Part 38

S. J. Barnett, Phys. Rev., =6=, 239, 1915, and =10=, 7, 1917.

Footnote 163:

W. C. Röntgen, Wied. Ann., =64=, 1, 1898 _et seq._

Footnote 164:

W. Friedrich, P. Knipping, and M. Laue, Ann. d. Phys., =41=, 971, 1913.

Footnote 165:

H. G. J. Moseley, Phil. Mag., =26=, 1024, 1913, and =27=, 703, 1914.

Footnote 166:

E. W. Morley and D. C. Miller, Phil. Mag., =9=, 680, 1905.

Footnote 167:

=17=, 891, 1905.

Footnote 168:

E. B. Wilson and G. N. Lewis, Proc. Am. Acad., of Arts and Sci., =48=, 389, 1912.

Footnote 169:

R. A. Millikan, Phys. Rev., =7=, 355, 1916.

Footnote 170:

E. Rutherford, Phil. Mag., =21=, 669, 1911.

Footnote 171:

N. Bohr, Phil. Mag., 26, =1=, 1913 _et seq._

XII A CENTURY OF ZOOLOGY IN AMERICA

By WESLEY K. COE

This article is intended as a brief survey of the development of zoology in America, and no attempt is made to give a general history of the science. There are numerous accounts in several languages of zoological history in general, among them being W. A. Locy’s “Biology and its Makers.” