraid to offend. Instead whereof (until the said discipline may be restored again, which is much to be wished) it is thought good, that at this time (in the presence of you all) should be read the general sentences of GOD’S cursing against impenitent sinners, gathered out of the seven and twentieth chapter of Deuteronomy, and other places of Scripture; and that ye should answer to every sentence, _Amen_: to the intent that, being admonished of the great indignation of GOD against sinners, ye may the rather be moved to earnest and true repentance, and may walk more warily in these dangerous days, fleeing from such vices, for which ye affirm with your own mouths the curse of GOD to be due. (See _Penance_.)

PENTATEUCH, from two Greek words, signifying _five books_. It is the general or collective designation of the five books of Moses. The Samaritan Pentateuch, discovered and brought to England in the 17th century, by the instrumentality of Archbishop Usher and others, is the Hebrew Pentateuch written in the ancient Hebrew letters. It is supposed by many learned men to be the actual text of the Scriptures used by the Samaritans, when at their petition, Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, appointed one of the Jewish priests to dwell at Bethel and teach them how they should fear the LORD. (2 Kings xvii. 28.) The copy of the Scriptures then said to be brought by this priest, contained the _canon of Scripture_, as it then existed; and the Samaritans never recognised any other. By several critics the text is supposed more correct than the Hebrew; and as an element of biblical criticism it is invaluable.

PENTECOST. (From Πεντηκοστὸς, _the fiftieth_.) A solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty days after the feast of the Passover. (Lev. xxiii. 15, 16.) It corresponds with the Christian Whitsuntide, which is sometimes called by the same name.

PENTECOSTALS. These were oblations made by the parishioners to their priest at the feast of Pentecost, which are sometimes called Whitsun-farthings; but they were not at first offered to their priests, but to the mother-church; and this may be the reason that the deans and prebendaries in some cathedrals are entitled to receive these oblations, and in some places the bishop and archdeacons, as at Gloucester.

PERAMBULATION. Perambulations, for ascertaining the boundaries of parishes, are to be made by the minister, churchwardens, and parishioners, by going round the same once a year, in or about Ascension week. The parishioners may justify going over any man’s land in their perambulations, according to usage; and it is said may abate all nuisances in their way. There is a homily appointed to be used before this ceremony, and Queen Elizabeth’s injunctions appointed the 103rd and 104th Psalms to be said in the course of the perambulation. (See _Rogation Days_.) The perambulations are still kept up in several parishes; but have lost their religious character. However, they have been observed religiously within the memory of some old persons in distant parts of England.

PERNOCTATIONS, watching all night,—long a custom with the more pious Christians, especially before the greater festivals.

PERPENDICULAR. The last style of pure Gothic architecture, which succeeded the Decorated about 1360. It is most readily distinguished by its window tracery (see _Tracery_); but the use of the four-centred arch (see _Arch_) is a more important character, though by no means invariably found in this style. Other characteristics will be found under _Capital_, _Pillar_, _Vaulting_, _Moulding_.

PERPETUAL CURATE. The incumbent of a church, chapel, or district, which is within the boundaries of a rectory or vicarage; so called from a curate assistant, whose office expires with the incumbency of the person who employs him.

PERPETUALS. Twenty ministers of the choir at Lyons, so called from being bound to perpetual service there:—like our vicars-choral.

PERSECUTION. The sufferings which are inflicted by the world upon the Church in all ages, the most striking of which were those which are designated in history the _Ten Persecutions_, and which raged from the time of Nero, A. D. 64, to the accession of Constantine, under the successive Roman emperors, Domitian, (A. D. 81–86,) Trajan, Adrian, Aurelius, Antoninus, Severus, Maximus, Decius, Valerian, Diocletian, and Maximian, under the last of whose rule the persecution raged against the Church in East and West for the space of ten years. Each of these periods swelled the list of the noble army of martyrs. Under Nero, the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul suffered. St. Clement, bishop of Rome; Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem; and Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, were put to death in the reign of Trajan. In the persecution of Aurelius, Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Apollinaris, and Tatian presented their apologies, as did Tertullian in the next persecution under Severus (200). Nicephorus, an ecclesiastical historian, tells us that it were easier to count the sands upon the seashore than to number the martyrdoms in the persecution under Decius (249). The great St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, suffered under Valerian (14th of September, 258).

Though the above ten are the most memorable of the persecutions of the cross of CHRIST, the Church has ever been opposed by the world. Thus in our country, during the Rebellion, the king and primate underwent martyrdom, while thousands of faithful men suffered the loss of all things for the name of CHRIST. And, even in this day, though physical persecution is forbidden by the law, moral persecution is more or less endured by every self-denying Christian, who has to bear taunts and nicknames from ungodly men.

PERSEVERANCE, FINAL. According to the Calvinistic system, the elect receive the grace of perseverance, so that when grace has once been received, they cannot finally fall from it. This follows from their view of election. But, according to the Catholic view of grace and of election, men may fall, and fall finally, from the grace they have once received. The reader is requested to refer to the article on _Election_; this may be considered a continuation. Since the reformed Church of England (with the primitive and Catholic) regards election as an admission into the pale of the visible Church Catholic, _not_ a necessary and infallible admission into eternal glory, she obviously could not teach the doctrine of the assured final perseverance of every individual among the elect; but, annexing a totally different sense to the word _elect_ itself from that which is jointly advocated by Calvin and by Arminius, she consistently pronounces that the elect, as she understands the term, _may_ finally fall away, and thence may everlastingly perish.

To this moral possibility of final apostasy the Anglican Church, as was felt by the Calvinistic party in the conference at Hampton Court, alludes, though she does not specifically there define the matter, in her sixteenth Article.

“After we have received the HOLY GHOST, we may depart from grace given and fall into sin; and, by the grace of GOD, we may rise again, and amend our lives.”

Here it seems to be not obscurely intimated, that the elect, even after they have received the HOLY GHOST, may so depart from grace given, and may so fall into sin, that they either may, or may not, be restored by the influential grace of GOD.

Such, accordingly, was doubtless perceived to be the case by the Calvinistic party; for otherwise it is impossible to account for their proposed alteration of the article, which would have made it speak the language of assured personal final perseverance.

They moved King James, that, to the original words of the article, “after we have received the HOLY GHOST, we may depart from grace given, and fall into sin,” might be subjoined the following explanatory addition, “yet neither totally nor finally.”

Had this addition been made, the seventeenth Article would doubtless have taught the doctrine of the final perseverance of all the elect. The wish to make it do so imported a consciousness that the reformed Anglican Church held no such doctrine.

Nor was this consciousness ill-founded. The homily on “Falling from GOD” as we might anticipate from its very title, distinctly asserts, in both its parts, the moral possibility, in the elect, of finally departing from grace given, and of thus perishing everlastingly.

The doctrine of the possibility of the elect finally falling away, says Faber in his work on “Election,” from grace to perdition; a doctrine which, in truth, is nothing more than the inevitable and necessary result of that ideality of election, which, from primitive antiquity, has been adopted by the Anglican Church, is very distinctly and very affectingly propounded also in her admirable and sublime burial service.

“Spare us, LORD most holy, O GOD most mighty, O holy and merciful SAVIOUR, thou most worthy Judge eternal, suffer us not, at our last hour, for any pains of death, to fall from thee.”

The prayer before us is couched in the pluralizing form, and the persons who are directed concurrently with the officiating minister to use it, are those identical persons who, having been chosen in the course of Divine providence, and brought by baptism into the pale of the visible Church, have thence been declared to be the elect people of GOD.

Consequently those who, in the judgment of the Church of England, are the elect people of GOD, are nevertheless directed to pray, that the LORD would not suffer them, at their last hour, for any pains of death, to fall from him.

Hence, as the English Church understands the term _elect_, it is possible, from the very necessity of such a prayer, that those who are elect may not only for a season fall away from GOD and be afterward renewed by repentance, but may even fall away from him totally and finally.

PERSON. (See _Trinity_.) On the awful subject of the persons in the TRINITY we shall merely quote the Athanasian Creed. “The Catholic faith is this. That we worship One GOD in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing the substance. For there is One Person of the FATHER, another of the SON, and another of the HOLY GHOST.

“But the GODHEAD of the FATHER, of the SON, and of the HOLY GHOST, is all One: the glory equal, the majesty co-eternal.”

The application of the term “Persons” to the sacred Three has been objected to; but it is defensible on the ground of the impossibility of finding a phrase equally expressive, and less objectionable. Archbishop Tillotson well says, “Because we find the FATHER, SON, and HOLY GHOST spoken of in Scripture as we should speak of three Persons, therefore we call them Persons; and since the HOLY SPIRIT of GOD in Scripture hath thought fit, in speaking of these three, to distinguish them from one another, as we use in common speech to distinguish three several persons, I cannot see any reason why, in the explication of this mystery, which purely depends upon Divine revelation, we should not speak of it in the same manner as the Scripture doth.” Precision in speaking of objects of faith seems, beyond this, impossible. That the FATHER, SON, and HOLY GHOST are three, distinguished from each other in Scripture, is clear; as it is also that there is but one GOD. Why, then, refuse the word “Persons,” used with due reverence and humility, by which we only understand a peculiar distinction in each, making, in some way, a difference from the other two? Indeed the objection was despised as a bad one by even Socinus himself.

But in fact the word “Person” is used by St. Paul as applied both to the FATHER and the SON; to the former, Heb. i. 3; to the latter, 2 Cor. ii. 10, and also iv. 6, as it should have been rendered.

The word was used, and well applied, against the opinion entertained by the Sabellians, that there was but one real Person in the GODHEAD with different manifestations; and the notion of three hypostases with an individual unity in the Divine essence, was generally received in the Church as a proper mean for avoiding the opposite heresies of Sabellius and Arius.

The Latin Church understanding “substance” by the term _hypostasis_, as used by the Greek Church, and denying three substances, would not readily use that term, but adopted the word “Person,” (_Persona_,) to characterize the three distinct subsistencies in the one Divine essence. And hence has arisen a charge, (the word _hypostasis_ being used for _Person_ in the Greek copies of the Creed,) that the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds are in opposition to each other; the former asserting that the SON “is of one substance with the FATHER,” while, according to the latter, there is one substance of the FATHER, another of the SON, &c. But as the word is rightly translated in our version “Person,” from the original Latin, the objection, which is still repeated, (the passage being quoted as if it were one “substance”—not one “Person—of the FATHER,” &c.,) is persevered in under a mistake, if it be not a wilful misrepresentation.—See _Bull_ and _Waterland_.

PERSONA. A term applied in ancient cathedral and collegiate churches to those who held particular offices, not necessarily of dignity, or of jurisdiction, but involving personal responsibility, and strict residence. In England, at Salisbury and other cathedrals of the old foundation, the dignitaries, as the dean, precentor, chancellor, and treasurer, &c., were called _Personæ Principales_, or _Privilegiatæ_, as having each a peculiar office, connected with the service of the church. At St. Paul’s the four archdeacons were included in this title, though somewhat incorrectly.—_Dugdale’s St. Paul’s_, p. 235. In other places, as at York, and Beverley, the inferior priests were called Personæ. Abroad the _Personnate_ were chiefly offices of the inferior collegiate clergy, generally implying some individual office, as subchanter, sacristan, &c. &c.—_Jebb._

PETER-PENCE was an annual tribute of one penny, paid at Rome out of every family, at the feast of St. Peter. This, Ina, the Saxon king, when he went in pilgrimage to Rome, about the year 740, gave to the pope, partly as alms, and partly by way of recompense for a house erected in Rome for English pilgrims. It continued to be generally paid until the time of King Henry VIII., when it was enacted, that henceforth no person shall pay any pensions, Peter-pence, or other impositions, to the use of the bishop and see of Rome.

PETER’S, ST., DAY. A festival of the Christian Church, observed on the twenty-ninth of June.

St. Peter was born at Bethsaida, a town situated upon the banks of the sea of Galilee. He was originally called Simon, or Simeon, to which our SAVIOUR, after his conversion, added the name of Cephas, which, in the vulgar language of the Jews, signified a stone, or rock: from thence it was derived into the Greek Πέτρος, (Petrus,) which is of the same import. Our LORD probably intended to denote thereby the constancy and firmness of his faith, and his activity in building up the Church.

St. Peter was a fisherman by trade, and brother of St. Andrew, who first brought him to our SAVIOUR. He became a disciple and follower of CHRIST, upon seeing the miracle of the great draught of fishes, and was one of his most immediate companions. He is by the ancients styled the mouth of the apostles, because he was the first and forwardest, on all occasions, to profess his zeal and attachment to our SAVIOUR; for which reason our LORD pronounced him blessed. But it does not appear that our SAVIOUR gave any personal prerogative to St. Peter, as universal pastor and head of the Church. He is first placed among the apostles, because, as most think, he was first called. If he is styled “a rock,” all the apostles are equally styled “foundations;” and the power of the keys is promised to the rest of the apostles as well as to St. Peter.

This apostle became a great example of human frailty, in his behaviour upon the approach of our SAVIOUR’S sufferings. It is well known, that, for fear of being involved in the punishment with which his Master was threatened, he disclaimed all knowledge of him, and denied him thrice. But he soon recovered from his fall, and endeavoured by penitential tears to wash away his guilt.

St. Peter’s first mission, after our SAVIOUR’S ascension, was to those Christians whom Philip the deacon had converted in Samaria; where he conferred on them the gift of the HOLY GHOST, and severely rebuked Simon Magus, for imagining the gift of GOD could be purchased with money. Some time after, he had a special vision from heaven, by which the Divine goodness removed those prejudices of his education, which the Jews had entertained against the Gentiles. In the dispute between the Jewish and Gentile converts, he declared GOD’S acceptance of the Gentiles, and that the yoke of the Jewish rites ought not to be laid upon them. Yet afterwards he dissembled his Christian liberty, and thereby confirmed the judaizing Christians in their errors; for which he stands justly rebuked by St. Paul. Being imprisoned by Herod, he was miraculously delivered by an angel, who knocked off his chains, and conducted him to a place of safety.

St. Peter, afterwards, preached at Antioch, and was the first bishop of that place. He likewise preached the gospel to the Jews dispersed in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Asia. Towards the latter end of his life, he went to Rome, about the second year of the emperor Claudius, where he laboured in establishing Christianity, chiefly among the Jews, being the apostle of the circumcision. Here he set himself to expose the impostures of Simon Magus, which he did successfully, by working himself those wonders that Simon falsely boasted of. Particularly, he raised to life a kinsman of the emperor, which the magician had attempted in vain. And, when Simon Magus, to recover his reputation, pretended to fly up to heaven from the hill of the Capitol, by the prayers of St. Peter his artificial wings failed him, and falling he was so bruised, that in a short time he died.

St. Peter suffered martyrdom about the year of Christ 69, under the emperor Nero, whom he had provoked by his success against Simon Magus, and by his reducing many dissolute women to a sober and virtuous life; and it was probably in that persecution when the emperor burnt Rome, and charged the Christians with the guilt and punishment of it. He was crucified with his head downwards. It is said, his body was embalmed by Marcellinus the presbyter, and buried in the Vatican, near the Triumphal Way, where there was a church erected to his memory, now the famous cathedral of St. Peter’s at Rome.

PEWS. These are enclosed seats in churches. Pews, according to modern use and idea, were not known till long after the Reformation. Enclosed pews were not in general use before the middle of the seventeenth century: they were for a long time confined to the family of the patron.

There were, however, long before there were enclosed pews, appropriated seats: and as concerning seats many disputes arise, we will mention what the law is as to these particulars. As to seats in the body of the church, the freehold of the soil is in the incumbent, and the seats are fixed to the freehold; yet, because the church itself is dedicated to the service of GOD, and the seats are built that the people may more conveniently attend Divine service, therefore, where there is any contention about a seat in the body of the church, upon complaint made to the ordinary, he may decide the controversy by placing that person in it whom he thinks fit: and this power is conferred upon him by law, because he who has the general cure of souls within his diocese, is presumed to have a due regard to the qualities of the contending parties, and to give precedence to him who ought to have it. And though the seats are built and repaired at the charge of the parish; and the churchwardens should prescribe, that, by reason thereof, they have used to dispose them to such persons as they thought fit, yet since of common right the ordinary has the disposal thereof, and by the same right the parishioners ought to repair them, therefore such prescription shall not be allowed against his jurisdiction. But this jurisdiction extends only to placing or displacing the inhabitants of the parish; for the ordinary cannot grant a seat to a man and his heirs, because a seat in the church properly belongs to some house in the parish, and not to the person, but as owner of the house; and if such grant should be good to a man and his heirs, they would have the seat, though they lived in another parish, which is very unreasonable, and contrary to the original intention of building seats in churches, which was for the inhabitants of that parish, that they might more conveniently attend the service of the church; and certainly if the bishop cannot make such a grant, no private person can do it, for the reasons before mentioned.

But where there is no contention, and the ordinary does not interpose, because there is no complaint, there the parson and churchwardens have power to place the parishioners in seats; and in some places the churchwardens alone have that power by custom, as in London. If a seat is built in the body of the church, without the consent of the bishop, the churchwardens may pull it down, because it was set up by a private person without the licence of the ordinary; but it hath been held, that if in removing such seat they cut the timber, or break it, an action of trespass lies against them. This, like many other cases reported by Mr. Noy, is not law: for the freehold of the church being in the incumbent, when the person has fixed a seat to it, it is then become parcel of his freehold, and consequently the right is in him, so that the breaking the timber could not be prejudicial to the other, because he had no legal right to the materials after they were fixed to the freehold. And because seats in the body of the church are to be disposed by the parson and churchwardens, therefore it was formerly held that a man cannot prescribe for a seat there; and yet he might prescribe for the upper part of a seat there. But now the law is settled as to this matter, viz. that one may prescribe for a seat in the body of the church, setting forth that he is seised of an ancient house, &c., and that he and all those whose estate he hath therein, have, time out of mind, used and had a seat in the body of the church for themselves and their families, as belonging to the said house, and that they repaired the said seat; and the reason why he must allege that he repaired it is, because the freehold being in the parson, there must be some special cause shown for such a prescription; but as to this matter the court distinguished between an action on the case brought against a disturber and a suggestion for a prohibition: for in the first case you need not allege that you repair, because the action is brought against a wrong-doer; but upon a suggestion for a prohibition it must be alleged that you repair, because otherwise you shall not divest the ordinary of that right which properly belongs to him. Tenants in common cannot make a joint prescription to a seat in a church, but they may prescribe severally; and if they should bring an action jointly for a disturbance, and upon the evidence it should appear they are tenants in common, they must be nonsuited, because such evidence will not maintain the title upon which the action is founded, for though it is a possessory action, yet since that possession must be maintained by a title derived out of a prescription, they must prescribe severally. And in these prescriptions there is not much exactness required; for if an action on the case is brought for disturbing the plaintiff, &c., it is not sufficient for him to allege, that he is seised in fee of a messuage, &c., (without saying it is an ancient messuage,) and that he, and all those whose estate he hath in the said messuage, had (without saying time out of mind) a seat in the church, which they used to repair as often as there was occasion, &c., this is well enough, because the action is founded on a wrong done by one who disturbed him in his possession; in which action the plaintiff will recover damages, if the verdict is found for him. It is true he may libel in the spiritual court, and prescribe there for a seat, &c.; but if the prescription is denied, a prohibition will be granted; if it is not denied, then that court may proceed to sentence, which, if it happen to be against the prescription, in such case also a prohibition will lie, because the suit being upon a prescription, the proceedings in it were _coram non judice_ in that court; but this seems unreasonable, for it can be only to discharge the person of the costs which he ought to pay. As to seats in aisles of churches, the law is, that if a man has a house in a parish, and a seat in the aisle of the church which he has repaired at his own charge, he shall not be dispossessed by a bishop: if he should, he may have a prohibition, because it shall be intended to be built by his ancestors, with the consent of parson, patron, and ordinary, and appropriated by them to his and their use; and if he is disturbed by any other person in sitting there, he may have an action on the case against him, but then he must prove that he repaired it: and so it was adjudged between Dawtree and Dee, for seats in a little chapel in the north part of the chancel of Petworth, in Sussex; for though no man can tell the true reason of prescriptions, yet some probable reason must be alleged to gain such a peculiar right, and none is more probable than repairing it. And this will entitle a man to a seat in an aisle, though he lives in another parish; and therefore, where the plaintiff set forth that he had an ancient messuage in the parish of H., and that he and all those whose estate he had in the said house, had a seat in the aisle in the parish church of B.; this is a good prescription for a seat in the aisle, because he or they might build or repair it, though it is not a good prescription to have a seat _in nave ecclesiæ_ of another parish. As to the chancel, the ordinary hath no authority to place any one there, for that is the freehold of the rector; and so is the church; but he repairs the one, but not the other, and it is for this reason that an impropriator hath the chief seat in the chancel. But yet a man may prescribe to have a seat here, as belonging to ancient messuage.

So much for the laws of pews: the history of their gradual introduction into churches seems to be as follows:—

The first mention that we find made of a reading pew is in Bishop Parkhurst’s Articles of Visitation for his diocese of Norwich, (1596,) where it is ordered, “That in great churches, where all the people cannot conveniently hear the minister, the churchwardens and others, to whom the charge doth belong, shall provide and support a decent and convenient seat in the body of the church, where the said minister may sit or stand, and say the whole of the Divine service, that all the congregation may hear and be edified therewith; and that in smaller churches there be some convenient seat outside the chancel door, for that purpose.”

Before this time, the appointed place for the priest was in the choir, or, as appointed in the Second Book of King Edward, in such place of the church, chapel, or chancel, as the people may best hear, without any note of the provision of a pew, or any mention of “a little tabernacle of wainscot, provided for the purpose.” The first authority for the setting up of reading desks in all our churches, is the canon of 1603.

The earliest pew for the use of the congregation remaining, whose age is determined by the appearance of a date, is in the north aisle of Geddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, and has the following inscription:

_Churchwardens_, William Thorn, John Wilkie,

_Minister_, Thomas Jones, 1602.

Another pew occurs in the same church, dated 1604.

From this time till the episcopate of Wren, bishop of Hereford, pews seem to have become more universal, and only then to have found their deserved rebuke. Among other questions in his several articles of visitation we find the following: “Are all the seats and pews so ordered, that they which are in them may kneel down in time of prayer, and have their faces up to the holy table?” “Are there any privy closets or close pews in your church? Are any pews so loftily made, that they do any way hinder the prospect of the church or chancel, so that they which be in them are hidden from the face of the congregation?”

The last question points at another objection to pews, besides their destructive effect on the interior of a church. They seem to have originated with the Puritans, and to have been intended to conceal the persons sitting in them, that they might, without conviction, disobey the rubrics and canons, providing for a decent deportment during Divine service. The injunctions especially avoided under cover of pews, were the order to bow at the name of JESUS, and the rule to stand at the _Gloria Patri_.

It would, however, be equally absurd and unjust to apply such remarks to the present times; nor shall we offer any reasons against pews instead of open benches, except that they destroy the ecclesiastical character of a church, that they encourage pride, that they make a distinction where no distinction ought to exist, and that they must be erected at a loss of 20 per cent. of church accommodation.—See the _Cambridge Camden Society’s History of Pews_.

PHARISEES. From the Hebrew word _Pharez_, division, or separation. (In other words, _sectarians_, or _separatists_.) The most sanctimonious sect of the Jews, forming their religious world. They were denounced by our LORD for their hypocrisy, that is to say, the hypocrisy of the majority. St. Paul was originally a Pharisee: “after the most strictest _sect_ (αἵρεσιν) of our religion, I lived a Pharisee.” Acts xxvi. 5.

PHILIP, ST., AND ST. JAMES’S DAY. A festival of the Christian Church, observed on the first day of May.

I. St. Philip was a native of Bethsaida, in Galilee, and probably a fisherman, the general trade of that place. He had the honour of being first called to be a disciple of our blessed SAVIOUR. It was to Philip our SAVIOUR proposed that question, what they should do to procure so much bread as would feed the vast multitude that followed him? It was to him the Gentile proselytes addressed themselves, when desirous to see JESUS. And it was with Philip our LORD had that discourse concerning himself before the last supper.

The Upper Asia fell to this apostle’s lot, where he took great pains in planting the gospel, and by his preaching and miracles made many converts. In the latter end of his life, he came to Hierapolis in Phrygia, a city very much addicted to idolatry, and particularly to the worship of a serpent or dragon of prodigious bigness. St. Philip, by his prayers, procured the death, or, at least, the disappearing, of this monster, and convinced its worshippers of the absurdity of paying Divine honours to such odious creatures. But the magistrates, enraged at Philip’s success, imprisoned him, and ordered him to be severely scourged, and then put to death; which, some say, was by crucifixion; others, by hanging him up against a pillar.

St. Philip is generally reckoned among the married apostles; and it is said, he had three daughters, two whereof persevered in their virginity, and died at Hierapolis; the third, having led a very spiritual life, died at Ephesus. He left behind him no writings. The Gospel, under his name, was forged by the Gnostics, to countenance their bad principles, and worse practices.

II. St. James the Less is styled, in Scripture, our LORD’S brother; and by Josephus, eminently skilful in matters of genealogy, expressly called the brother of JESUS CHRIST: by which the ancient Fathers understand, that he was Joseph’s son by a former wife. He was surnamed the Less, to distinguish him from the other St. James; and that either from the stature of his body, or the difference of his age. But he acquired a more honourable appellation from the piety and virtue of his life; which was that of St. James the Just, by which he is still known.

After our SAVIOUR’S ascension, St. James was chosen bishop of Jerusalem. St. Paul, after his conversion, addressed himself to this apostle, by whom he was honoured with the right hand of fellowship. It was to St. James, St. Peter sent the news of his miraculous deliverance out of prison. This apostle was principally active at the Synod of Jerusalem, in the great controversy concerning the Jewish rites and ceremonies. He was of a meek and humble disposition. His temperance was admirable; for he wholly abstained from flesh, and drank neither wine nor strong drink, nor ever used the bath. Prayer was his constant business and delight, and by his daily devotions his knees were become as hard and brawny as camels.

St. Paul having escaped the malice of the Jews, by appealing to Cæsar, they resolved to revenge it upon St. James, who was accused before their council of transgressing the Law, and blaspheming against GOD. The scribes and Pharisees endeavoured, by flattering speeches, to engage him, at the confluence of the paschal solemnity, to undeceive the people concerning JESUS CHRIST; and, that he might be the better heard, they carried him with them to the top of the temple. There they addressed him in these words; “Tell us, O just man, what are we to believe concerning JESUS CHRIST, who was crucified?” He answered with a loud voice; “He sits in heaven on the right hand of the Majesty on high, and will come again in the clouds of heaven.” Enraged at this reply, they threw him down from the place where he stood; and being very much bruised, though not killed, he recovered strength enough to get upon his knees, and pray for his murderers, who loaded him with a shower of stones, till one with a fuller’s club beat out his brains.

PHOTINIANS, or SUTINIANS. Heretics, in the fourth century, so denominated from Photinus, bishop of Simich, a person of great accomplishments, and who, in the first years of his administration of that see, appeared very regular, but changed suddenly after he had taught the people the knowledge of the true GOD, that is, attempted to corrupt them, says Vincentius Lirinensis, by his detestable opinions and doctrine; for, not contented with renewing the errors of Sabellius, Paulus Samosatenus, Cerinthus, and Ebion, he added to their impieties, that JESUS CHRIST was not only mere man, but began to be the CHRIST when the HOLY GHOST descended upon him in Jordan.

PHYLACTERY. (φυλακτήριον.) This word is derived from the Greek, and properly denotes a _preservative_, such as pagans carried about them to preserve them from evils, diseases, or dangers; for example, they were stones, or pieces of metal, engraved under certain aspects of the planets. The East is to this day filled with this superstition; and the men do not only wear phylacteries for themselves, but for their animals also.

PICARDS. The name of a Christian sect, who improved the mistakes of the Adamites to the extravagance of going naked. They sprung up in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and were denominated from one Picard, who set it on foot: he ordered all his proselytes to go naked, called himself the SON of GOD, and pretended he was sent into the world as a new Adam, by his Father, to refresh the notion, and restore the practice of the law of nature, which, he said, consisted principally in two things, the community of women, and going stark naked. And one of the principal tenets of this people was, that their party were the only free people in nature, all other men being slaves, especially those who wore any clothes upon the score of modesty.

PIE. This was the table used before the Reformation to find out the service belonging to each day. If the word be of Greek origin, it may be referred to πίναξ or πινακίδιον. But the Latin word is _pica_, which perhaps came from the ignorance of the friars, who have thrust in many barbarous words into the liturgies. Some say pie is derived from _litera picata_, a great black letter in the beginning of some new order in the prayer, and among printers that term is still used, the _pica letter_.

PIER. The solid masses of masonry between arched openings, as in bridges, and between windows and doors. This name is so often given to the pillars in Gothic architecture, that it would be pedantic entirely to disuse it in that sense; but it ought in strictness to be confined at least to those wall-like square pillars, which are found in Norman architecture; as, for instance, alternately with proper pillars in Durham cathedral, or in the nave of Norwich.

PIETISTS. A set of zealous but misguided men in Germany, the followers of Philip James Spener, who attempted the revival of what he called vital religion in Germany in the seventeenth century, and to that end assembled around him those like-minded with himself, and in societies which he formed, commonly called _Colleges of Piety_, laid the foundations of many disorders. His disciples, as is usual, far outran the more measured zeal of their master; and their false notions, amounting sometimes to principles of mutiny and sedition, gave rise to a long and bitter controversy in Germany.

PILGRIMAGE. A kind of superstitious discipline, which consists in making a journey to some holy place, in order to adore the relics of some deceased saint. Pilgrimages began to be made in the fourth century, but they were most in vogue after the end of the eleventh century, when every one was for visiting places of devotion, not excepting kings and princes; and even bishops made no difficulty of being absent from their churches on the same account.

PILLAR. The isolated support of an arch, including base, shaft, and capital, in Norman and Gothic architecture. There were great variations in the forms of pillars during the progress of ecclesiastical architecture. The Norman pillar is often a square, pier-like mass, relieved by attached semi-pillars, or by three-quarter shaft in retiring angles, as in the accompanying example from Norwich; or it is a cylindrical shaft, often fluted, or cut in zigzags or other diaper patterns. The Early English pillar frequently consists of a central bearing shaft, surrounded by smaller detached shafts; either set almost close to the central shaft, sometimes even within hollows, as at York, so as to lose the effect of their separateness, or at a very considerable distance from the central shaft, as at Chichester and Ely.

The Geometrical pillar but seldom retains the detached shaft. Its section is perhaps more usually a quatrefoil than any other single form; but there are countless varieties, the mouldings always of course following the style to which they belong. The accompanying example is from St. Asaph. The Decorated pillar is equally various in section; where it is moulded, the ogee usually forms part of it, but in small and plain examples it is very frequently a simple octagon. In the Perpendicular the pillar follows the general poverty of the style, but it is also distinguished by the base being stilted; by the outer mouldings being continuous, and the inner order only being carried by an attached shaft with a capital; and by its being narrower from east to west than from north to south. The exceptions, however, to all these rules are so numerous, that they could only be represented by many illustrations.

PINNACLE. A small spire-like termination to a buttress, or to any decorative shaft rising above the parapet. In buttresses, especially flying buttresses, the pinnacles are of great use in resisting the outward pressure by their weight. They do not occur in Norman architecture; they are, in fact, a correlative of the pointed arch.

The pinnacle at the temple at Jerusalem was probably the gallery, or parapet, or wall on the top of the buttresses, which surrounded the roof of the temple, properly so called. Josephus tells us that the roof of the temple was defended by pretty tall golden spikes, to hinder birds from alighting thereon. It was not on the roof of the temple that JESUS CHRIST was placed, but on the wall that surrounded the roof.—_Calmet’s Dict. of the Bible, ed. Taylor._

PISCINA. Originally signified a fishpond; and in a secondary sense, any vessel for holding or receiving water. A water drain, usually accompanied with decorative features, near the altar, on the south side. The piscina is often the only remaining indication of the place where an altar has been. Some churches have double piscinas.

PISCIS, PISCICULI, and VESICA PISCIS. The fish is an hieroglyphic of JESUS CHRIST, very common in the remains of Christian art, both primitive and mediæval. The origin of it is as follows:—From the name and title of our blessed LORD, Ἰησοῦς Χριστὺς Θεοῦ Ὑιὸς Σωτὴρ, JESUS CHRIST, the SON of GOD, the SAVIOUR, the early Christians, taking the first letter of each word, formed the name ἸΧΘΥΣ, _Piscis_, a fish. From this name of our blessed LORD, Christians also came to be called _Pisciculi_, fishes, with reference to their regeneration in the waters of baptism, consecrated to that effect by our blessed LORD, the mystical ἸΧΘΥΣ. Thus Tertullian, speaking of Christians, says, “for we, after our LORD and SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, our ἸΧΘΥΣ, are also fishes, and born in the water; nor are we otherwise saved but by remaining in the water.” The _Vesica Piscis_, which is the figure of an oval, generally pointed at either end, and which is much used as the form of the seals of religious houses, and to enclose figures of JESUS CHRIST, or of the saints, also has its rise from this name of our blessed LORD: though some say, that the mystical _Vesica Piscis_ has no reference, except in its name, to a fish, but represents the almond, the symbol of virginity and self-production. Clement of Alexandria, in writing of the ornaments which a Christian may consistently wear, mentions the fish as a proper device for a ring, and says, that it may serve to remind the Christian of the origin of his spiritual life.

PIUS IV. (See _Creed_.)

PLANETA. (See _Chasuble_.)

PLENARTY, (from the word _plenus_, “full,”) signifying that a church is full, or provided with, an incumbent.

PLURALITY. This is where the same person obtains two or more livings with cure of souls. There are various canons of the Church against the practice; and the authorities of the Church are taking prompt measures to abolish it in the English Church. The statute 1 & 2 Vic. c. 106, and subsequently the 13 and 14 Vic. c. 98, made very important changes in the law of England regarding pluralities.

PLUVIALE. Another name for the cope: so called because it was originally a cloak, a defence from the rain. (See _Cope_.)

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. Of this sect, who call themselves the Brethren, the following account is taken from the Register-general’s return.

“Those to whom this appellation is applied receive it only as descriptive of their individual state as Christians—not as a name by which they might be known collectively as a distinct religious _sect_. It is not from any common doctrinal peculiarity or definite ecclesiastical organization that they have the appearance of a separate community; but rather from the fact that, while all other Christians are identified with some particular _section_ of the Church of GOD, the persons known as ‘Brethren’ utterly refuse to be identified with any. Their existence is, in fact, a protest against all sectarianism; and the primary ground of their secession from the different bodies to which most of them have once belonged, is, that the various tests by which, in all these bodies, the communion of true Christians with each other is prevented or impeded, are unsanctioned by the Word of GOD. They see no valid reason why the Church (consisting of all true believers) which is _really_ one, should not be also _visibly_ united, having as its only bond of fellowship and barrier of exclusion, the reception or rejection of those vital truths by which the Christian is distinguished from the unbeliever. Looking at existing churches, it appears to them that _all_ are faulty in this matter; _national_ Churches by adopting a too lax—_dissenting_ Churches by adopting a too limited—criterion of membership. The former, it appears to Brethren, by considering as members all within a certain territory, mingle in one body the believers and the unbelievers; while the latter, by their various tests of doctrine or of discipline, exclude from their communion many who are clearly and undoubtedly true members of the universal Church. The Brethren, therefore, may be represented as consisting of all such as, practically holding all the truths essential to salvation, recognise each other as, on that account alone, true members of the only Church. A difference of opinion upon aught besides is not regarded as sufficient ground for separation; and the Brethren, therefore, have withdrawn themselves from all those bodies in which tests, express or virtual, on minor points, are made the means of separating Christians from each other.

“In the judgment of the Brethren, the disunion now existing in the general Church is the result of a neglect to recognise the HOLY SPIRIT as its all-sufficient guide. Instead, they say, of a reliance on his promised presence and sovereignty as CHRIST’S vicar on earth, ever abiding to assert and maintain his lordship in the Church according to the written Word, men, by their creeds and articles, have questioned the sufficiency of Scripture as interpreted to all by him, and, by their ministerial and ritual appointments, have assumed to specify the channels through which only can his blessings be communicated. All these various human forms and systems are believed by Brethren to be destitute of scriptural authority, and practically restrictive of the HOLY SPIRIT’S operations.

“Chiefly with regard to _ministry_ are these opinions urged; the usual method of ordaining special persons to the office, being held to be unscriptural and prejudicial. They conceive that Christians in general confound _ministry_ (i.e. the exercise of a spiritual gift) with _local charges_, as eldership, &c. Such charges, they infer from Scripture, required the sanction of apostles or their delegates, to validate the appointment (Acts xiv. 23; Titus i. 5); whereas the ‘gifts’ never needed any human authorization (Acts xviii. 24–28; Rom. xii.; 1 Cor. xii.—xvi.; Phil. i. 14; 1 Peter iv. 9, 10). Further, they urge that while _Scripture warrants the Church to expect a perpetuity of ‘gifts,’_—as evangelists, pastors, teachers, exhorters, rulers, &c.,—because they are requisite for the work of the ministry, (Eph. iv. 7–13,)—_it nowhere guarantees a permanent ordaining power_, without which the nomination or ordaining of elders is valueless. _All_ believers are, it is affirmed, true spiritual priests capacitated for worship, (Heb. x. 19–25,) and all who possess the qualifications from the LORD are authorized to evangelize the world or instruct the Church; and such have not alone the _liberty_, but also an _obligation_ to employ whatever gift may be intrusted to their keeping. Hence, in their assemblies, Brethren have no pre-appointed person to conduct or share in the proceedings; all is open to the guidance of the HOLY GHOST at the time, so that he who believes himself to be so led of the SPIRIT, may address the meeting, &c. This arrangement is considered to be indicated as the proper order in 1 Cor. xiv.,—to flow from the principle laid down in 1 Cor. xii.,—and to be traceable historically in the Acts of the Apostles. By adopting it, the Brethren think that they avoid two evils, by which all existing sects are, more or less, distinguished; the first, the evil of not employing talents given to believers for the Church’s benefit; the second, the evil of appointing as the Church’s teachers men in whom the gifts essential for the work have not yet been discovered. The Brethren, therefore, recognise no separate orders of ‘clergy’ and ‘laity’—all are looked upon as equal in position, (Matt. xxiii. 8; 1 Cor. x. 17; xii. 12–20, &c.,) differing only as to ‘gifts’ of ruling, teaching, preaching, and the like (Rom. xii. 4–8; 1 Cor. xii. 18, 28, &c.). The ordinances, consequently, of baptism, when administered, and the LORD’S supper, which is celebrated weekly, need no special person to administer or preside (Acts ix. 10–18; x. 48; xx. 7; 1 Cor. xi.). Another feature of some importance is, that wherever gifted men are found among the Brethren, they, in general, are actively engaged in preaching and expounding, &c., _on their own individual responsibility to the Lord, and quite distinct from the assembly_. So that, though they may occasionally use the buildings where the Brethren meet, it is in no way as ministers of the Brethren, but of CHRIST.

“The number of places of worship which the Census officers in England and Wales returned as frequented by the Brethren was 132; but probably this number is below the truth, in consequence of the objection which they entertain to acknowledge any sectarian appellation. Several congregations may be included with the number (96) described as ‘Christians’ only.”

PŒNULA. (See _Chasuble_.)

POLITY, ECCLESIASTICAL. By this is meant the constitution and government of the Christian Church, considered as a society.

Scarce anything in religion (says a learned author) has been more mistaken than the nature and extent of that power, which our blessed SAVIOUR established in his Church. Some have not only excluded the civil magistrates of Christian states from having any concernment in the exercise of this power, and exempted all persons invested with it from the civil courts of justice, but have raised their supreme governor of the Church to a supremacy, even in civil affairs, over the chief magistrate; insomuch that he has pretended, on some occasions, to absolve subjects from their allegiance to their lawful princes; and others have run so far into contrary mistakes, as either to derive all spiritual power wholly from the civil magistrate, or to allow the exercise thereof to all Christians without distinction. The first of these opinions manifestly tends to create divisions in the State, and to excite subjects to rebel against their civil governors: the latter do plainly strike at the foundation of all ecclesiastical power; and wherever they are put in practice, not only the external order and discipline, but even the sacraments of the Church must be destroyed, and its whole constitution be quite dissolved.

The nature of ecclesiastical polity will be best understood by looking back to the constitution of the ancient Christian Church.

The Church, as a society, consisted of several orders of men. Eusebius reckons three: viz. the Ἡγούμενοι, Πιστοὶ, and Κατηχούμενοι, i. e. _rulers_, _believers_, and _catechumens_. Origen reckons five orders: but then he divides the clergy into three orders, to make up the number. Both these accounts, when compared together, come to the same thing. Under the Ἡγούμενοι, or rulers, are comprehended the clergy, bishops, priests, and deacons; under the Πιστοὶ, or believers, the baptized laity; and under the Κατηχούμενοι, or catechumens, the candidates for baptism. The believers were perfect Christians; the catechumens imperfect. The former, having received baptism, were allowed to partake of the eucharist; to join in all the prayers of the Church; and to hear discourses upon the most profound mysteries of religion: more particularly the use of the LORD’S Prayer was the sole prerogative of the believers, whence it was called Εὐχὴ πιστῶν, the prayer of believers. From all these privileges the catechumens were excluded. (See _Catechumens_.)

The distinction between the laity and the clergy may be deduced from the very beginnings of the Christian Church; notwithstanding that Rigaltius, Salmasius, and Selden pretend there was originally no distinction, but that it is a novelty, and owing to the ambition of the clergy of the third century, in which Cyprian and Tertullian lived. (See _Clergy_.)

The clergy of the Christian Church consisted of several orders, both superior and inferior.

The superior orders of the clergy were, 1. The Bishops; 2. The Presbyters; 3. The Deacons.

It has been pretended that the bishops and presbyters were the same; and this opinion has given rise to the sect of the Presbyterians. But it is clearly proved against them, from ecclesiastical antiquity, that bishops and presbyters were distinct orders of the clergy. (See _Bishops_, _Deacons_, _Presbyters_, and _Presbyterians_.)

Among the bishops there was a subordination, they being distinguished into, 1. Primate Metropolitans; 2. Patriarchs or Archbishops; 3. Diocesan Bishops; 4. Chorepiscopi or Suffragan Bishops. (See the articles _Archbishops_, _Chorepiscopi_, _Diocese_, _Patriarchs_. and _Primates_.)

The presbyters were the second order of the superior clergy, and besides being the bishop’s assistants in his cathedral church, had the care of the smaller districts, or parishes, of which each diocese consisted. (See _Parishes_ and _Presbyters_.)

The deacons were the third order of the superior clergy, and were a kind of assistants to the bishops and presbyters, in the administration of the eucharist, and other parts of Divine service. There were likewise deaconesses, or female deacons, who were employed in the service of the women. Out of the order of deacons was chosen the archdeacon, who presided over the deacons and all the inferior officers of the Church. (See the articles _Archdeacons_, _Deacons_, and _Deaconesses_.)

The inferior orders of the clergy were, 1. The Sub-deacons; 2. The Acolyths; 3. The Exorcists; 4. The Readers; 5. The Door-keepers; 6. The Singers; 7. The Copiatæ, or Fossarii; 8. The Parabolani; 9. The Catechists; 10. The Syndics; 11. The Stewards. (See _each under their respective articles_.)

All these orders of the clergy were appointed to their several offices in the Church by solemn forms of consecration or ordination, and had their respective privileges, immunities, and revenues. And, by means of this gradation and subordination in the hierarchy, the worship and discipline of the primitive Church were exactly kept up, according to St. Paul’s direction, “Let everything be done decently, and in order.”

How far the constitution of our own Church agrees with, or has departed from, this plan of the ancient hierarchy, may be seen at one glance of the eye. We have the general distinction of bishops, presbyters or priests, and deacons. Among the first we retain only the distinction of archbishops (with the title likewise of primates) and bishops, having no patriarchs or chorepiscopi. And as to the inferior orders of the clergy, as acolyths, &c., they are all unknown to the Church of England. The Romish Church has retained most of them, but it were to be wished she came as near to the faith and worship, as she does to the external constitution, of the hierarchy of the ancient Church.

But, as no society can subsist without laws, and penalties annexed to the breach of them, so the unity and worship of the Christian Church were secured by laws both ecclesiastical and civil. The ecclesiastical laws were, either rules and orders made by each bishop for the better regulation of his particular diocese; or laws made, in provincial synods, for the government of all the diocese of a province; or, lastly, laws respecting the whole Christian Church, made in general councils, or assemblies of bishops from all parts of the Christian world. (See _Synods_.)

The civil laws of the Church were those decrees and edicts, made from time to time by the emperors, either restraining the power of the Church, or granting it new privileges, or confirming the old.

The breach of these laws was severally punished both by the Church and State. The ecclesiastical censures, respecting offenders among the clergy, were, chiefly, suspension from the office, and deprivation of the rights and privileges of the order. Those respecting the laity consisted chiefly in excommunication, or rejection from the communion of the Church, and penance both public and private.

POLYGLOTT BIBLES, are such Bibles, or editions of the Holy Scriptures, as are printed in various languages, at least three, the texts of which are ranged in opposite columns. Some of these Polyglott editions contain the whole Bible, others but a part of it. The principal Polyglotts that have yet appeared are these following:—

1. The Bible of Francis Ximenes, cardinal of the order of St. Francis. It was printed in 1514–17, in four languages—Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, and Latin. From having been printed at Alcala, in Spain, anciently _Complutum_, this is called the _Complutensian_ Polyglott. It cost Cardinal Ximenes 50,000 ducats.

2. The Psalter of Justiniani, bishop of Nebbio, of the order of St. Dominic. It appeared in 1516, in five languages; Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Latin, and Arabic.

3. The Psalter, by John Potken, provost of the collegiate church of St. George, at Cologne, published in 1518, in four languages—Hebrew, Greek, Chaldee, and Latin.

4. The Pentateuch, published by the Jews, at Constantinople, in 1546, in Hebrew, Chaldee, Persian, and Arabic; with the commentaries of Solomon Jarchi.

5. The Pentateuch, by the same Jews, in the same city, in 1547, in four languages—Hebrew, Chaldee, the vulgar Greek, and Spanish.

6. An imperfect Polyglott, containing only fragments of the book of Genesis and of the Psalms; the Proverbs, the prophets Micah and Joel, with part of Isaiah, Zechariah, and Malachi; published by John Draconitis, of Carlostad, in Franconia, in 1563–5, in five languages—Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Latin, and German.

7. Christopher Plantin’s Polyglott Bible, published by order of Philip II., king of Spain, Antwerp, in 1569, 1572. It is in eight volumes, and in Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, and Latin: with the Syriac version of the New Testament. This is called the Antwerp Polyglott.

8. Vatablus’s Polyglott Bible, being the Old Testament in Hebrew and Greek, with two Latin versions, one of St. Jerome, the other of Sanctus Pagninus; and Vatablus’s notes. The editorship is attributed to R. Stephens, by Bishop Walton. Dibdin ascribes it to Bertramus, Hebrew professor at Geneva. It appeared at Heidelberg, in 1586.

9. A Bible in four languages, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German, published by David Wolder, a Lutheran minister, at Hamburg, in 1596.

10. The Polyglotts of Elias Hutter, a German. The first, printed at Nuremberg, in 1599, contains the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, in six languages; viz. the Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Latin, Luther’s German, and Sclavonian; or French, Italian, or Saxon; the copies varying according to the nations they were designed for.

This author published the Psalter and New Testament, in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German. But his chief work is the New Testament in twelve languages, viz. Syriac, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Spanish, French, Latin, German, Bohemian, English, Danish, and Polish. This was printed at Nuremberg, in 1599.

11. M. le Jay’s Bible, in seven languages, printed at Paris, in 1645. The languages are, the Hebrew, Samaritan, Chaldee, Greek, Syriac, Latin, and Arabic.

12. Walton’s Polyglott, published in England, in 1657. In nine languages, viz. the Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Samaritan, Syrian, Arabic, Æthiopic, Persic, and Latin; though no one book is printed in so many. This was the most complete and perfect Polyglott ever published. It consists of five volumes, with prolegomena, by Walton, which are in themselves a treasure of biblical criticism, some treatises in the first volume, several new Oriental versions in the fourth and fifth, and a very large collection of various readings in the sixth.

13. Reineccius’, or the Leipsic Polyglott, printed at Leipsic, 1753, in 3 vols., in Latin, German, Hebrew, and Greek: a cheap and commodious edition.

14. Bagster’s Polyglott, London, 1821, 4to and 8vo, in five languages, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, English. Syriac.

POLYGLOTT PRAYER BOOK. The English Prayer Book was published in 1819, in eight languages, English, French, Italian, German, Spanish, ancient and modern Greek, and Latin.

PONTIFICAL. A book containing the offices used by a bishop, at consecration of churches, &c. Thus the Roman Pontifical is the book of offices for a bishop, according to the rites of the Roman Church. In England the Pontifical is not by authority published separately from the liturgy, so that it is never called by that name; though the offices of confirmation and ordination, in fact, compose the English Pontifical. For the consecration of churches and churchyards we have no office appointed by sufficient authority. (See _Consecration of Churches_.)

PONTIFICALIA. Properly the ensigns of a pontiff’s or bishop’s office; but the term is loosely used for any ecclesiastical dress. It is so used in the account of Bishop Andrewes’ consecration of St. Mary’s, Southampton, in Sparrow’s collection: “Episcopus capellam statim ingressus niduit se pontificalibus.”

POOR MAN’S BOX; or _Poor Men’s Box_. Till the last review, it was directed that the collection at the offertory should be put into the _Poor Man’s Box_: a term which (in imitation of the Scotch liturgy) was altered in the last review to a _decent basin_. It is clear, however, from many documents, that basins of gold and silver, and other metinal were used in the Church of England ever since the Reformation. In Ireland the Poor Man’s Box, or _poor-box_, as it is generally called, is still in general use. An oval box, half covered, of copper or wood, with a long handle. The Poor Man’s Box does not seem to be the same as the Alms’ Chest, prescribed by the 84th canon. So Wheatly observes: “not, I presume, into that fixed in the church, but into a little box which the churchwardens, or some other proper persons, carried about with them in their hands, as is still the custom at the Temple Church in London.”—_Jebb._

POPE, THE. The sovereign pontiff, or supreme head, of the Romish Church. The appellation of Pope (_Papa_) was, anciently, given to all Christian bishops: but, about the latter end of the eleventh century, in the pontificate of Gregory VII., it was usurped by the bishop of Rome, whose peculiar title it has ever since continued.

The spiritual monarchy of Rome sprang up soon after the declension of the Roman empire; and one great, though remote, instrument, in promoting the increase of this monarchy, so pernicious to the supreme civil power, was, the barbarity and ignorance which from that time spread itself over the Western parts.

Rome was chosen for the place of residence of the ecclesiastical monarchy, because this city had the particular prerogative of being the capital city of the Roman empire, where the Christian religion had its first rise and increase. For what is related concerning St. Peter’s chair is nothing but a vain pretence, which may easily be seen from hence, that, afterwards, the bishop of Constantinople had the next place assigned him after the bishop of Rome, only because that city was then the place of the emperor’s residence, and called New Rome. And when afterwards the Western empire was come to decay, and the city of Rome had lost its former lustre, the bishop of Constantinople disputed the precedency with the Roman bishop. It is true the emperor Phocas granted the right of precedency to Boniface III., then bishop of Rome, who thereupon took upon him the title of Œcumenical bishop: but this did not imply any power or jurisdiction over the rest; for the other patriarchs never acknowledged any. So that here are no footsteps of Divine institution to be found, the papal power being purely human, and an usurpation upon the rights of other sees.

The bishops of Rome did not extend their power over the Western parts all at once; but it was introduced from time to time, by degrees, by various artifices, and under various pretences. What chiefly contributed to its growth was, first, the emperors choosing other places of residence besides Rome; for, by their constant presence there, they might easily have kept under the ambitious designs of the bishops. In the next place, the Western empire was divided into several new kingdoms, erected by the several barbarous and pagan nations, and these, having been converted to the Christian faith by the direction of the Romish Church, thought themselves obliged to pay her the profoundest respect.

In the fifth century, the bishops on this side of the Alps began to go to Rome, to visit the sepulchres of St. Peter and St. Paul. This voluntary devotion insensibly grew into a necessity. From hence it was easy for the popes afterwards to pretend, that the bishops ought to receive their confirmation from Rome. Besides, some other bishops and churches, that were novices in comparison of the ancient Roman Church, used to refer themselves to, and ask the advice of, the Church of Rome, concerning matters of great consequence, and the true interpretation of the canons. Hence the bishops of Rome, perceiving their answers were received as decisions, began to send their decrees before they were demanded. And hence they set themselves up as judges of the differences arising between the bishops, and, encroaching on the right and jurisdiction of the metropolitans, proceeded to suspend and depose whom they thought fit. At the same time, by making void the decisions of the provincial synods, they so diminished their authority, that by degrees they were quite abolished. Add to this, that Gregory VII. forced the bishops to take an oath of fealty to the popes, and by a decree enacted that none should dare to condemn any one, who had appealed to the pope. Nor did they forget to send legates or nuncios to all places, whose business was to exercise, in the pope’s name, the same authority, which had formerly belonged to the bishops and provincial synods. (See _Legate_.)

It is certain that many Romish bishops, especially among those on this side the Alps, were to a late period opposed to the pope’s authority; which evidently appeared at the Council of Trent, where the French and Spanish bishops insisted very strongly to have it decided, that bishops are obliged to residence by the law of GOD; the consequence of which was, the deriving their authority from GOD alone. The pope met with great difficulty before he could surmount this obstacle; and therefore it is very likely this will be the last council, since the pope will scarce put his grandeur to the hazard and decision of such another assembly. Not to mention that they are now of no farther use, since the Jesuits and others have taught, that the pope is infallible, and superior to councils. However that may be, the bishops are obliged for their own sakes not to withdraw themselves from the pope’s jurisdiction, since thereby they would fall under the civil power, and would be obliged to seek protection from their sovereigns, who must be potent princes, if they could protect them against the pope; so that they think it wiser, of two evils to choose the least.

The spiritual monarchy of Rome could not have been established, had its bishops continued dependent on any temporal prince; and therefore the popes took their opportunity to exempt themselves from the jurisdiction of the Greek emperors, whose authority was mightily decayed in Italy. This was greatly forwarded by the dispute concerning the use of images. For the emperor Leo Isaurus having quite ejected them out of the churches, Pope Gregory II., who stood up for the images, took occasion to oppose him, and stirred up the Romans and Italians to refuse to pay him tribute; by which means the power of the Greek emperors was lost in Italy, and these countries began to be free and independent of any foreign jurisdiction.

The pope, having freed himself from the authority of the emperors of Constantinople, and being in danger from the Lombards, who endeavoured to make themselves masters of Italy, had recourse for protection to the kings of France. Pepin, and afterwards Charles the Great, having entirely subdued the Lombards, these princes gave to the papal chair all that tract of land, which had been formerly subject to the Greek emperors. To obtain this gift, it is said, the pope made use of a fictitious donation of Constantine the Great, which, in those barbarous times, was easily imposed upon the ignorant world. By virtue of this grant, the popes pretended to a sovereign jurisdiction over these countries; which the people at first refused to submit to, thinking it very strange, that the pope, who was an ecclesiastical person, should at the same time pretend to be a temporal prince. When, therefore, the Romans mutinied against Leo III., he was forced to seek for assistance from Charles the Great, who restored the pope. On the other hand, the pope and people of Rome proclaimed Charles emperor; whereby he was put in possession of the sovereignty of that part of Italy, which formerly belonged to the governors of Ravenna, and the other remnants of the Western empire; so that the popes afterwards enjoyed these countries under the sovereign jurisdiction of the emperor, who therefore used to be called the patron and defender of the Church, till the reign of the emperor, Henry VI.

The popes at length began to grow weary of the imperial protection, because the emperor’s consent was required in the election of a pope, and, if they were mutinous, the emperors used to check them, and sometimes turn them out of the chair. The popes, therefore, for a long time, employed various artifices to exempt themselves from the power of the emperors. To this end, they frequently raised intestine commotions against them. But the reign of Henry IV. furnished them with an opportunity of putting their designs in execution. For Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hildebrand, had the boldness to excommunicate this emperor, on pretence that he made a traffic of church benefices, by selling them to all sorts of persons, whom he installed before they had taken orders. And, not satisfied with this, he cited the emperor before him, to answer to the complaints of his subjects, and declared him to have forfeited all right and title to the empire. This obliged the emperor to renounce the right of constituting bishops. And though his son, Henry V., endeavoured to recover what was forcibly taken away from his father, and made Pope Paschal a prisoner, yet were the whole clergy in Europe so dissatisfied, that he was obliged at last to resign the same right again into the pope’s hands. This affair gave rise to the factions of the _Guelfs_ and _Ghibelines_, the first of which were for the pope, the latter for the emperor. The succeeding emperors found so much work in Germany, that they were not in a condition to look after Italy; whereby the pope had sufficient leisure to make himself sovereign, not only over his own possessions, but over all possessions pertaining to the Church.

But the pope, not satisfied with this degree of grandeur, quickly set on foot a pretension of far greater consequence. For now he pretended to an authority over princes themselves, to command a truce between such as were at war together, to take cognizance of their differences, to put their kingdoms under an interdict, and, if they refused submission to the see of Rome, to absolve their subjects from their allegiance, and to deprive them of their crowns. This has been attempted against many crowned heads, and put in execution against some of them. And for this abominable pretension they pleaded their fictitious decretals, (see _Decretals_,) which grant to the popes an unlimited power over all Christians whatever. Pope Boniface VIII. gave the world clearly to understand his meaning, at the jubilee kept in the year 1300, when he appeared sometimes in the habit of an emperor, and sometimes in that of a pope, and had two swords carried before him, as the ensigns of the ecclesiastical and civil power.

But the popes could not long enjoy this intolerable usurpation in quiet; for it was often called in question, till they were obliged to desist in part from their pretensions. In particular, Philip the Handsome, king of France, gave several great blows to the papal authority. But the ensuing schisms, and the double elections, when the opposite factions chose two different popes at the same time, contributed most towards weakening the power of the holy see. Hence an occasion was taken to bridle the pope’s authority by general councils, which often proceeded so far as to depose the holy fathers. Therefore it is not to be wondered that, since the Council of Trent, the popes have been very averse to the calling of general councils, and seem to have bid adieu to them for ever. To this may be added, that the translation of the papal chair, by Clement V., from Rome to Avignon, where the popes constantly resided for seventy years together, carried along with it several inconveniences, which proved greatly prejudicial to the ecclesiastical monarchy. Among others, the pope’s authority being founded upon this belief, that St. Peter had been at Rome, and by his presence had communicated a particular prerogative and holiness to that chair, it was very much questioned whether the same could be transferred to Avignon.

But, when the ecclesiastical monarchy seemed to be come to the pinnacle of its grandeur, when all the Western parts were either in communion with, or in obedience to, the Church of Rome, by the influence of the Reformation, the pope became only the spiritual head of a sect, and eventually, as a civil power, of very slight importance.

The manner of the election of a pope is as follows: nine or ten days after the funeral of a deceased pope, the cardinals enter the conclave, which is generally held in the Vatican, in a long gallery, where cells of board are erected, covered with purple cloth, one for each cardinal. (See _Conclave_.)

The election is made by _scrutiny_, _access_, or _adoration_. The first is, when each cardinal writes the name of him whom he votes for, in a scroll of five pages. On the first is written by one of his servants, that the cardinal may not be discovered by his hand, “_Ego eligo in summum pontificem reverendum dominum meum cardinalem_.” On this fold two others are doubled down, and sealed with a private seal. On the fourth the cardinal writes his own name, and covers it with the fifth folding. Then, sitting in order on benches in the chapel, with their scrolls in their hands, they go up to the altar by turns, and, after a short prayer on their knees, throw the scroll into a chalice upon the table, the first cardinal bishop sitting on the right hand, and the first cardinal deacon on the left. The cardinals being returned to their places, the cardinal bishop turns out the scrolls into a plate, which he holds in his left hand, and gives them one by one to the cardinal deacon, who reads them with an audible voice, while the cardinals note down how many voices each person has; and then the master of the ceremonies burns the scrolls in a chafing-dish, that it may not be known for whom any one gives his voice. If two-thirds of the number present agree, the election is made, and he, on whom the two-thirds fall, is declared pope.

When the choice is made by _access_, the cardinals rise from their places, and, approaching him whom they would have elected, say, _Ego accedo ad reverendissimum Dominum_. The choice by _adoration_ is much after the same manner, only the cardinal approaches him whom he would have chosen with the profoundest reverence. But both the one and the other must be confirmed by the scrutiny.

There has been another way of choosing a pope, namely, by _compromise_: that is, when the differences have risen so high that they could not be adjusted in the conclave, they have referred the choice to three or five, giving them leave to elect any one, provided it were determined within the time that a candle lighted by common consent should last. Sometimes they have had recourse to what is called _inspiration_; that is, the first cardinal rises up in chapel, and, after an exhortation to make choice of a capable person, immediately, as if inspired, names one himself: to which, if two-thirds of the cardinals present agree, he is reckoned legally chosen.

When one of the cardinals is chosen pope, the master of the ceremonies comes to his cell, to acquaint him with the news of his promotion. Whereupon he is conducted to the chapel, and clad in the pontifical habit, and there receives the adoration, or the respects paid by the cardinals to the popes. Then, all the gates of the conclave being opened, the new pope shows himself to the people, and blesses them, the first cardinal deacon proclaiming aloud these words: _Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum; Papam habemus. Reverendissimus Dominus Cardinalis—electus est in summum Pontificem, et eligit sibi nomen._ After this, he is carried to St. Peter’s church, and placed upon the altar of the holy apostles, where the cardinals come a second time to the adoration. Some days after is performed the ceremony of his coronation, before the door of St. Peter’s church, where is erected a throne, upon which the new pope ascends, has his mitre taken off, and a crown put upon his head, in the presence of the people. Afterwards is a grand cavalcade from St. Peter’s church to St. John Lateran, where the archbishop of that church presents the new pope with two keys, one of gold the other of silver.

It is probable that, in the first ages of the Church, the Roman clergy elected the pope; and some think the people had a share in the election. Afterwards, Odoacer, king of the Eruli, and Theodoric, king of the Goths in Italy, would suffer no election of a pope to be made without their consent. But this was abolished in 502, under Pope Symmachus. The succeeding princes, however, reserved to themselves a right to confirm the newly elected pope, who, without this confirmation, could not take possession of the pontificate. The tenth century saw several popes elected and deposed at the fancy of the Roman nobility and Italian princes. But, since the election of Celestin II., in 1443, the cardinals have retained the power of election, independent of the Roman people, or of any sovereign prince whatever.

It is a general maxim, in the choice of a pope, to elect an Italian; which is done, not only because they choose rather to bestow this dignity on a native of Italy than on a foreigner, but also because the security and preservation of the papal chair depends, in a great measure, on the balance which is to be kept between France and Spain: but this is not to be expected from a French or Spanish pope, who would quickly turn the scale, and, by granting too great privileges to his countrymen, endeavour to exclude others from the papal chair. It is also a sort of maxim, to choose a pope who is pretty far advanced in years, that there may be the quicker succession, and that it may not be in the power of a pope, during a long reign, to alter their customs, or, by making his family too powerful, to entail, as it were, the papal chair upon his house. They also take care that he be not too near akin to the deceased pope, that the vacant church benefices may not be engrossed by one family. It often happens, that one is chosen pope, of whom nobody thought before; and this comes to pass, when the cardinals are tired out by so many intrigues, and are glad to get out of the conclave. It is also observed, that a pope often proves quite another man, when he comes to sit in the chair, than that he was before, when only a cardinal.

Ever since the time of Pope Sixtus IV., that is, since the year 1471, the popes have made it their business to enrich their families out of the Church revenues, of which there are very remarkable instances. For it is related that Sixtus V., during a reign of five years, bestowed upon his family above three millions of ducats. The house of the Barbarini, at the death of Urban VIII., was possessed of 227 offices and Church benefices, whereby they amassed thirty millions of scudi.

Sergius III., (A. D. 904,) or Sergius IV., (A. D. 1009,) who was before called _Os Porci_, i. e. Swine-Face, is said to have been the first pope who changed his name upon his exaltation to the pontificate. This example has been followed by all the popes since his time, and they assume the names of Innocent, Benedict, Clement, &c.

When a pope is elected, they put on him a cassock of white wool, shoes of red cloth, on which is embroidered a gold cross, a mantle of red velvet, the rochet, the white linen albe, and a stole set with pearls. At home, his habit is, a white silk cassock, rochet, and scarlet mantle. In winter his Holiness wears a fur cap; in summer, a satin one. When he celebrates mass, the colour of his habit varies according to the solemnity of the festival. At Whitsuntide, and all festivals of the martyrs, he officiates in red; at Easter, and all festivals of virgins, in white; in Lent, Advent, and eves of fasting days, in violet; and on Easter-eve, and at all masses for the dead, in black. All these colours are typical: the red expresses the cloven tongue, and the blood of the martyrs; the white, the joy caused by our SAVIOUR’S resurrection, and the chastity of virgins; the violet, the pale aspect of those who fast; and the black, grief and mourning.

The pope’s tiara, or crown, is a kind of conic cap, with three coronets, rising one above the other, and adorned with jewels. Paul II. was the first who added the ornaments of precious stones to his crown. The jewels of Clement VIII.’s crown were valued, they say, at 500,000 pieces of gold. That of Martin V. had five pounds and a half weight of pearls in it. “Nor is there anything unreasonable in this, (says Father Bonani,) since the pope governs the kingdom of CHRIST in quality of his viceroy; now this kingdom is infinitely superior to all the empires of the universe. The high priest of the Jews wore on his head and breast the riches which were to represent the majesty of the Supreme GOD. The pope represents that of the SAVIOUR of the world, and nothing better expresses it than riches.” We must not omit, that the two strings of the pontifical tiara represent the two different manners of interpreting the Scriptures, the mystical and the literal.

The pope has two seals. One is called “the fisherman’s ring,” and is the impression of St. Peter holding a line with a bait to it in the water. It is used for those briefs that are sealed with red wax. The other seal is used for the bulls which are sealed with lead, and bears the figures of St. Peter and St. Paul, with a cross on one side, and a bust, with the name of the reigning pope, on the other. Upon the decease of a pope, these seals are defaced and broken by the cardinal Camerlengo, in the presence of three cardinals.

When the pope goes in procession to St. Peter’s, the cross is carried before him on the end of a pike about ten palms long. “Many reasons,” says F. Bonani, “authorize this custom. It is a monument of the sufferings of JESUS CHRIST, and of the pope’s adherence to the SAVIOUR of the world. It is the true mark of the pontifical dignity, and represents the authority of the Church, as the Roman fasces did that of the consuls.” At the same time two grooms bear two fans on each side of his Holiness’s chair, to drive away the flies. This (according to the above-cited author) represents the seraphim covering the face of GOD with their wings.

The custom of kissing the pope’s feet is very ancient; to justify which practice, it is alleged, that the pope’s slipper has the figure of the cross upon the upper leather; so that it is not the pope’s foot, but the cross of CHRIST, which is thus saluted.

There are but few instances of the papal power in England before the Norman Conquest. But the pope, having favoured and supported William I. in his invasion of this kingdom, made that a handle for enlarging his encroachments, and, in that king’s reign, began to send legates hither. Afterwards he prevailed with King Henry I. to part with the right of nominating to bishoprics; and, in the reign of King Stephen, he gained the prerogative of appeals. In the reign of Henry II. he exempted all clerks from the secular power. This king, at first, strenuously opposed his innovation; but, after the death of Becket, who, for having violently opposed the king, was slain by some of the royal adherents, the pope got such an advantage over the king, that he was never able to execute the laws he had made. Not long after this, by a general excommunication of the king and his people, for several years, King John was reduced to such straits, that he surrendered his kingdoms to the pope, to receive them again, and hold them of him under a rent of a thousand marks. In the following reign of Henry III., partly from the profits of our best Church benefices, and partly from the taxes imposed by the pope, there went yearly out of the kingdom to Rome £70,000 sterling. But in the reign of Edward I., it was declared by the parliament, that the pope’s taking upon him to dispose of English benefices to foreigners, was an encroachment not to be endured; and this was followed by the statute of _Provisors_ against popish bulls, and against disturbing any patron, in presenting to a benefice; which was afterwards enacted in Ireland also.

But the pope’s power received a mortal blow in England, by the reformation in religion, begun in the reign of Henry VIII.; since which time, to maintain the pope’s authority here, by writing, preaching, &c., was, till lately, made a _premunire_ upon the first conviction, and high treason upon the second.

POPERY. (See _Church of Rome_, _Council of Trent_, _Romanism_.) By _Popery_ we mean the peculiar system of doctrine, by adopting which the Church of Rome separates herself from the rest of the Catholic Church, and is involved in the guilt of schism. The Church of Rome, or Popery, has departed from the apostles’ doctrine, by requiring all who communicate with her to believe, as necessary to salvation,

1st, That that man is accursed who does not kiss, and honour, and worship the holy images.

2nd, That the Virgin Mary and other saints are to be prayed to.

3rd, That, after consecration in the LORD’S supper, the bread is no longer bread, and the wine no longer wine.

4th, That the clergyman should be excommunicated who, in the sacrament of the LORD’S supper, gives the cup to the people.

5th, That they are accursed who say that the clergy may marry.

6th, That there is a purgatory; that is, a place where souls which had died in repentance are purified by suffering.

7th, That the Church of Rome is the mother and mistress of all churches.

8th, That obedience is due from all Churches to the bishop of Rome.

9th, That they are accursed who deny that there are seven sacraments.

From those doctrines, contrary to Scripture and the primitive Church, have resulted these evil practices.

From the veneration of images has sprung the actual worship of them.

The invocation of the Blessed Virgin, and of other saints, has given rise to the greatest blasphemy and profaneness.

The bread in the eucharist has been worshipped as though itself were the eternal GOD.

From the doctrine of purgatory has sprung that of indulgences, and the practice of persons paying sums of money to the Romish bishops and clergy, to release the souls of their friends from the fabulous fire of purgatory.

Popery is a corrupt addition to the truth, and we can give the very dates of the several corruptions.

_Attrition_, as distinguished from contrition, was first pronounced to be sufficient.

The priest’s right _intention_ was first pronounced to be indispensable to the valid participation of the sacraments, and

Judicial _absolution_ was first publicly authorized, by the Council of Trent, A. D. 1551.

_Auricular confession_ was first enjoined by Innocent III., at the fourth Council of Lateran, A. D. 1215.

_Apocrypha_ received as canonical first at the Council of Trent, A. D. 1547.

Compulsory _celibacy of the clergy_, first enjoined publicly at the first Council of Lateran, A. D. 1123.

_Communion in one kind only_, first authoritatively sanctioned by the Council of Constance, A. D. 1414.

Use of _images_ and _relics_ in religious worship, first publicly affirmed and sanctioned in the second Council of Nice, A. D. 787.

Invocation of saints_, first taught with _authority by the fourth Council of Constantinople, A. D. 754.

_Papal infallibility_ was utterly unknown to the third Council of Constantinople, A. D. 680.

_Papal supremacy_, first publicly asserted by the fourth Council of Lateran, A. D. 1215.

_Prayers in a foreign tongue_, first deliberately sanctioned by the Council of Trent, were expressly forbidden by the fourth Council of Lateran, A. D. 1215.

_Purgatory_ and _indulgences_, first set forth by the Council of Florence, A. D. 1438.

The Roman _number of the sacraments_ was first taught by the Council of Trent, A. D. 1545.

_Transubstantiation_ was first publicly insisted on by the fourth Council of Lateran, A. D. 1215.

POPPY HEAD. The ornamental finial of a stall end. In design the poppy heads are extremely various; but they are almost universally made to assume the outline of the fleur-de-lis, to which not only foliage, but figures, faces, and whole groups, are made to conform themselves.

PORCH. A part of the church in which anciently considerable portions of the marriage service and of the baptismal services were performed. Being commenced here they were finished in the church.

POSTILS. A name anciently given to sermons or homilies. The name sprung from the fact that these were usually delivered immediately after reading of the Gospel (quasi _post illa_, sc. _Evangelia_). Also, printed expositions of Scripture, from the text being first exhibited, and _post illa_ (after the words of the text) the explication of the writer.

PRÆMUNIRE, in law, is either taken for a form of writ, or for the offence whereon the writ of præmunire is granted. The writ in question is named from its initial words _Præmunire facias_, and it is chiefly known in ecclesiastical matters from a persecuting use to which it is applied by the statute of 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20, which enacts, that if the dean and chapter refuse to elect the person nominated by the king to the vacant bishopric, or if any archbishop or bishop refuse to confirm or consecrate him, they shall incur the penalties of the statutes of the præmunire. These penalties are no less than the following:—From the moment of conviction, the defendant is out of the king’s protection, his body remains in prison during the king’s pleasure, and all his goods, real or personal, are forfeited to the Crown. He can bring no action, nor recover damages, for the most atrocious injuries, and no man can safely give him comfort, aid, or relief.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION, THE. (From πρᾶγμα, _business_.) A rescript or answer of the sovereign, declared by advice of his council, to some college, order, or body of people, upon their consulting him in some case of their community.—_Hutman._

Referring to the expression historically, the earliest Pragmatic Sanction on record is that drawn up by Louis IX., king of France, in 1268, against the encroachments of the Church and Court of Rome. It related chiefly to the rights of the Gallican Church, with reference to the elections of bishops and clergy. It was superseded in 1438 by the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII., which was drawn up at Bourges. This having re-asserted the rights and privileges claimed for the Gallican Church under Louis IX., it accorded with the Council of Basle, at that time sitting, in maintaining that a general council is independent of the pope, and in asserting that all papal bulls should be null and void unless they received the consent of the king. It withheld also the payment of annates. (See _Annates_.) Pope Pius II. succeeded in obtaining the abrogation of this sanction for a time. But the parliament of Paris refused to approve the conduct of Louis XI. in setting it aside, and he was compelled to restore it to its original influential position. It accordingly remained in full force up to the year 1517, when it was supplanted by the concordat, which was agreed upon between Francis I. and Pope Julius II. Although by the concordat privileges were given and received on both sides, yet the real advantages were on the side of Rome; which advantages it has ever since been her constant aim to improve.

PRAISE. A reverent acknowledgment of the perfections of GOD, and of the blessings flowing from them to mankind, usually expressed in hymns of gratitude and thanksgiving, and especially in the reception of the holy eucharist—that “sacrifice of praise, and sublimest token of our joy.” (See _Eucharist_.)

PRAXEANISTS. (See _Patripassians_.)

PRAYER. The offering up of our desires to GOD for things agreeable to his will, in the name of CHRIST, by the aid of his SPIRIT, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies. The necessity of prayer is so universally acknowledged by all who profess and call themselves Christians, and so clearly enjoined in Scripture, that to insist upon this duty—this sacred and pleasant exercise to the renewed in heart—is unnecessary. Prayer is either private or public, and it implies faith in the particular providence of GOD. The general providence of GOD acts through what are called the laws of nature. By his particular providence GOD interferes with those laws, and he hath promised to interfere in behalf of those who pray in the name of JESUS. As we are to shape our labours by ascertaining, through the circumstances under which we are providentially placed, what is the will of GOD with reference to ourselves; as, for example, the husbandman, the professional man, the prince, all labour for different things placed within their reach, and do not labour for that which GOD evidently does not design for them; so we are to regulate our prayers, and we may take it as a general rule, that we may pray for that for which we may lawfully labour, and for that only. And when we pray for what is requisite and necessary for the body or the soul, we are at the same time to exert ourselves. Prayer without exertion is a mockery of GOD, as exertion without prayer is presumption. The general providence of GOD requires that we should exert ourselves, the particular providence of GOD that we should pray.

(For public prayer, see _Liturgy_ and _Formulary_.)

PRAYER BOOK. (See _Liturgy_ and _Formulary_.)

PREACHING. Proclaiming or publicly setting forth the truths of religion. Hence the reading of Scripture to the congregation is one branch of preaching, and is so denominated in Acts xv. 21. “Moses of old time hath in every city them that _preach_ him, being _read_ in the synagogues every sabbath day.” See Archbishop King’s valuable Treatise _On the Inventions of Men_, in which he demonstrates the extensive sense of _preaching_, as scripturally used; showing that all public services in the church are, in a certain sense, preaching. The term is, however, generally restricted to the delivering of sermons, lectures, &c.

_Article_ XXIII. “It is not lawful for any man to take upon him the office of public preaching, or ministering the sacraments in the congregation, before he be lawfully called and sent to execute the same. And those we ought to judge lawfully called and sent, which be chosen and called to this work by men who have public authority given unto them in the congregation, to call and send ministers into the LORD’S vineyard.”

In the same convocation in which subscription in the Thirty-nine Articles was imposed upon the clergy, it was enjoined, with respect to preachers: “In the first place, let _preachers_ take care that they never teach anything in the way of preaching, which they wish to be retained religiously and believed by the people, except what is agreeable to the doctrine of the Old and New Testament, and what the catholic fathers and ancient bishops have collected from that same doctrine.”—_Canon. Eccles. Angl._ xix. A. D. 1571.

_Canon 36._ “No person shall be received into the ministry, nor admitted to any ecclesiastical living, nor suffered to preach, to catechise, or to be a lecturer or reader of divinity in either university, or in any cathedral, or collegiate church, city, or market town, parish church, chapel, or any other place within this realm, except he be licensed either by the archbishop or by the bishop of the diocese where he is to be placed, under their hands and seals, or by one of the two universities under their seal likewise; and except he shall first subscribe to the three articles concerning the king’s supremacy, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Thirty-nine Articles (see _Orders_): and if any bishop shall license any person without such subscription, he shall be suspended from giving licences to preach for the space of twelve months.”

And by the 31 Elizabeth, c. 6. “If any person shall receive or take any money, fee, reward, or any other profit, directly or indirectly, or any promise thereof, either to himself or to any of his friends, (all ordinary and lawfully fees only excepted,) to procure any licence to preach, he shall forfeit £40.”

After the preacher shall be licensed, then it is ordained as follows:

_Canon 45._ “Every beneficed man, allowed to be a preacher, and residing on his benefice, having no lawful impediment, shall, in his own cure, or in some other church or chapel (where he may conveniently) near adjoining, where no preacher is, preach one sermon every Sunday of the year; wherein he shall soberly and sincerely divide the word of truth, to the glory of GOD, and to the best edification of the people.”

_Canon 47._ “Every beneficed man, licensed by the laws of this realm (upon urgent occasions of other service) not to reside upon his benefice, shall cause his cure to be supplied by a curate that is a sufficient and licensed preacher, if the worth of the benefice will bear it. But whosoever hath two benefices shall maintain a preacher licensed, in the benefice where he doth not reside, except he preach himself at both of them usually.”

By _Canon 50_. “Neither the minister, churchwardens, nor any other officers of the Church, shall suffer any man to preach within their churches or chapels, but such as by showing their licence to preach shall appear unto them to be sufficiently authorized thereunto, as is aforesaid.”

_Canon 51._ “The deans, presidents, and residentiaries of any cathedral or collegiate church shall suffer no stranger to preach unto the people in their churches, except they be allowed by the archbishop of the province, or by the bishop of the same diocese, or by either of the universities; and if any in his sermon shall publish any doctrine either strange or disagreeing from the word of GOD, or from any of the Thirty-nine Articles, or from the Book of Common Prayer, the dean or residents shall by their letters, subscribed with some of their hands that heard him, so soon as may be, give notice of the same to the bishop of the diocese, that he may determine the matter, and take such order therein as he shall think convenient.”

_Canon 52._ “That the bishop may understand (if occasion so require) what sermons are made in every church of his diocese, and who presume to preach without licence, the churchwardens and sidesmen shall see that the names of all preachers which come to their church from any other place be noted in a book, which they shall have ready for that purpose, wherein every preacher shall subscribe his name, the day when he preached, and the name of the bishop of whom he had licence to preach.”

_Canon 53._ “If any preacher shall in the pulpit particularly, or namely of purpose, impugn or confute any doctrine delivered by any other preacher in the same church, or in any church near adjoining, before he hath acquainted the bishop of the diocese therewith, and received order from him what to do in that case, because upon such public dissenting and contradicting there may grow much offence and disquietness unto the people, the churchwardens or party aggrieved shall forthwith signify the same to the said bishop, and not suffer the said preacher any more to occupy that place which he hath once abused, except he faithfully promise to forbear all such matter of contention in the church, until the bishop hath taken further order therein; who shall with all convenient speed so proceed therein, that public satisfaction may be made in the congregation where the offence was given. Provided, that if either of the parties offending do appeal, he shall not be suffered to preach _pendente lite_.”

_Canon 55._ “Before all sermons, lectures, and homilies, the preachers and ministers shall move the people to join with them in prayer, in this form, or to this effect, as briefly as conveniently they may: Ye shall pray for CHRIST’S Holy Catholic Church,” &c. (See _Bidding Prayer_.)

PREBEND. (Lat. _Præbenda_.) The stipend which is received by a prebendary, from the revenues of the cathedral or collegiate church with which he is connected. It denoted originally any stipend or reward, given out of the ecclesiastical revenues, to a person who had by his labours procured benefit to the Church; and the gratuity which was given either to a proctor or advocate, or any other person of the like kind. When the cathedral churches became well endowed, they left off receiving the income of their lands into one common bank, and dividing it among the members, but parcelled out the lands into several shares, appropriating them for the maintenance of each single clergyman who resided about the cathedral, calling it _Præbenda_, or _Corpus Præbendæ_, the _Corps of the Prebend_. Hence arose the difference between a _prebend_ and a _canonry_. A _canonry_ was a right which a person had in a church, to be deemed a member thereof, to have the right of a stall therein, and of giving a vote in the chapter; but a _prebend_ was a right to receive certain revenues appropriated to his place. The number of prebends in the several cathedral churches was increased by the benefactions of respective founders; oftentimes out of the revenues of the rural clergy, and oftentimes by exonerating the lands of prebends from paying tithes to the ministers of the parishes where they lay.—_Nicholls._

PREBENDARY. A clergyman attached to a cathedral or collegiate church, who enjoys a _prebend_ in consideration of his officiating at stated times in the church. (See _Dean and Chapter_.)

In Scotland, there were established by the respective founders in the colleges of St. Salvador, at St. Andrew’s, and King’s College, Aberdeen, certain “Prebendaries, or perpetual chaplains, to sing and serve in the choir” of the chapel. These were, in fact, the same as chaplains in the choral colleges of England.

PRECENTOR. The leader of a choir. The precentor in almost all cathedrals of old foundation in England, and very generally on the continent, was the first dignitary in the chapter, ranking next to the dean. In some few instances the archdeacons preceded him. He superintended the choral service, and the choristers; and in Paris the precentor of Notre Dame had the supervision of the lesser schools in the city, as the chancellor had of the greater. In all the new foundations, except Christ Church in Dublin, where he is a dignitary, the precentor is a minor canon: an anomalous and modern provision. In most ancient cathedrals the precentor had for his badge of office a silver staff or _baculus_. In choral colleges the precentor is a chaplain. At Llandaff and St. David’s, till very lately, the precentor was presbyteral head of the chapter.

PRECEPTORIES were manors or estates of the Knights Templars, on which they erected churches for religious service, and convenient houses for habitation, and placed some of their fraternity under the government of one of those more eminent Templars, who had been by the grand master created “_præceptores templi_,” to take care of the lands and rents in that place and neighbourhood: these preceptories were only cells to the Temple, or principal house of the knights, in London. Preceptor was the title of the head of some old hospitals.

PRECES. A general word for prayers; but it is often applied in a technical sense to the shorter sentences, as versicles and suffrages which are said in the way of verse and response. In the English choral service the term is limited to those versicles (with the Gloria Patri) immediately preceding the Psalms, beginning “O LORD, open thou our lips.” These anciently formed a regular part of the harmonized _services_ for cathedral choirs, which were set to music by an earlier musician.—_Jebb._ (See _Responses_, _Versicles_, and _Service_.)

PREDESTINATION. (See _Election_; see also _Calvinism_ and _Arminianism_.) Of predestination and election our 17th Article thus speaks: “Predestination to life is the everlasting purpose of GOD, whereby (before the foundations of the world were laid) he hath constantly decreed by his counsel secret to us, to deliver from curse and damnation those whom he hath chosen in CHRIST out of mankind, and to bring them by CHRIST to everlasting salvation, as vessels made to honour. Wherefore they which be endued with so excellent a benefit of GOD, be called according to GOD’S purpose, by his SPIRIT working in due season; they through grace obey the calling; they be justified freely; they be made sons of GOD by adoption; they be made like the image of his only-begotten SON JESUS CHRIST; they walk religiously in good works; and at length, by GOD’S mercy, they attain to everlasting felicity. As the godly consideration of predestination and our election in CHRIST is full of sweet, pleasant, and unspeakable comfort to godly persons, and such as feel in themselves the working of the Spirit of CHRIST, mortifying the works of the flesh and their earthly members, and drawing up their mind to high and heavenly things, as well because it doth greatly establish and confirm their faith of eternal salvation to be enjoyed through CHRIST, as because it doth fervently kindle their love towards GOD: so, for curious and carnal persons lacking the Spirit of CHRIST, to have continually before their eyes the sentence of GOD’S predestination, is a most dangerous downfal, whereby the devil doth thrust them either into desperation, or into wretchlessness of most unclean living, no less perilous than desperation. Furthermore, we must receive GOD’S promises in such wise, as they be generally set forth to us in Holy Scripture: and, in our doings, that will of GOD is to be followed, which we have expressly declared unto us in the Word of GOD.”

Such is the barrier which the Church places between this solemn subject and irreverent inquiries; but the Scripture doctrine of predestination may be further stated without any forgetfulness of the spirit here inculcated. We are told indeed by the Church, that “the godly consideration of predestination and our election in CHRIST is full of sweet and unspeakable comfort to godly persons” (Art. xvii.); and it is certain that it can be full neither of profit nor of comfort, unless we meditate upon it. And if it be among the things “hard to be understood,” (2 Pet. iii. 16,) this is no reason why we should not try to understand it, and, by understanding, cease to be “unlearned and unstable,” and so take care that it shall _not_ be wrested to our destruction.

In the first chapter to the Ephesians, we find that there are certain persons whom GOD hath chosen in CHRIST, before the foundation of the world; having predestinated them unto the adoption of children of JESUS CHRIST to himself, not on account of their good works, but according to the good pleasure of his will. (Eph. i. 4, 5.) Again, in another Epistle, we are told that GOD hath “called us with a holy calling, not according to our works, but according to his own purpose and grace, which was given us in CHRIST JESUS before the world began.” (2 Tim. i. 9.) These are persons whose names are said to have been written in heaven, in the book of life, called the LAMB’S book of life, (Rev. xx. 15; xxi. 27,) because the first among GOD’S elect is he who, being GOD as well as man, is the Lamb of GOD, slain from the foundation of the world (Rev. xiii. 8) as a propitiation for sins. (1 John ii. 2; iv. 10.) Thus, then, we see that there are persons who, in the words of St. Paul, are “vessels which GOD hath afore prepared unto glory.” (Rom. ix. 22–24.)

And now comes the question, _Who_ are those who are thus predestinated to the glories of the new heaven, the new earth, the new Jerusalem, which is to come down from above? (Rev. xxi. 2.) Let St. Paul give the answer: “Whom he did predestinate, them he also called” (Rom. viii. 30): called by the circumstances under which he providentially placed them, either by the appearance, in the first ages, of an apostle or an evangelist; or, as is the case with us, by the fact of our being born in a Christian land: “and whom he called, them he also justified;” receiving them, for CHRIST’S sake, as his own children in holy baptism, he justified, or, for the same SAVIOUR’S sake, counted as holy, those who as yet were not actually so: “and whom he justified, them he also glorified.” He glorified them by regenerating them, and making them temples of the HOLY GHOST (1 Cor. vi. 11, 19); than which what greater glory can pertain to the sons of men?

The foregoing passage furnishes us with a description of Christians, of baptized persons; and consequently to Christians we are to refer those other passages which relate to GOD’S predestination: _them_ GOD hath predestinated to glory. And as such, as GOD’S elect people, predestinated not merely to means of grace, for this were clearly inadequate, but to glory in the kingdom of glory, the inspired writers were wont to address the multitude of the baptized. Thus the apostle addresses the Church of the Thessalonians, good and bad commingled, as “knowing” their “election of GOD.” (1 Thess. i. 4.) Thus St. Peter speaks of “the strangers scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia,” as “elect according to the foreknowledge of GOD the FATHER” (1 Pet. i. 2); and he speaks of them afterwards as “a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a peculiar people;” and St. Paul, in the Epistle to the Hebrews, addresses the Hebrews, meaning those who had made profession of the Christian faith, as “holy brethren, partakers of the heavenly calling.” Such, then, is our blessing, our privilege, our high hope as Christians. In the temple of the first Jerusalem there was a variety of chambers or mansions, employed for different purposes, though all relating directly or indirectly to the services of the sanctuary. In the new Jerusalem, which will itself be the temple of the universe, there will in like manner be “many mansions” or chambers: but if so, those mansions or chambers in the earthly Jerusalem having been intended for a variety of different offices, we may conclude that offices of different characters will exist in the new Jerusalem. It is very possible that we are not only each of us predestined to heaven, but predestined also each to our own particular place in heaven, that our very mansion is fixed. We know that GOD has predestinated particular persons to particular offices here on earth, long before their birth: as, for example, in the case of Jeremiah, GOD saith, “Before I formed thee in the belly, I knew thee; and before thou camest forth of the womb, I sanctified thee, and ordained thee a prophet unto the nation.” And so with respect also to St. Paul, we are told that it “pleased GOD to separate him from his mother’s womb, that he might preach CHRIST among the heathen.” (Gal. i. 15, 16.) Nay, we find that this is really to be the case with respect to the next world, in some cases at least; for example, when the SON of man shall sit on the throne of his glory, the apostles shall sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. xix. 28): a particular office is allotted to them; to a particular office they are predestinated. When the mother of Zebedee’s children prayed that her children might sit, the one on the right hand, and the other on the left, in our LORD’S kingdom of glory, our LORD said, “to sit on my right hand and on my left, is not mine to give.” (Matt. xx. 23.) No. These places are designed for certain persons who are preparing, or shall be prepared, to fill the same. This is already fixed in the counsels of GOD. These places, therefore, are not mine to give. They are already given. Your place is also designated: prepare for it by doing your duty. We know that some of the saints are predestinated to a mysterious office, the nature of which we cannot understand, but they will judge angels. (1 Cor. vi. 2, 3.) And at the last day shall the King say unto them that are on his right hand, “Come, ye blessed of my FATHER, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world.” (Matt. xxv. 34.)

But this predestination to glory is, like our election, conditional. We shall not only be saved, but we shall occupy a predestined post of glory, _if_ we escape condemnation at the day of judgment; not otherwise. The omission of all reference to the day of judgment is the vice of the Calvinistic system. The man, condemned at the day of judgment, will find an addition to his pangs, by knowing the glory to which he had been predestined, had he not perverted his ways. But if our sins are then found blotted out by the blood of the LAMB, we know that a certain place in heaven is designed for us, for which we are shaped and prepared by the circumstances under which we are placed while on earth. (See _Bishop Pearson’s_ 23 and 24 _Lectiones “de Prædestinatione” in Archdeacon Churton’s edition of his minor Works_.)

PRE-EXISTENCE OF CHRIST, OUR LORD. (See _Generation_.) His existence before he was born of the Virgin Mary, and even before the creation of the world by him. The fact is stated thus by Bishop Bull in his “Defence of the Nicene Creed:”—All the catholic doctors of the first three centuries taught, that JESUS CHRIST, he who was afterwards so called, existed before he became man, or before he was born, according to the flesh, of the Blessed Virgin, in another nature, far more excellent than the human nature; that he appeared to holy men, giving them an earnest, as it were, of his incarnation; that he always presided over, and provided for, the Church, which in time to come he would redeem with his own blood; and of consequence that, from the beginning, the whole order or thread of the Divine dispensation, as Tertullian speaks, ran through him: further yet, that he was with the FATHER before the foundations of the world, and that by him all things were made.

PREFACES. Certain short occasional forms in the Communion Service, which are introduced by the priest, on particular festivals, immediately before the anthem, beginning, “Therefore with angels and archangels,” &c. This anthem is a song of praise, or an act of profound adoration, equally proper at all times; but the Church calls upon us more especially to use it on her chief festivals, in remembrance of those events which are then celebrated. Thus, on Christmas Day, the priest having said—“It is very meet, right, and our bounden duty, that we should at all times, and in all places, give thanks unto thee, O LORD, Holy FATHER, Almighty, everlasting GOD,”—adds the proper preface which assigns the reason for peculiar thankfulness on that particular day, viz. “_Because_ thou didst give JESUS CHRIST, thine only SON, to be born as at this time for us; who, by the operation of the HOLY GHOST, was made very man, of the Virgin Mary his mother, and that without spot of sin, to make us clean from all sin: _therefore_, with angels, &c.” The days for which these prefaces are provided are, Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and seven days after each of these festivals; also Whitsunday, and six days after; together with Trinity Sunday. The antiquity of such prefaces may be estimated from the fact that they are mentioned and enjoined by the 103rd canon of the African code, which code was formed of the decisions of many councils prior to the date of 418.

The decay of devotion let fall the apostolical and primitive use of daily and weekly communions, and the people in the later ages did not receive but at the greater festivals: upon which custom there were added to the general preface mentioned, before some special prefaces relating to the peculiar mercy of that feast on which they did communicate, the Church thinking it fit, that, since every festival was instituted to remember some great mercy, therefore they who received on such a day, besides the general praises offered for all GOD’S mercies, should at the LORD’S table make a special memorial of the mercy proper to that festival; and this seemed so rational to our reformers, that they have retained those proper prefaces which relate to Christmas, Easter, Ascension Day, Whitsunday, and Trinity Sunday, so as to praise GOD for the mercies of CHRIST’S birth, resurrection, and ascension, for the sending the HOLY GHOST, and for the true faith of the holy TRINITY.—_Dean Comber._

Our LORD himself, before he brake the bread and distributed it, gave thanks; and the Church has thought fit to do the same thing. But, because our LORD has not prescribed any set form for this, but used one agreeable to the thing and the time, the Church therefore, as matters and occasion required, has accordingly adapted peculiar forms of prayer and thanksgiving, suited, as St. Augustine says, to the diversity of festival days, in which different benefits are commemorated.—_Bp. Cosin._

On the greater festivals there are proper prefaces appointed, which are also to be repeated, in case there be a communion, for seven days after the festivals themselves (excepting that of Whitsunday, which is to be repeated only six days after, because Trinity Sunday, which is the seventh, hath a preface peculiar to itself); to the end that the mercies may be the better remembered by often repetition, and also that all the people (who in most places cannot communicate all in one day) may have other opportunities, within those eight days, to join in praising GOD for such great blessings.

2. The reason of the Church’s lengthening out these high feasts for several days is plain: the subject-matter of them is of so high a nature, and so nearly concerns our salvation, that one day would be too little to meditate upon them, and praise GOD for them as we ought. A bodily deliverance may justly require one day of thanksgiving and joy; but the deliverance of the soul by the blessings commemorated on these times, deserves a much longer time of praise and acknowledgment. Since, therefore, it would be injurious to Christians to have their joy and thankfulness for such mercies confined to one day, the Church, upon the times when these unspeakable blessings were wrought for us, invites us, by her most seasonable commands and counsels, to fill our hearts with joy and thankfulness, and let them overflow eight days together.

3. The reason of their being fixed to eight days is taken from the practice of the Jews, who by GOD’S appointment observed their greater festivals, some of them for seven, and one, namely, the feast of Tabernacles, for eight days. And therefore the primitive Church, thinking that the observation of Christian festivals (of which the Jewish feasts are only types and shadows) ought not to come short of them, lengthened out their higher feasts to eight days.—_Bp. Sparrow._ _Wheatly._

These prefaces are very ancient, though there were some of them, as they stood in the Latin service, of later date. For as there are ten in that service, whereof the last, concerning the Virgin Mary, was added by Pope Urban, 1095, so it follows that the rest must be of a more considerable antiquity. Our Church has only retained five, and those upon the principal festivals of the year, which relate only to the persons of the ever-blessed Trinity, and not to any saint.—_Dr. Nicholls._

Mr. Palmer remarks that “the repetition by the people of the portion of the Preface, beginning ‘therefore with angels,’ never was the custom of the primitive Church, and could not have been intended by those who revised our liturgy, nor is it warranted by the nature of the Preface itself. It has perhaps,” he adds, “arisen from the custom of printing the latter part of the Preface in connexion with the hymn Tersanctus, and from the indistinctness of the rubric, which, in fact, gives no special direction for the people to join in repeating the hymn _Tersanctus_.” It may be remarked that the _Tersanctus_ is marked as a separate paragraph in the two books of King Edward VI.

With respect to the Preface, there is an ambiguity in our rubrics, but none whatever in the choral usage, which is in accordance with the universal practice of the Church. The Preface is that part recited by the priest, beginning with “_It is very meet, right_,” &c., ending with “evermore praising thee and saying.” It is commonly imagined that the choir or congregation are to repeat with the priest the words, “Therefore with angels and archangels,” &c.; but this is contrary to all precedent. The choral communion services, and the one of Durham, all agree in beginning the hymn at the words, “Holy, holy, holy,” &c. The rubric merely says, “After each of which Prefaces shall immediately be sung or said;” it does not say by whom. The direction is as indeterminate as that of the Litany, which, like the passage in question, is sung distributively between minister and people in sequence.—_Jebb._

PRELATE. An ecclesiastic having jurisdiction over other ecclesiastics. The title, though applicable to bishops, is not confined to their order. Before the Reformation abbots were styled prelates. Archdeacons are prelates in this sense of the word. (See _Episcopacy_, _Bishop_.)

PRELECTOR. A Lecturer. In the cathedral of Hereford, one of the prebendaries is elected to the office of Prelector, to hold it till he succeeds to a residentiary canonry, for which he is statutably considered to have a claim to be a candidate. His duty is to preach on Tuesdays, or else on any holiday which may occur during the week for a considerable portion of the year.

PREMONSTRATENSES. (_Lat._) In French, _Prémontrés_. A religious order, founded by St. Norbert, descended from a noble family in the diocese of Cologne. He was educated suitably to his quality, and lived for some time at the emperor Henry the Fifth’s court. At about thirty years of age he was ordained deacon and priest; and, soon after, entering upon a very strict and mortified way of living, he resigned his church preferments, and distributed a large patrimonial estate to the poor. Then he embraced the rule of St. Augustine, and retiring with thirteen companions to a place called Premonstratum, in the diocese of Laon, in Picardy, he there began his order, about the year 1119. This ground, with the chapel of St. John Baptist, was given to St. Norbert by the bishop of Laon, with the approbation of Louis le Gros, king of France, who gave the Premonstratenses a charter of privileges. The place was called Premonstratum, because it was pretended the Blessed Virgin herself pointed out (premonstravit) this place for the principal house of the order, and at the same time commanded them to wear a white habit.

The monks of this order were, at first, so poor, that they had nothing they could call their own but one poor ass, which served them to carry wood, which they cut down every morning and sent to Laon, where it was sold to purchase bread. But, in a short time, they received so many donations, and built so many monasteries, that, thirty years after the foundation of this order, they had above one hundred abbeys in France and Germany.

The popes and kings of France have granted many privileges, and been very liberal, to the Premonstratenses. Besides a great number of saints, who have been canonized, this order has had several persons of distinguished birth, who have been contented with the humble condition of lay-brothers: as, Guy, earl of Brienne; Godfrey, earl of Namur, &c. It has likewise given the Church a great number of archbishops and bishops.

The order of Premonstratenses increased so greatly, that it had monasteries in all parts of Christendom, amounting to 1000 abbeys, 300 provostships, a vast number of priories, and 500 nunneries. These were divided into 30 cyrcaries or provinces. But this number of houses is greatly diminished; for, of 65 abbeys it had in Italy, there is not one remaining at present; not to mention the loss of all their monasteries in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, England, Scotland, and Ireland.

These monks, vulgarly called White Canons, came first into England in the year 1146, where their first monastery, called New House, was built in Lincolnshire, by Peter de Saulia, and dedicated to St. Martialis. In the reign of Edward I., when that king granted his protection to the monasteries, the Premonstratenses had twenty-seven houses in this kingdom.

PREROGATIVE COURT. The Prerogative Court of the archbishops of Canterbury and Armagh, is that court wherein all testaments are proved, and all administrations granted, when a party dying within the province has _bona notubilia_ in some other diocese than where he dies; and is so called from having a _prerogative_ throughout the whole province for the said purposes. (See Canons 92, 93, &c.)

PRE-SANCTIFIED. A word used by the Greek Church, who have a liturgy called that of the _Presanctified_, because that upon those days they do not consecrate the bread or wine, but receive the bread which was consecrated the day before. This service is observed all Lent long, except Saturdays and Sundays, and the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, which, being festivals, are exempt from fasting; the Greeks being of opinion that the whole communion service is not to be celebrated on fasting days, and upon this account charging the Latin Church with breach of the canons, because they celebrate the eucharist in Lent time, as they do the rest of the year, Good Friday excepted; for on that day this liturgy of the Presanctified is offered in the Latin Church; the priest then consecrating neither bread nor wine, but making use of the bread which was consecrated the day before, and communicating only under one kind; for the wine he receives is only for ablution, being unconsecrated. The Greeks do the same thing, from whence we may conclude that they communicate only in one kind during Lent, the wine that they then receive being not consecrated. The Communion of the Sick, as enjoined by the First Book of King Edward, if administered on any day of public communion, was a liturgy of the pre-sanctified; as the elements were not consecrated in the private house, but previously in the church.

PRESBYTER. (See _Bishop_, _Deacon_, _Priest_, _Orders_, _Clergy_.) The name πρεσβύτερος (_elder_) is a word borrowed from the Greek translation of the Old Testament, which commonly signifies a ruler or governor, being, as St. Jerome observes, a name of office, not a mere indication of a man’s age; for elders were chosen, not by their age, but by their merits and wisdom. So that, as a senator among the Romans, and an alderman in our own language, signifies a person of such an order and station without any regard to age, in like manner a _presbyter_ or _elder_ in the Christian Church is one who is ordained to a certain office, and authorized by his quality, not his age, to discharge the several duties of that office and station in which he is placed. In this large and extensive sense, bishops were sometimes called _presbyters_ in the New Testament, for the apostles themselves did not refuse that title. On the other hand, it is the opinion of many learned men, both ancient and modern, that presbyters were sometimes called _bishops_, while bishops who were properly such were distinguished by other titles, as that of _chief priests_, _apostles_, &c. Bingham shows, however, that those who maintained the identity of the names, did not thence infer identity of offices, but always esteemed bishops and presbyters to be distinct officers.

We know not the exact period at which the apostles first ordained presbyters. We do not read of their existence before A. D. 43, when the disciples at Antioch sent their collections to the presbyters of Judea. About A. D. 56, St. Paul sent for “the presbyters of the church” of Ephesus; and we afterwards read of bishops or presbyters at Philippi: and the directions to Timothy and Titus for their ordination in every city; the exhortation of St. Peter to “the presbyters;” and of St. James, “is any one sick among you, let him send for the presbyters of the church;” suffice to prove the general ordination of presbyters by the apostles.

The office of presbyters, like that of bishops, consisted in “feeding the Church of GOD,” and overseeing it; exhorting and convincing the gainsayers by sound doctrine. Being invested with the power of teaching, they also possessed authority in controversies. The Church of Antioch sent to Jerusalem to consult the apostles and “presbyters” on the question of circumcision; and we find afterwards that heretics were sometimes condemned by the judgment of presbyters, as well as by bishops in councils. They possessed in their degree the power of remitting or retaining sins by absolution, and by spiritual censures. They must, even at the beginning, have had the power of baptizing and celebrating the eucharist, of performing other rites, and offering up public prayers in the absence of the apostles, or by their permission; and the institution of bishops in every Church by the apostles only restrained the ordinary exercise of these powers. We know in particular from St. James, that presbyters had authority to visit the sick and offer prayers, anointing them with oil for the recovery of their health. From the time of the apostles, the office of public teaching in the Church, and of administering the sacraments, was always performed by the bishop, unless in cases of great necessity. The power of spiritual jurisdiction in each Church, of regulating its affairs generally, and especially its discipline, was shared by the bishop with the presbyters, who also instructed and admonished the people in private. The presbyters sat on seats or thrones at the east end of the church, and the bishop on a higher throne in the midst of them. In some churches they laid their hands with the bishops on the head of those who were ordained presbyters, and in others administered confirmation.

The wealth and temporal power of bishops during the middle ages may have induced some of the ignorant to suppose that presbyters were exceedingly inferior to bishops; but the Catholic Church, which sees with the eye of faith, as she acknowledges the same sacred dignity of the priesthood in every bishop, whether oppressed with extreme poverty, or whether invested with princely dignity and wealth, also views the greatness and the sanctity of the office of presbyter as little inferior to those even of the chief pastors who succeeded the apostles; and the Church has never flourished more, nor has the episcopate ever been held in truer reverence, than under the guidance of those apostolical prelates who, like St. Cyprian, resolved to do nothing without the consent of the clergy, and who have sedulously avoided even the appearance of “being lords over GOD’S heritage.” The spirit of a genuine Christianity will lead the presbyters to reverence and obey the bishops as their fathers; and will induce bishops to esteem the presbyters as fellow-workers together with them, and brethren in JESUS CHRIST.—_Bingham._ _Palmer._ _Augusti._

The word _presbyter_ is substituted for _priest_ in the Scotch liturgy, compiled in the reign of King Charles I.

PRESBYTERIANS. A Protestant sect, which maintains that there is no order in the Church superior to presbyters, and on that account has separated from the Catholic Church. This sect is established by law in Scotland, where there nevertheless exists a national branch of the Catholic Church, under canonical bishops. The establishment of a sect cannot, of course, convert that sect into a Church: for instance, if the Socinian sect were established in England, it would not be a whit more a Church than it is at present. (See _Church in Scotland_.)

The Presbyterians had many endowed chapels in England, but the trustees and ministers having become Socinians, these endowed chapels, upwards of 170 in number, are the strongholds of Socinianism and Rationalism in this country. In England, Socinian and Presbyterian have thus become synonymous terms. These observations do not, however, apply to the meeting-houses in England of the Scotch Presbyterians.

The following statement is taken from the Registrar’s return:

“The Scottish Kirk adopts the Confession, Catechism, and Directory prepared by the Westminster Assembly as its standards of belief and worship. Its discipline is administered by a series of four courts or assemblies. (1.) The _Kirk Session_ is the lowest court, and is composed of the minister of a parish and a variable number of lay elders, appointed from time to time by the session itself. (2.) The _Presbytery_ consists of representatives from a certain number of contiguous parishes, associated together in one district. The representatives are the ministers of all such parishes and one lay elder from each. This assembly has the power of ordaining ministers and licensing probationers to preach, before their ordination: it also investigates charges respecting the conduct of members, approves of new communicants, and pronounces excommunication against offenders. An appeal, however, lies to the next superior court; viz. (3.) The _Provincial Synod_, which comprises several presbyteries, and is constituted by the ministers and elders by whom these presbyteries themselves were last composed. (4.) The _General Assembly_ is the highest court, and is composed of representatives (ministers and elders) from the presbyteries, royal burghs, and universities of Scotland, to the number (at present) of 363; of which number rather more than two-fifths are laymen.

“The National Church of Scotland has three presbyteries in England; that of _London_, containing five congregations,—that of _Liverpool and Manchester_, containing three congregations,—and that of the _North of England_, containing eight congregations.

“Various considerable secessions have from time to time occurred in Scotland from the National Church, of bodies which, while holding Presbyterian sentiments, dissent from the particular mode in which they are developed by the Established Kirk, especially protesting against the mode in which Church patronage is administered, and against the undue interference of the civil power. The principal of these seceding bodies are,—the ‘_United Presbyterian Church_,’ and the ‘_Free Church of Scotland_;’ the former being an amalgamation (effected in 1847) of the ‘Secession Church’ (which separated in 1732) with the ‘Relief Synod’ (which seceded in 1752); and the latter having been constituted in 1843.

“The ‘_United Presbyterian Church_’ has five presbyteries in England, containing seventy-six congregations; of which, however, fourteen are locally in Scotland, leaving the number locally in England 62.

“The ‘_Free Church of Scotland_’ has no ramifications, under that name, in England; but various Presbyterian congregations which accord in all respects with that community, and which, before the disruption of 1843, were in union with the Established Kirk, compose a separate Presbyterian body under the appellation of the ‘_Presbyterian Church in England_,’ having, in this portion of Great Britain, seven presbyteries and eighty-three congregations.”

PRESBYTERIUM, or PRESBYTERY, the space in collegiate and large churches between the easternmost stalls of the choir and the altar; answering to the _solea_ of the ancient basilicas.

PRESENCE. (See _Real Presence_.)

PRESENTATION, (see _Patron_ and _Benefice_,) is the offering of a clerk to the bishop by the patron of a benefice. It differs from nomination in this, that while presentation signifies the offering a clerk to the bishop for institution, nomination signifies offering a clerk to the patron in order that he may be presented.

PRIEST. (See _Orders_, _Ordination_, _Presbyter_, _Sacrifice_, and _Absolution_.) Who can deny that our word _priest_ is corrupted of _presbyter_? Our ancestors, the Saxons, first used _preoster_; whence, by further contraction, came _preste_ and _priest_. The High and Low Dutch have _priester_; the French, _prestre_ [now contracted into _prêtre_]; the Italian, _prete_; but the Spaniard only speaks full, _presbytero_.—_Joseph Mede._

The Greek and Latin words, (ἱερεύς, _sacerdos_,) which we translate “_priest_,” are derived from words that signify holy: and so the word _priest_, according to the etymology, signifies him whose mere charge and function is about holy things; and therefore seems to be a most proper word to him who is set apart to the holy public service and worship of GOD, especially when he is in the actual ministration of holy things. If it be objected that, according to the usual acceptation of the word, it signifies him that offers up a _sacrifice_, and therefore cannot be allowed to a minister of the gospel, who hath no sacrifice to offer, it is answered, that the ministers of the gospel have sacrifices to offer, (1 Pet. ii. 5,) “Ye are built up a spiritual house, an holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices” of prayer, praises, thanksgiving, &c. In respect of these, the ministers of the gospel may safely, in a metaphorical sense, be called priests; and in a more eminent manner than other Christians, because they are taken from among men to offer up these sacrifices for others. But besides these spiritual sacrifices mentioned, the ministers of the gospel have another sacrifice to offer, viz. the “unbloody sacrifice,” as it was anciently called, the commemorative sacrifice of the blood of CHRIST, which does as really and truly show forth the death of CHRIST, as those sacrifices under the law did; and in respect of this sacrifice of the eucharist, the ancients have usually called those that offer it up, priests.—_Fludyer’s Comm._

That it might not be doubted by whom the form of absolution may be pronounced, the rubric expressly informs us, that it is the priest who officiates. By _priest_, in Church language, is understood a person who is advanced in the ecclesiastical orders to the dignity of a presbyter; and no person, in any age of the Church, who was under this degree, did ever pretend, as of right, to pronounce absolution. The penitentiaries, in the ancient and more modern ages of the Church, were always of this degree. It was adopted into an axiom in the canon law, “_ejus est absolvere cujus est ligare_.” No one could pronounce absolution but he who had power to excommunicate. In the body of that law, absolutions of all kinds are reserved either to presbyters or bishops; and in our provincial constitutions it is strictly enjoined, “_de pœnitentia præcipimus quod diaconi pœnitentias dare non presumant_,” unless the priest be away when a man is dying.—_Lyndwood._ Our Church, in the last review of the liturgy, has chosen to put in the word _priest_ instead of _minister_, (which was in King Edward VI.’s Second Book, and in Queen Elizabeth’s,) to the end that no one might pretend to pronounce this but one in priest’s orders; being sensible that some bold innovations have been made herein, by reason of some persons misunderstanding or misapplying the word _minister_. But the first compilers of the Common Prayer understood the same by _minister_ as we do now by _priest_, that being the general acceptation of the word at that time. The compilers of the Second Book of Edward VI. (in which the Confession and Absolution were first inserted) put into the rubric, “to be pronounced by the minister” (or priest) “_alone_,” to avoid the imputation which the Papists had charged some of the reformed with, for permitting absolution to be pronounced by persons not of this order. For in the provincial Council of Sens, A. D. 1528, which was before that of Trent, and twenty years before the compiling our Common Prayer, we find the Protestants found fault with for affirming, that laics and women among them might pronounce absolution; which indeed was Luther’s opinion, but only so (as Chemnitius explains it) that in case of extreme necessity they might use it; which doctrine he had from the Papists themselves.—_Nicholls_; and see his long note on the subject, if necessary, in his “Commentary on the Common Prayer,” Evening Service.

In the diocese of Alexandria, the privilege of giving absolution to great criminals and scandalous offenders was reserved to the patriarch; as appears in the case of Lamponianus, an excommunicated presbyter. “Though,” says he, “he expressed his repentance with tears, and the people interceded for him, yet I refused to absolve him; only assuring this, that if he should be in manifest danger of death, any presbyter should receive him into communion by my order.” And in general, in the primitive Church, the granting absolution to reconcile penitents, was the bishop’s sole prerogative, and rarely committed to presbyters; but never to deacons, except in cases of extreme necessity, when neither bishop nor presbyter was at hand.—_Bingham._

The privilege was also allowed in times of persecution, to martyrs and confessors in prison; but then they always signified what they had done to the bishop.—See _Cave’s Prim. Ch._

At the last review of the Common Prayer Book, A. D. 1661, the Presbyterian divines requested that “as the word _minister_, and not priest or curate, is used in the Absolution, and in divers other places, it may throughout the whole book be so used, instead of those two words.” To which the Episcopalian commissioners replied, that “it is not reasonable the word _minister_ should be only used in the liturgy. For since some parts of the liturgy may be performed by a deacon, and others, such as absolution and consecration, by none under the order of a _priest_, it is fit that some such word as priest should be used for those offices, and not _minister_, which signifies at large every one that ministers in that holy office, of what order soever he be.” Accordingly the word “_priest_,” in its exclusive sense, and in contradistinction to the word _deacon_, was inserted, and the sense of the Church of England on this subject, ascertained through the objection made by the Presbyterian divines, was adopted and ratified by the act of parliament.

In the primitive Church, the deacons were ranked among the “sacred orders;” and though their office has not always been so accurately defined as that of the presbyters, or priests, yet in the Church of England they are to most purposes considered as an inferior degree of “_the priesthood_.” Their duties are laid down in the office of “the Form and Manner of making Deacons;” and, “for the resolution of all doubts,” the preface to the Book of Common Prayer has wisely directed, that “the parties that so doubt, or diversely take anything, shall always resort to the bishop of the diocese, who by his discretion shall take order for the quieting and appeasing of the same; so that the same order be not contrary to anything contained in this book.”

It has generally been customary for deacons to substitute a prayer taken from the liturgy, which has been usually one of the collects in the conclusion of the Communion Service; and a pious commentator (Mr. Waldo) countenances this by saying, “a deacon, when he officiates, is never to use it, but is to offer up some short prayer in its stead.” But this is improperly said. For if a deacon, an officiating minister of the lowest order, may be considered at liberty to make this alteration in breach of the act for uniformity, where is the point at which he shall stop? What in this case he should do seems settled by the authorities referred to by Shepherd.

“If a deacon is neither to read the Absolution, nor to substitute a prayer in its room, what is he to do? The rule is plain, and leaves him no alternative. After the confession, he is to remain kneeling, and to proceed to the LORD’S Prayer. This always appeared to me to be the necessary and only conclusion to be drawn from the premises. Suspecting, however, the validity of my own arguments, I requested the opinion of a respectable divine, for whose modesty I have such regard, that I dare describe him only as having been, for many years, the confidential and intimate friend of Bishop Lowth. By his judgment, the opinion already given was sanctioned and confirmed. In consequence of further inquiry, I have since learned, that the heads of a cathedral church lately recommended the same practice. It is the business of priest vicars, I understand, in some cathedrals, to read morning and evening prayer; and it once happened, that a deacon was appointed a priest vicar. When it came to his turn to officiate, he was directed to omit the Absolution, and after the confession to say the LORD’S Prayer.”—_Shepherd._

PRIEST’S INTENTION. (See _Intention_.)

PRIMATES, or METROPOLITANS. In the Christian hierarchy, or scheme of Church government, are such bishops of a province, as preside over the rest.

Some derive the original of primates or metropolitans from apostolical constitution.—_Bingham, Orig. Eccles._ b. ii. c. 16. But it may be doubted, whether the apostles made any such general settlement in every province; and the records of the original of most churches being lost, it can never be proved that they did. It is most probable, that this order of bishops commenced not long after the apostolic age, when sects and schisms began to break in apace, and controversies multiplying between particular bishops, it was found necessary to pitch upon one in every province, to whom the decision of cases might be referred, and by whom all common and public affairs might be directed. Or, it might take its rise from that common respect and deference, which was usually paid by the rest of the bishops to the bishop of the metropolis, or capital city, of each province: which advancing into a custom, was afterwards settled by a canon of the Council of Nice.—_Conc. Nic._ c. 6.

As to the offices and privileges of primates or metropolitans, they were as follows. First, they were to regulate the elections of all their provincial bishops, and either ordain, or authorize the ordination of them: and no election or ordination of bishops was valid without their approbation. Nor was this power at all infringed by setting up the patriarchs above them. For, though the metropolitans were to be ordained by the patriarchs, yet still the right of ordaining their own suffragans was preserved to them. It is to be observed, that this power was not arbitrary: for the primates had no negative voice in the matter, but were to be determined and concluded by the major part of a provincial synod.—_Conc. Chalced._ Act. 16.

Their next office was, to preside over the provincial bishops, and, if any controversies arose among them, to interpose their authority to end and decide them: also to hear the accusations of others, who complained of injury done to them by their own bishops, from whom there was always liberty of appeal to the metropolitan. But still there lay an appeal from the metropolitan to a provincial synod, of which he was only the president or moderator.

A third office of the metropolitans or primates was, to call provincial synods, and preside in them. To this end, their circular letters, called _Synodicæ_ and _Tractoriæ_, were a legal summons, which no bishop of the province might disobey under pain of suspension, or other canonical censure, at the discretion of the metropolitan and council.

Fourthly, it belonged to the primates to publish and disperse such imperial laws and canons, as were made either by the emperors or the councils, for the common good of the Church. This gave them a right to visit, and inquire into neglects, abuses, and disorders, committed by any bishop throughout the whole province.

Fifthly, bishops, when they travelled into foreign countries on extraordinary occasions, used to consult the primate, and take his _Formatæ_, or letters of commendation. This was particularly required of the African bishops by the third Council of Carthage.

A sixth branch of the metropolitan office was, to take care of all vacant sees within their province, by administering the affairs of the Church, securing the revenues of the bishopric, and procuring a speedy election of a new bishop.

Seventhly, it belonged to the metropolitans, yearly to review the calculation of the time of Easter, and give notice to their suffragans of it. The care of composing the cycle was, indeed, by the Nicene fathers particularly committed to the bishop of Alexandria. But due care not being always taken in this matter, the metropolitan in every province was concerned to settle the time, and acquaint the whole province with it.

The primate of Alexandria was the greatest metropolitan in the world, both for the absoluteness of his power, and the extent of his jurisdiction. For he was not metropolitan of a single province, but of all the provinces of Egypt, Libya, and Pentapolis, in which there were at least six large provinces, out of which above an hundred bishops were called to a provincial synod.

Besides an actual primacy of power, there was likewise a primacy of honour; that is, some bishops had the name and title of primates, but not the jurisdiction. Of these there were three sorts. First, the senior bishops in each province, next to the metropolitan. These primates had no power above others, except when the metropolitans were some way disabled, or disqualified for discharging their office, by irregularity or suspension. In this case, their power devolved on the senior bishop of the province.

The second sort of honorary primates were the titular metropolitans, or bishops of such cities as had the name and title of metropolis bestowed on them by some emperor, without the privileges, which were still continued to the ancient metropolis of the province. Of this sort were the cities of Chalcedon and Nice.

Thirdly, some bishops were honoured with the title of primates, in regard to the eminency of their see, being some mother-church, or particularly honoured by ancient prescription. This was the case of the bishop of Jerusalem, in consideration of its being the mother-church of the Christian world.

The division of England into two provinces, Canterbury and York, in 1152, gave occasion to the introducing primacies among us. Canterbury, which before was the metropolis, gives to its bishop the title of Primate of _all_ England; York, only that of Primate of England. Accordingly, the former has some jurisdiction over all England, which the latter has only in his own province.

The archbishop of Armagh is primate of all Ireland; of Dublin, that of Ireland. Until the late mutilation of the Irish branch of the Church, the archbishop of Cashel was primate of Munster; of Tuam, primate of Connaught. The archbishop of St. Andrew’s was primate of Scotland. The archbishop of Rheims is primate of France; of Rouen, primate of Normandy; of Lyons, primate of Gaul; of Toledo, primate of Spain, &c.

PRIME. The service said at sunrising. (See _Canonical Hours_.)

PRIMER. (_Primarius_, Lat. A book of primary or elementary instruction.) Dr. Burton, in his preface to King Henry VIII.’s Three Primers, shows that the word was in use at least as far back as 1527, when a Primer of the Salisbury use was printed: and that it was “applied to a first or elementary book, which was put into the hands of children. The term was, perhaps, sometimes applied to a mere spelling-book, or to any book which was used for teaching children to read; but it seems generally to have conveyed the notion of religious instruction. The lessons were taken from the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, the Ave Maria, or from some other common formulary, with short and easy explanations, for the use of young beginners, or for private devotion. In course of time, the word came to have a still more limited meaning, as applied to offices of religion, and was analogous to the modern term Prayer Book, with the exception that a Primer was not confined to any one definite set of prayers, but contained different selections, according to the choice of the compiler; though the Creed, Pater Noster, and Ave Maria, always held a prominent place in the Primer.”

The earliest Primer printed by Dr. Burton was in Henry VIII.’s reign, in 1535: “A goodly Primer in English.” This was an improved edition of a former one, and was one of the first overt advances towards reformation, though containing much Romish doctrine. It contains, among a great many other things, an exposition of the Ten Commandments, and the Creed, and the Offices for the Seven Hours, mainly taken from the old offices. In 1537 appeared the Institution of a Christian Man, a still further advance; published by authority of convocation. In 1539 appeared a Primer by Bp. Hilsey of Rochester, the subject, though not the form, being much the same as in the first-mentioned Primer. In 1545 King Henry VIII.’s Primer appeared. The services for the Hours in this, formed the basis for all future Primers, and were much the same as in Queen Elizabeth’s of 1559. In Edward VI.’s reign appeared, in 1547, a reprint of Henry VIII.’s Primer. In 1549, 1551, 1552, improved editions, with omissions of the superstitious invocations of the Virgin Mary. Queen Elizabeth’s first Primer, 1559, was a reprint of King Edward’s of 1551, or rather, 1552. The next, in 1566, was altered a good deal from the form. A second edition was published in 1575. All these had the services of the Hours, besides Litanies, and other prayers. Some the catechism, some the penitential psalms, &c. A Latin Form of Prayer, like the Primer, was published by authority in 1560, and Preces Privatæ, a distinct, though similar publication, in 1564. The last Primer which appeared (though not under that name) was Dr. (afterwards Bp.) Cosin’s “Collection of Private Devotions: in the practice of the ancient Church, called the Hours of Prayer; as they were after this manner published by authority of Queen Elizabeth, 1560, &c.” This was published in 1627, by command of King Charles I. See Mr. Clay’s valuable edition of “_Private Prayer_,” &c., _during the reign of Elizabeth_, edited for the Parker Society; and _Dr. Burton’s Three Primers_.

PRIMICERIUS, or _Primmicerius_, defined by Suicer as “_qui in_ primâ cerâ hæres scriptus,” one who is designated as the principal heir. Hence it came to signify one who presided over any particular department; the chief notary, for instance, was called πριμμικήριος νοταρίων: and so the chief reader, the chief chanter, &c., in great churches. It is the title of a dignitary in several Italian cathedrals, and is supposed to answer to our chancellor; a name not used in Italy as that of a cathedral officer. The precentor of Aberdeen cathedral was anciently called Primicerius, as Kennedy states in his _Annals of Aberdeen_.

PRIMITIVE CHURCH. (See _Tradition_.) The Church as it existed in the ages immediately after its first establishment. From its near connexion with the apostles and other inspired men, the primitive Church enjoyed many advantages, of which, at later periods, it was deprived. To the earliest ages we naturally look for illustrations of obscurities in the New Testament, for evidence and testimony of matter of fact, for sound interpretations of doctrine, for proofs of the efficacy of the gospel, and for examples of undaunted Christian heroism. Hence the value we are accustomed to attach to the writings which have come down to us from the first three centuries after CHRIST; and this value is considerably enhanced by the fervour, the beauty, and the surpassing eloquence which adorned the Church in that early day, and in the ages following. These were familiarly known to the Reformers of the Church of England; and, having taken the primitive Church as their model, and as the best witness of Catholic principles and usages, they transfused its spirit, not only into the liturgy, but into the whole framework and superstructure of that venerable fabric they aimed to restore. How well they succeeded, is evidenced in that fearless appeal which Catholics ever make, first to the Apostolic Church, then to those who drew their principles from it along with their infant breath, and flourished and died in an age when inspiration itself was scarcely extinct. That Church has nothing to dread which can lay its standards on the altar of antiquity, and return them to her bosom, signed with the glorious testimony of a Polycarp, an Ignatius, a Clement, and a “noble army of martyrs;” nothing has she to dread but the possibility of declension, and unfaithfulness to her sacred trust.

PRIOR. (See _Monk_.) The head or superior of a convent of monks, or the second person after the abbot, corresponding nearly to the dean in churches of secular canons.

PRIORY. (See _Monastery_.) A house occupied by a society of monks or nuns, the chief of whom was termed a prior or prioress; and of these there were two sorts: first, where the prior was chosen by the convent, and governed as independently as any abbot in his abbey; such were the cathedral priors, and most of those of the Augustine order. Secondly, where the priory was a cell subordinate to some great abbey, and the prior was placed or displaced at the will of the abbot. But there was a considerable difference in the regulation of these cells; for some were altogether subject to their respective abbots, who sent what officers and monks they pleased, and took their revenues into the common stock of the abbeys; whilst others consisted of a stated number of monks, under a prior sent to them from the superior abbey, and those priories paid a pension yearly, as an acknowledgment of their subjection, but acted in other matters as independent bodies, and had the rest of the revenues for their own use. The priories or cells were always of the same order as the abbeys on which they depended, though sometimes their inmates were of a different sex; it being usual, after the Norman Conquest, for the great abbeys to build nunneries on some of their manors, which should be subject to their visitation.

_Alien priories_ were cells or small religious houses in our country, dependent on large foreign monasteries. When manors or tithes were given to distant religious houses, the monks, either to increase the authority of their own order, or perhaps rather to have faithful stewards of their revenues, built convenient houses for the reception of small fraternities of their body, who were deputed to reside at and govern those cells.

PRISCILLIANISTS. Certain heretics whose founder was Priscillian, a Spaniard of noble extraction, very wealthy, and endued with much wit, learning, and eloquence. Mark, an Egyptian heretic, having sown the errors of Gnosticism in Gaul, went into Spain, where carnal pleasure, which was the principal article of his doctrine, procured him quickly a great many disciples, the chief whereof was Priscillian, who covered his vanity under the appearance of a profound humility. He taught, besides the abominations of the Gnostics, that the soul was of the same substance with GOD, and that, descending to the earth, through seven heavens, and certain other degrees of principality, it fell into the hands of the evil one, who put it into the body, which he made to consist of twelve parts, over each of which presided a celestial sign. He condemned the eating of the flesh of animals, and marriage as an unlawful copulation, and separated women from their husbands without their consent; and, according to his doctrine, man’s will was subject to the power of the stars. He confounded the holy persons in the TRINITY, like Sabellius, ordered his followers to fast on Sundays and Christmas day, because he believed CHRIST had not taken true flesh upon him. Lying, a most abominable vice, and so contrary to the GOD of truth, was a thing tolerated amongst his followers. There was a volume composed by them called _Libra_, because that in the twelve questions in it, as in twelve ounces, their whole doctrine was explained. Priscillian broached his heresy in the fourth century. He was put to death, with some of his followers, at Treves, in 385, by order of the usurper Maximus, contrary to the earnest instance of St. Martin, bishop of Tours. This was the first instance of the infliction of death for heresy, and at the time excited universal horror among Christians. St. Ambrose refused to communicate with the bishops who had taken part in it, and a synod at Turin excommunicated them.

PROCESSION OF THE HOLY GHOST. As the FATHER is eternal, without beginning, so is the SON without beginning, the only begotten GOD of GOD, Light of light, being very GOD of very GOD: in like manner the HOLY GHOST, without beginning, has _proceeded_ from the FATHER and the SON. This is one of the mysteries which must be always incomprehensible, from our inability to comprehend an eternity _a parte ante_. In all discussions relating to these subjects, we may quote to the objector the wise words of Gregory Nazianzen: “Do you tell me how the FATHER is unbegotten, and I will then attempt to tell you how the SON is begotten and the SPIRIT proceeds.”

We will first give the doctrine as stated in the Articles and Creed, and then give from Dr. Hey the history of the controversy which has long subsisted between the Eastern and the Western Church.

Of the HOLY GHOST the fifth article says, “The HOLY GHOST, proceeding from the FATHER and the SON, is of one substance, majesty, and glory, with the FATHER and the SON, very and eternal GOD.”

The same doctrine is declared in the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds.

In the Nicene Creed:

“I believe in the HOLY GHOST, who proceedeth from the FATHER and the SON.”

In the Athanasian Creed:

“The _Holy Ghost_ is of the FATHER and of the SON, neither made nor created nor begotten, but proceeding.”

In the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, various disputes took place with the followers of Macedonius with respect to the nature and procession of the HOLY GHOST. It may be particularly mentioned, with a view to what followed, that so soon as the years 430 and 431, in the Councils of Alexandria and Ephesus, it was declared that the HOLY GHOST proceedeth from the SON as well as from the FATHER. In order to terminate these disputes, the Church in general made a sort of settlement or determination what should be accounted Catholic doctrine; and, to avoid further adjustings of formularies, agreed that nothing should from that time be _added_ to those then under consideration. It is probable that, at that time, the question whether the HOLY GHOST should be spoken of as proceeding from the FATHER and the SON, (_Filioque_ is the famous word,) did not occur to men’s minds. _Filioque_ was not in the creeds, though it was not new. The students in the Western Church seem ere long to have contracted an opinion, that it was proper for them to profess in a creed, that the HOLY GHOST proceedeth from the SON; they, therefore, inserted (or, one might say, _restored_) _Filioque_, meaning, probably, no harm; and then the Eastern Church thought as little of complaining as the Western of offending. Afterwards, however, contentions for worldly grandeur produced contentions about theological truth. Rome and Constantinople were rivals, not only for imperial but for spiritual pre-eminence. The patriarch of Constantinople styled himself _Episcopus Œcumenicus_. Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome, was more lowly in the title he assumed; he was “_servus servorum_” scilicet Dei; but in his pretensions to authority he was equally ambitious. The patriarch was at the head of the Eastern Church, the pope of the Western. This rivalship made the Churches seek occasions for blaming each other, and thus the insertion of _Filioque_ came to be complained of as a breach of faith. It was defended by the Western Church, because the word contained right _doctrine_: this was enough to make the Eastern Church dispute the _doctrine_: they did so, and the dispute still subsists, and still causes a separation between the Eastern and Western Churches. One pope (Leo III.) did once, for the sake of peace, order _Filioque_ to be put out of the creed, at the same time ratifying the doctrine which it comprehends; but he could only prevail in those churches which were under his immediate sanction, and that only for a time. The obstinate resistance of the Greek or Eastern Church to the insertion of _Filioque_, is the more likely to be owing to some worldly consideration, as several of the Greek fathers have the doctrine in their works clearly expressed.—_Hey._ (See _Holy Ghost_.)

PROCESSION. The formal march of the clergy and the people putting up prayer.

The first processions mentioned in ecclesiastical history are those begun at Constantinople by St. Chrysostom. The Arians of that city being forced to hold their meetings without the town, went thither night and morning, singing anthems. Chrysostom, to prevent their perverting the Catholics, set up counter-processions, in which the clergy and people marched by night, singing prayers and hymns, and carrying crosses and flambeaux. From this period, the custom of processions was introduced among the Greeks, and afterwards among the Latins; but they have subsisted longer, and been more frequently used, in the Western than in the Eastern Church. The name of _Procession_ was formerly sometimes used for the _Litany_. (See _Litany_, _Rogation Days_.)

PROCTOR. (_Procurator_, Lat.) Proctors are officers established to represent, in judgment, the parties who empower them (by warrant under their hands, called a _proxy_) to appear for them to explain their rights, to manage and instruct their cause, and to demand judgment.

The representatives of the clergy in convocation are also called proctors.

The same name is given to university officers, whose business is to guard the morals and preserve the quiet of the university at Oxford and Cambridge; to present candidates in arts and music for their degrees; and (formerly in a more special manner than at present) to superintend their public exercises. The latter is now the prominent practice of the proctors in the university of Dublin: the senior proctor presiding at the Masters’ exercises, the junior at the Bachelors’. They are two in number, and chosen annually by the several colleges in cycle.

_Procurators_ were officers in some of the ancient universities of Europe, as in Paris; they were then four in number, elected annually, each by one of the four _nations_ into which the students were divided: and the rector, the deans of divinity, law, medicine, and the four proctors, formed the standing council of the university: somewhat analogous to the _caput_ at Cambridge. The _deans_ were the proctors of their respective faculties. Anciently the university of Oxford was divided into two “nations,” as they might be called, each of which was represented by a proctor.

PROCURATION. A pecuniary sum or composition by an incumbent to an ordinary or other ecclesiastical judge, to commute for the provision, or entertainment, which he was formerly expected to provide for such ordinary at the time of visitation. (See _Synodal_.)

PROFESSOR. A public teacher in a university.

PROPHECY. (From προφητεία.) The prediction of future things. (See _Scripture, Inspiration of_, and _Miracles_.)

PROPHESYINGS. Religious exercises of the clergy in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, instituted for the purpose of promoting knowledge and piety. The ministers of a particular division at a set time met together in some church of a market or other large town, and there each in order explained, according to their abilities, some portion of Scripture allotted to them before. This done, a moderator made his observations on what had been said, and determined the true sense of the place, a certain space of time being fixed for despatching the whole. These exercises being however abused, by irregularity, disputations, and divisions, were restrained.—_Canon_ 72.

PROPHET. One who foretells future events. We have in the Old Testament the writings of sixteen prophets; that is, of four greater prophets, and twelve lesser prophets. The four greater prophets are, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. The Jews do not place Daniel among the prophets, because (they say) he lived in the splendour of temporal dignities, and a kind of life different from other prophets. The twelve lesser prophets are, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

PROPITIATION. (See _Covenant of Redemption_, _Sacrifice_, _Atonement_, _Satisfaction_, _Jesus_.) _Propitiation_ is originally a Latin word, and signifies the appeasing of the wrath of GOD, or doing something whereby he may be rendered propitious, kind, or merciful, to us, notwithstanding that we have provoked him to anger by any sin or offence committed against him. And the original word, ἱλασμὸς, is used by the Greeks exactly in the same sense, as might easily be shown. But that we may fully understand the true notion of the word, as it is here used, our best way will be to consider how it is used in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, made long before St. John’s time; for he, writing to those who were generally accustomed to the words and phrases in that translation, it cannot be supposed but he useth this, as well as other words, in the same sense as it is used there: for otherwise they would not so well have understood him. Now there we find that ἱλάσκεσθαι and ἐξιλάσασθαι all along answer to the ‏כפר‎, which signifies _to appease_, _to pacify_, _to reconcile_, a person offended, to _atone_ or make him _at one again_ with the offender. So both the Hebrew and the Greek words are used, where it is said, “The wrath of a king is as messengers of death, but a wise man will _pacify_ it.” And also where Jacob, having sent a present before him to his brother Esau, that was offended with him, saith, “I will _appease_ him with the _present_ that goeth before me.” He calls his present ‏מנחה‎, a word commonly used for offerings to GOD. That was his propitiation, whereby his brother was reconciled to him. So were the sacrifices of the Levitical law: they were the Ιλασμοhὶ, the expiations, or propitiations, whereby GOD was atoned or appeased towards him which brought them; or, as it is there expressed, they were accepted for him, to make atonement for him. And when a man had thus brought his offering, and the priest had therewith made atonement for him, for the sin he had committed, then it was forgiven him, as we often read. In all which places, both the Hebrew and Greek words before mentioned are used; the first by Moses himself, the other by the Seventy which translated him. And therefore we cannot doubt but that the Greek word, coming from the same root, is here also used in the same sense for such a propitiation, or propitiatory sacrifice, whereby GOD is reconciled, or rendered propitious, to us, and our sins are forgiven us; GOD accepting, as it were, of that sacrifice, instead of the punishment which was due unto us for them.

The same appears also from several words derived from the same Hebrew root, as ‏כפר‎, which the Seventy sometimes translate λύτρα, or λύτρον, which signifies a _ransom_, a price paid for the redemption of man’s life, that was forfeited by any capital crime, something given in recompence and satisfaction for the crime whereby it was done away; sometimes ἄλλαγμα, _commutation_ or _propitiation_, as the vulgar Latin renders it: sometimes περικάθαρμα, “_piaculum_,” or a sacrifice offered for the purging or expiating some heinous crime; or for the diverting some heavy judgment from one to another, as in Prov. xxi. 18, where the wise man saith, “The wicked shall be a _ransom_ (as we translate it) for the righteous;” that is, as he himself elsewhere explains it, “The righteous is delivered out of trouble, and the wicked cometh in his stead.” Sometimes they translate it Ἰξίλασμα, _propitiation_, _expiation_. And so the Jews anciently used this word in their common discourse; for when one of them would show the greatest love he could to another, he would say, ‏ כפרי הנני‎, “Behold, let me be his expiation;” that is, as one of their most learned writers interprets it, “Let his iniquities be upon me, that I may bear the punishments of them,” which will give us great light into the true notion of the word, as we shall see anon.

Another word from the same Hebrew root is ‏כפרים‎, which is commonly used likewise for a _ransom_, _atonement_, _expiation_, _propitiation_, or the like. As where we read of the ‏ כסף הכפרים‎, the atonement money, the Seventy render it τὸ ἀργύριον τῆς εἰσφορᾶς, the tribute money that every man was to give for the ransom of his life, when the people were numbered—the _sin-offering of atonement_, τῆς ἐξιλάσεως, of _propitiation_, as the Seventy translate it. The _ram of the atonement_, in the Greek, κριὸς τοῦ ἱλασμοὺ, the _ram of propitiation_. In all which places we see the word is used to denote something offered or laid down for the pardon of a man’s sins, and so for the redemption of his life that was forfeited by them. But that which is most observable in this case is, that the great day, when the two goats were chosen, the one for a sin-offering, with the blood whereof the high priest made atonement for the people in the most holy place; and the other for the scape-goat, upon the head whereof he confessed and laid the sins of the people, and then sent him away into the wilderness, never to be heard of more: this day, I say, is called ‏ יום הכפרים‎, the _day of atonement_, or, as the Seventy render it, ἡμέρα τοῦ ἱλασμοῦ, and, which is the same, τοῦ ἐξιλασμοῦ, the _day of propitiation_. To which we might also add, that the lid or cover of the ark where the law lay, is called ‏כפרת‎, which the Seventy translate ἱλαστήριον, the _propitiatory_, we, the _mercy-seat_.

These things, I confess, may seem something too nice and critical, but I could not but take notice of them for the satisfaction of myself, and of all that understand the original languages, as being of great use to our finding out what the apostle here means by _propitiation_, according to the common notion of the word he useth in those days, and among those to whom he wrote; for hereby we may perceive, that, by the word _propitiation_ here used, is meant such a sacrifice or offering made to GOD for the sins of men, which he is pleased to accept of as a sufficient atonement and satisfaction for the dishonour and injury that was done him by them, so as not to require the punishments which were due unto him for them, but to forgive them all, and to become again as kind and propitious to the persons that offended him as if he had never been offended by them. For he is now propitiated, he is pacified, and reconciled to them: he receives them into his love and favour again, and so into the same state they were in before he was displeased with them.—_Beveridge._

PROPROCTORS. Two assistants of the proctors in the universities nominated by them.

PROSES. There are hymns in the Roman Church which are called _Prosæ_, Proses, a title given to composition in rhyme, in which the law of measure and quantity established by the ancient Greeks and Romans are neglected. These being sung after the Gradual or Tracts, were likewise called _Sequentiæ_. Of this kind is the beautiful _Stabat Mater_. (See _Sequences_.) The use of prosing began at the latter end of the ninth century.—See _Burney’s History of Music_. An uncharitable inference having been drawn from the epithet “beautiful” having been applied to the _Stabat Mater_, as if the idolatry of that composition, in spite of the contrary principles everywhere prevailing in this dictionary, had been approved, it is necessary to state that the epithet has reference only to the music.

PROTESTANT. The designation of _Protestant_ is used in England as a general term to denote all who protest against Popery. Such, however, was neither the original acceptation of the word, nor is it the sense in which it is still applied on the Continent. It was originally given to those who protested against a certain decree issued by the emperor Charles V. and the Diet of Spires, in 1529.—_Mosheim._

On the Continent it is applied as a term to distinguish the Lutheran communions. The Lutherans are called _Protestants_: the Calvinists, the _Reformed_. The use of the word among ourselves in a sense different from that adopted by our neighbours abroad, has sometimes led to curious mistakes. The late Mr. Canning, for instance, in his zeal to support the Romanists, and not being sufficiently well instructed in the principles of the Church of England, assumed it as if it were an indisputable fact, that, being Protestants, we must hold the doctrine of consubstantiation. Having consulted, probably, some foreign history of Protestantism, he found that one of the tenets which distinguishes the “Protestant,” i. e. the Lutheran, from the “Reformed,” i. e. the Calvinist, is that the former maintains, the latter denies, the dogma of consubstantiation.

It is evident that in _our_ application of the word it is a mere term of negation. If a man says that he is a Protestant, he only tells us that he is _not_ a Romanist; at the same time he may be, what is worse, a Socinian, or even an infidel, for these are all united under the common principle of protesting against Popery. The appellation is not given to us, as far as the writer knows, in any of our formularies, and has chiefly been employed in political warfare as a watchword to rally in one band all who, whatever may be their religious differences, are prepared to act politically against the aggressions of the Romanists. In this respect it was particularly useful at the time of the Revolution; and as politics intrude themselves into all the considerations of an Englishman, either directly or indirectly, the term is endeared to a powerful and influential party in the state. But on the very ground that it thus keeps out of view distinguishing and vital principles, and unites in apparent agreement those who essentially differ, many of our divines object to the use of the word. They contend, with good reason, that it is quite absurd to speak of the Protestant _religion_, since a religion must of course be distinguished, not by what it renounces, but by what it professes: they apprehend that it has occasioned a kind of sceptical habit, of inquiring not how much we ought to believe, but how much we may _refuse_ to believe; of looking at what is negative instead of what is positive in our religion; of fearing to inquire after the truth, lest it should lead to something which is held by the Papists in common with ourselves, and which, _therefore_, as some persons seem to argue, no sound Protestant can hold; forgetting that on this principle we ought to renounce the liturgy, the sacraments, the doctrine of the TRINITY, the Divinity and atonement of CHRIST,—nay, the very Bible itself. It is on these grounds that some writers have scrupled to use the word. But although it is certainly absurd to speak of the Protestant _religion_, i. e. a negative religion, yet there is no absurdity in speaking of the Church of England, or of the Church of America, as a Protestant _Church_; the word Church conveys a positive idea, and there can be no reason why we should not have _also_ a negative appellation. If we admit that the Church of Rome is a true, though a corrupt Church, just as a felon is a man, though a bad man, it is well to have a term by which we may always declare that, while we hold in common with her all that she has which is catholic, scriptural, and pure, we protest for ever against her multiplied corruptions. Besides, the word, whether correctly or not, is in general use, and is in a certain sense applicable to the Church of England; it is surely, therefore, better to retain it, only with this understanding, that when we call ourselves Protestants, we mean no more to profess that we hold communion with all parties who are so styled, than the Church of England, when in her creeds and formularies she designates herself not as the _Protestant_, but as the _Catholic_ Church of this country, intends to hold communion with those Catholic Churches abroad which have infused into their system the principles of the Council of Trent. Protestant is our negative, Catholic our definitive, name. We tell the Papist, that with respect to him we are Protestant; we tell the Protestant Dissenter, that with respect to him we are Catholic; and we may be called Protestant or Protesting Catholics, or, as some of our writers describe us, Anglo-Catholics.

PROTEVANGELION. The name of a book attributed to St. James the apostle, which treats of the birth of the blessed Virgin and of that of our SAVIOUR. It was brought first from the East by Postulus in Greek, who translated it into Latin, affirming that it is publicly read in the Eastern Church, and formerly believed to have been written by St. James, first bishop of Jerusalem; but the fables, of which it is full, disprove this.

PROTHESIS. The place in a church on which the elements in the eucharist are placed, previously to their being laid as an oblation on the altar. Called also _credence_. The word _prothesis_ προθεσις is derived from the temple service, in which the placing of the shewbread was called ἡ πρόθεσις τῶν ἄρτων, and the bread itself, οἱ ἄρτοι τῆς προθέσεως, i. e. the loaves set in order before the LORD.

PROTHONOTARY. A word that has a different signification in the Greek Church from what it has in the Latin; for in the first it is the name of one of the great officers of the Church of Constantinople, who takes place next to the patriarch, and writes all despatches he sends to the Grand Seignor; besides which he is empowered to have an inspection over the professors of the law, into purchases, wills, and the liberty given to slaves: but in the Roman Church they were formerly called prothonotaries who had the charge of writing the acts of the martyrs, and the circumstances of their death; a title of honour whereunto is ascribed many privileges, as legitimatizing bastards, making apostolic notaries, doctors of divinity, of the canon and civil law; they are twelve in number.

PROTOPAPAS; i. e. archpriest: the head of a cathedral in the Eastern Church, answering to our dean.

PROVERBS, THE. A canonical book of the Old Testament, containing the Proverbs, or wise sayings, of Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel.

This collection is but a part of the proverbs of that prince: for we are told that “he spake three thousand proverbs, and his songs were a thousand and five.” His name is prefixed to the whole work. In the twenty-fifth chapter it is observed, that the following Proverbs belong to him, but that they were collected by persons appointed by Hezekiah for that purpose. The thirtieth chapter is entitled, “The words of Agur, the son of Jakeh.” The last chapter is inscribed, “The words of king Lemuel.” From these different titles it is concluded, that the first twenty-four chapters are the genuine work of Solomon; that the five next are a collection of several of his Proverbs, made by order of King Hezekiah; and that the two last chapters were added, and belong to different, though unknown, authors.

The Jews are of opinion, that Solomon wrote the Canticles in his youth, the Proverbs in his manhood, and the Ecclesiastes in the latter end of his life. The Hebrews called this book Mische, which signifies a proverb, or allegory; the Greeks style it Παραβολαὶ, and the Latins, _Proverbia_; which may properly be rendered sentences or maxims. They contain rules for the conduct of all conditions of life; for kings, courtiers, masters, servants, fathers, mothers, children, &c. The Greek version of this book is often very different from the Hebrew, and adds a great many verses, that are not found in the original. In the ancient Latin editions several verses are added, which have been left out since the time of St. Jerome.

This proverbial manner of speaking and writing was in great use and esteem among the Hebrews, and in all the countries of the East. Hence it was, that the queen of Sheba came to prove Solomon with hard questions, or parables. Hiram, king of Tyre, they say, held a correspondence by letters with Solomon, and proposed enigmatical questions to him, and answered those that were proposed to him by Solomon.

PROVIDENCE. The superintendence which God exercises over creation. In the very notion of a Creator this power is implied. The work of a creature may continue after its author’s death: because the work of a creature does not depend upon him who was the author of it, but upon some pre-existing things which were not created by him, but merely combined. While the pre-existing things remain in combination, the work lasts; but when the pre-existing thing or things are removed, the work perishes. A house survives the architect and builder, because the pre-existing things, the stones for instance, and the mortar, remain in combination. But the works of GOD are _not_ combinations; _they_ are creations; things formed out of nothing. The pre-existing Being on whom they depend is GOD, and GOD only. If GOD be removed from them they must perish. His presence is their support. But when GOD is present, he is present as an acting and intelligent being. Therefore we say, that what in his wisdom he created, that by his providence he sustains.

The _general_ providence of GOD is seen in the laws of Nature. The universe may be compared to a great machine, the whole of which has been put into motion by the Creator, who watches over his works, and prevents disorder and confusion. According to these laws, the earth proceeds in its annual course, the moon observes its regular changes, the seasons come round at their stated periods, and the tides, in all their variety, keep their courses.

But although, to a certain extent, we perceive that there is such regularity in the order of events, that Nature may be said to be bound by laws; yet, as a matter of fact, we find that there is an occasional and not unfrequent interference with those laws. This fact is expressed in every language in which words occur equivalent to our expressions of luck, chance, good or ill fortune. According to the laws of Nature, the harvest follows the seed-time; but the husbandman is sometimes disappointed in his just hopes: the race is to the swift, and the battle to the strong, according to the laws of Nature; but accidents so frequently occur, that we find that the race is _not_ always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong. These deviations from the laws of Nature, the Scriptures teach us to refer to an interference on the part of GOD, and this interference with the laws of Nature we regard as his _particular_ providence.

Relying on his _general_ providence, we labour and adopt the best means for the furtherance of our ends: we plant, we sow, we endeavour to be swift or strong. Believing in his _particular_ providence, we pray. (See _Prayer_.)

PROVINCE. The limits of an archbishop’s jurisdiction, as the _diocese_ is the limits of the jurisdiction of a bishop: and so _provincial constitutions_, _provincial courts_, _provincial synods_, _provincial canons_, are the canons, synods, courts, and constitutions, which have authority within the rule of a single archbishop.

PROVISIONS. An oppressive invention of the bishops of Rome, whereby the right of patronage of ecclesiastical benefices was arbitrarily suspended by the Pope, that he might present his own creatures, and make _provision_ in the Church of England for foreign ecclesiastics. This usurpation of the pope occasioned much discontent in the Church of England; and at one time the evil had become so intolerable, that it occasioned frightful disturbances. The pope (Gregory IX.) had granted a provision on the patronage of one Sir Robert Thwinge, a Yorkshire knight, who resented it so highly as to associate with himself some eighty others, who had received the like treatment, by whom the persons of foreign ecclesiastics were seized, and even the pope’s envoys murdered. The king, Henry III., set himself to restore peace; and Thwinge, betaking himself to Rome, was reconciled to the pope, and recovered his right of patronage; and the pope conceded that there should be in future no provisions, except in benefices in the patronage of ecclesiastical persons or bodies. These he had usually found more defenceless, and therefore over them he still exercised his usurped authority.

PROVOST. The designation of heads of some colleges in our universities. It was also the title given to the heads of several collegiate churches in England, suppressed at the Reformation, and was their usual designation in Scotland, except in cathedrals. In some foreign cathedrals the head of the chapter is the provost, though there be a dean besides; and in others the dean is head, the provost subordinate. The latter was formerly the case in five out of the six of the cathedrals in the province of Tuam: the name is still retained in some; in others it has been exchanged for that of precentor. Archdeacon Cotton, in his Fasti Ecclesiæ Hiberniæ, (part ii. 114,) says that the title answered to that of chancellor. This observation seems strengthened by the fact, that the dignity of chancellor did not anciently exist in the province of Tuam. Maillane, in his _Dictionnaire de Droit Canonique_, says that the provost had the care of the temporals, the dean of the spirituals; that deans were established to take care of the discipline of the church, and, in many chapters, became in the course of time the first in rank. In Holland and elsewhere, before the Reformation, the provost was sometimes a kind of archdeacon.

PSALMODY. The art or act of singing psalms. Psalmody was always esteemed a considerable part of devotion, and usually performed in the standing posture; and, as to the manner of pronunciation, the plain song was sometimes used, being a gentle inflection of the voice, not much different from reading, like the chant in cathedrals; at other times more artificial compositions were used, like our anthems.—_Bingham._ The word is now usually limited to the singing of the metrical psalms, but properly it includes chanting also.

PSALMS. _The Book of Hymns._ Our word Psalm is the translation of two very different Hebrew words. The first, _Tehillem_, properly means _praises_, and is the title of the book. The other, _Mizmor_, means in strictness, a poem. Psalm is derived from a Greek verb, ψάλλω, which means to play or sing to an instrument, being very appropriate to these sacred songs, which we know from Holy Scripture were sung to harps, and other musical instruments. The Book of Psalms is a collection of hymns or sacred songs in praise of GOD, and consists of poems of various kinds. They are the production of different persons, but are generally called “the Psalms of David,” because a great part of them was composed by him, and David himself is distinguished by the name of the _Psalmist_. We cannot now ascertain all the psalms written by David, but their number probably exceeds seventy; and much less are we able to discover with any certainty the authors of the other psalms, or the occasions upon which they were composed; a few of them were written after the return from the Babylonian captivity. And the ninetieth psalm, as its title in the original in our Bible translation shows, is attributed to Moses. There is no subject upon which learned men are so much at variance as the authorship of the Psalms, and the meaning of their titles. It is clear, however, that they may be divided into the following classes: Psalms of David; Psalms or Songs of the Sons of Korah; Psalms of Asaph; Songs of Degrees; and again into Penitential Psalms, Hallelujah Psalms, and Historical Psalms.

The whole collection of psalms, usually divided into five books, is eminently prophetical of the MESSIAH. The first book begins with the 1st and ends with the 41st psalm, and the Hebrew word _LeDavid_, (_of or concerning David_, _or by David_,) occurs before almost every psalm. The 2nd book begins with the 42nd psalm, the 3rd with the 73rd psalm, the 4th with the 90th psalm, and is continued to the 106th. The 5th and last book opens with the 107th. The seven penitential psalms are, 6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143. These are appointed to be read in our Church on Ash-Wednesday. For many ages they had been used in the Western churches in token of special humiliation. (See _Alphabetical or Acrostical Psalm, and Songs of Degrees_; _Korah, Psalms of_; _Asaph, Psalms of_; _and Hallelujah_.)

PSALTER. The word Psalter is often used by ancient writers for the _Book of Psalms_, considered as a separate book of Holy Scripture. It afterwards assumed a more technical meaning, as the book in which the Psalms are arranged for the service of the Church. The Roman Psalter, for instance, does not follow the course of the Psalms as in Scripture; they are arranged for the different services, in the several accompaniments, as antiphons, &c. In our Psalter, the notice of the divisions for the days of the month, and the pointing in the middle of each verse, are a part of _the Psalter_, though not of the Psalms; and some part of the Psalms unfit for recitation are omitted, as the titles, the words _Selah_, _Higgaion_, &c., and the Hallelujahs with which many psalms begin or end, or both. The division of the Psalms into daily portions, as given in our Prayer Books, has been done with a view to convenience. Something like this has long prevailed in the Church, but without its regularity and system. Thus in Egypt, at first, in some places, they read 60 psalms; in others, 50; and afterwards they all agreed to recite 12 only. Columbanus, in his rule, appointed the number of psalms to vary according to the seasons of the year, and the length of the nights; so that sometimes 75 were sung. In the monasteries of Armenia they repeat 99 psalms to the present day. In the Greek Church, the Psalms are divided into _cathismata_, or portions, so that the whole book is read through in a fortnight. Previously to the reform of our offices, the English Church prescribed 12 psalms for the nocturn; but at that period the number was reduced on an average to three, by the division of the 119th, and by reckoning some other long psalms as each more than one. Under the present arrangement the Psalms are divided into 60 portions, two of which are appointed for each day of the month. Selections are also set forth by the American Church, which may be used instead of the regularly appointed portions.

The Psalms are pointed as they are to be said or sung in churches; by which is meant the colon in the middle of each verse, indicating the pause to be made, not only in the chant, but also in the recitation, as the words clearly imply; a direction commonly neglected by readers, to the great prejudice of distinct enunciation.

The custom of repeating the psalms alternately, or verse by verse, between the minister and the people, is probably designed to supply the place of the ancient antiphon, or the responsive chanting of the psalms by two distinct choirs. This latter practice is still retained in the cathedrals of England, and is more primitive than the alternate reading now prevailing in parish churches.

The Psalter, properly speaking, is a separate book from that of Common Prayer; though bound up in the same volume, and equally subscribed to by all the clergy. The title page of the Prayer Book announces the Book of Common Prayer, &c., &c., _together with_ the Psalter, &c. The Prayer Book and the Psalter were not included in the title page till the last review. It is remarkable, that the same causes have had the same effects in influencing the translation of the Psalter both in the Latin and the English Church. In the former, the old Italian translation had become so familiar to the people that St. Jerome’s translation from the Hebrew was never adopted; but the old version, corrected considerably by St. Jerome, was used; a less correct edition by the Roman, and a more carefully worded one by the Gallican Church. The latter was in the course of time adopted by all the Churches in communion with Rome with a few exceptions. In like manner, the English Psalter does not follow the last translation, (which is in the authorized version of the Bible,) but that of Coverdale’s Bible, corrected, which had become familiar to the people from constant use.

PUBLIC WORSHIP. (See _Formulary, Liturgy_.) The 90th Canon ordains: “The churchwardens or questmen of every parish, and two or three more discreet persons to be chosen for sidesmen or assistants, shall diligently see that all the parishioners duly resort to their church upon all Sundays and holy-days, and there continue the whole time of Divine service; and all such as shall be found slack or negligent in resorting to the church, (having no great or urgent cause of absence,) they shall earnestly call upon them; and after due monition, (if they amend not,) they shall present them to the ordinary of the place.”

_Article 20._ “The Church hath power to decree rites or ceremonies” that are not “contrary to GOD’S word.”

_Article 34._ “It is not necessary that traditions and ceremonies be in all places one or utterly like; for at all times they have been divers, and may be changed according to the diversity of countries, times, and men’s manners; so that nothing be ordained against GOD’S word. Whosoever through his private judgment willingly and purposely doth openly break the traditions and ceremonies of the Church, which be not repugnant to the word of GOD, and be ordained and approved by common authority, ought to be rebuked openly, (that others may fear to do the like,) as he that offends against the common order of the Church, and hurts the authority of the magistrate, and wounds the consciences of weak brethren. Every particular or national Church hath authority to ordain, change, and abolish the ceremonies or rites of the Church, ordained only by man’s authority; so that all things be done to edifying.”

Canon 6. “Whoever shall affirm, that the rites and ceremonies of the Church of England by law established are wicked, antichristian, or superstitious; or such as, being commanded by lawful authority, men who are zealously and godly affected may not with any good conscience approve them, use them, or, as occasion requireth, subscribe unto them; let him be excommunicated _ipso facto_, and not restored until he repent, and publicly revoke such his wicked errors.”

By Canon 80. “The churchwardens or questmen of every church and chapel shall, at the charge of the parish, provide the Book of Common Prayer, lately explained in some few points by his Majesty’s authority, according to the laws and his Highness’s prerogative in that behalf; and that with all convenient speed, but at the furthest within two months after the publishing of these our constitutions.”

Every dean, canon, and prebendary, of every cathedral or collegiate church, and all masters and other heads, fellows, chaplains, and tutors of or in any college, hall, house of learning, or hospital, and every public professor and reader in either of the universities, or in every college elsewhere, and every parson, vicar, curate, lecturer, and every other person in holy orders, and every schoolmaster keeping any public or private school, and every person instructing or teaching any youth in any house or private family, as tutor or schoolmaster, who shall be incumbent, or have possession of any deanery, canonry, prebend, mastership, headship, fellowship, professor’s place, or reader’s place, parsonage, vicarage, or any other ecclesiastical dignity or promotion, or of any curate’s place, lecture, or school, or shall instruct or teach any youth, as tutor or schoolmaster, shall at or before his admission to be incumbent, or having possession aforesaid, subscribe the declaration following: I, A. B., do declare, that I will conform to the liturgy of the Church of England, as it is now by law established (13 & 14 Charles II. c. 4, s. 8; and 1 William, sess. 1, c. 8, s. 11). And no form or order of common prayers, administration of sacraments, rites, or ceremonies, shall be openly used in any church, chapel, or other place, other than that which is prescribed in the said books. (s. 17.)

By Canon 4. “Whosoever shall affirm, that the form of GOD’S worship in the Church of England, established by law, and contained in the Book of Common Prayer and Administration of Sacraments, is a corrupt, superstitious, or unlawful worship of GOD, or containeth anything in it that is repugnant to the Scriptures, let him be excommunicated _ipso facto_, and not restored but by the bishop of the place, or archbishop, after his repentance and public revocation of such his wicked errors.”

By Canon 38. “If any minister, after he hath subscribed to the Book of Common Prayer, shall omit to use the form of prayer, or any of the orders or ceremonies prescribed in the Communion Book, let him be suspended; and if after a month he do not reform and submit himself, let him be excommunicated; and then if he shall not submit himself within the space of another month, let him be deposed from the ministry.”

And by Canon 98. “After any judge ecclesiastical hath pronounced judicially against contemners of ceremonies, for not observing the rites and orders of the Church of England, or for contempt of public prayer, no judge _ad quem_ shall allow of his appeal, unless the party appellant do first personally promise and avow, that he will faithfully keep and observe all the rights and ceremonies of the Church of England, as also the prescript form of Common Prayer, and do likewise subscribe to the same.”

By the 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 4. “In all places where the proper incumbent of any parsonage, or vicarage, or benefice with cure, doth reside on his living, and keep a curate, the incumbent himself in person (not having some lawful impediment to be allowed by the ordinary of the place) shall once at the least in every month openly and publicly read the Common Prayer and service in and by the said book prescribed, and (if there be occasion) administer each of the sacraments and other rites of the Church, in the parish church or chapel belonging to the same, in such order, manner, and form as in and by the said book is appointed, on pain of £5 to the use of the poor of the parish for every offence, upon conviction by confession or oath of two witnesses, before two justices of the peace; and, in default of payment within ten days, to be levied by distress and sale by warrant of the said justices, by the churchwardens or overseers of the poor of the said parish.” (s. 7.)

By the 2 & 3 Edward VI. c. 1, and 1 Elizabeth, c. 2, it is enacted as follows: “If any parson, vicar, or other whatsoever minister, that ought or should sing or say Common Prayer mentioned in the same book, or minister the sacraments, refuse to use the said Common Prayers, or to minister the sacraments in such cathedral or parish church, or other places, as he should use to minister the same in such order and form as may be mentioned and set forth in the said book; or shall, wilfully or obstinately standing in the same, use any other rite, ceremony, order, form, or manner of celebrating the LORD’S supper, openly or privily, or matins, even-song, administration of the sacraments, or other open prayer, than is mentioned and set forth in the said book; or shall preach, declare, or speak anything in the derogation or depraving the said book, or anything therein contained, or of any part thereof; and shall be thereof lawfully convicted, according to the laws of this realm, by verdict of twelve men, or by his own confession, or by the notorious evidence of the fact, he shall forfeit to the king (if the prosecution is on the statute of the 2 & 3 Edward VI.) for his first offence, the profit of such one of his spiritual benefices or promotions as it shall please the king to appoint, coming or arising in one whole year after his conviction, and also be imprisoned for six months; and for his second offence be imprisoned for a year, and be deprived, _ipso facto_, of all his spiritual promotions, and the patron shall present to the same as if he were dead; and for the third offence shall be imprisoned during life.”

Canon 18. “No man shall cover his head in the church or chapel in the time of Divine service, except he have some infirmity; in which case let him wear a nightcap, or coif. All manner of persons then present shall reverently kneel upon their knees, when the general confession, Litany, or other prayers are read; and shall stand up at the saying of the Belief, according to the rules in that behalf prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer. And likewise when in time of Divine service the LORD JESUS shall be mentioned, due and lowly reverence shall be done by all persons present, as it hath been accustomed; testifying by these outward ceremonies and gestures their inward humility, Christian resolution, and due acknowledgment that the LORD JESUS CHRIST, the true eternal SON of GOD, is the only SAVIOUR of the world, in whom alone all the mercies, graces, and promises of GOD to mankind, for this life and the life to come, are fully and wholly comprised. And none, either man, woman, or child, of what calling soever, shall be otherwise at such times busied in the church, than in quiet attendance to hear, mark, and understand that which is read, preached, or ministered; saying in their due places audibly with the minister the Confession, the LORD’S Prayer, and the Creed, and making such other answers to the public prayers as are appointed in the Book of Common Prayer: neither shall they disturb the service or sermon, by walking, or talking, or any other way; nor depart out of the church during the time of Divine service or sermon, without some urgent or reasonable cause.”

Canon 14. “The Common Prayer shall be said or sung distinctly and reverently, upon such days as are appointed to be kept holy by the Book of Common Prayer, and their eves, and at convenient and usual times of those days, and in such places of every church as the bishop of the diocese or ecclesiastical ordinary of the place shall think meet for the largeness or straitness of the same, so as the people may be most edified. All ministers likewise shall observe the orders, rites, and ceremonies prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer, as well in reading the Holy Scriptures and saying of prayers, as in administration of the sacraments, without either diminishing in regard of preaching, or in any other respect, or adding anything in the matter or form thereof.”

And by the preface to the Book of Common Prayer: “All priests and deacons are to say daily the Morning and Evening Prayer, either privately or openly, not being let by sickness, or some other urgent cause. And the curate that ministereth in every parish church or chapel, being at home, and not being otherwise reasonably hindered, shall say the same in the parish church or chapel where he ministereth; and shall cause a bell to be tolled thereunto, a convenient time before he begin, that the people may come to hear GOD’S word, and to pray with him.”

PULPIT. Sermons were originally delivered from the steps of the altar, which was sometimes called the Pulpitum, a term derived from the ancient theatres. The _Ambones_, or pulpits of the primitive Church, were used originally for reading the lessons only. In later times pulpits, or elevated desks, were erected sometimes in the choir, but generally in the nave, for the purpose of sermons. In our Church a raised desk, called a pulpit, is ordered in every church, from which the preacher addresses his flock. (See _Canon 83_.)

PURGATORY. A place in which souls are, by the Papists, supposed to be purged, whether by fire or otherwise, from carnal impurities, before they are received into heaven. The first authoritative decree concerning purgatory is to be found in the Council of Florence, (A. D. 1439,) in which council endeavours were made (and with momentary success) to persuade the representatives of the Greek Church to adopt the Roman innovations, and, amongst others, this of purgatory, which was so vague and undefined, that the former found it necessary to ask what it was that they meant by it. This inquiry produced the following synodical definition of it:

“Since you have demanded to have the faith of the Roman Church expressed concerning the truth of purgatory, we briefly reply in these writings, ‘that if any who truly repent depart from life before that by worthy fruits of repentance they have made satisfaction for their sins of commission and omission, their souls are purified after death, and to the relieving these pains, the suffrages of the faithful who are alive, to wit, the sacrifices of masses, prayers, alms, and other pious works, are profitable.’ ‘But whether purgatory is a fire, or a mist, or a whirlwind, or anything else, we do not dispute.’”

When first this error was broached by _individuals_ it is not easy to determine; but in St. Augustine’s time, A. D. 398, it appears to have been new, as he speaks of it as a thing which “possibly may be found so, and possibly never;” and so our English Bede, “not altogether incredible.” Its novelty, as an article of faith, is well expressed by Fisher, bishop of Rochester: “For some time it was unknown; but lately known to the Catholic Church. Then it was believed by some persons, by little and little, partly from Scripture, and partly from revelations.” This is spoken of in our twenty-second Article as “a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded on no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the word of GOD.” What the Romish doctrine concerning purgatory is, cannot be better explained than by the Romish doctors themselves, who tell us in the Council of Trent, “If any one say, that, after the grace of justification received, the fault is so pardoned to every penitent sinner, and the guilt of temporal punishment is so blotted out, that there remains no guilt of temporal punishment to be done away in this world, or that which is to come in purgatory, before the passage can be opened into heaven, let him be accursed.” And elsewhere they say, “There is a purgatory, and that the souls detained there are helped by the suffrages of the faithful, but principally by the sacrifices of the acceptable altar.” So that, as Bellarmine saith, “Purgatory is a certain place, in which, as in a prison, the souls are purged after this life, which were not fully purged in this life, to wit, that so they may be able to enter into heaven, where no unclean thing enters in.” Thus we see, in a few words, what the Romish doctrine concerning purgatory is.

Now that this doctrine is a “fond thing” is plain, in that, by the confession of some of their own writers, there is little or no footing for it in the Scriptures. Nay, if we examine it by Scripture light, we shall find it so far from being grounded upon the Scriptures, that it is directly contrary to them. For the Scriptures say, “The dead know not anything, neither have they any more a reward, for the memory of them is forgotten. Also their love and their hatred and their envy are now perished; neither have they any more a portion, for ever, in anything that is done under the sun.” (Eccles. ix. 5, 6.) Whereas this doctrine saith quite contrary, that, when they are dead, they have a part or portion in the prayers of the faithful, and the sacrifices of the altar. Again; the Scripture makes mention but of a two-fold receptacle of souls after death, the one of happiness, the other of misery. (1 Sam. xxv. 29; Matt. vii. 13, 14; viii. 11; Luke xvi. 22, 23.) Whereas this doctrine brings in a third, called purgatory, betwixt heaven and hell, half happiness and half misery. Again; the Scripture saith, “The blood of JESUS CHRIST, his SON, cleanseth [or purgeth] us from all sin” (1 John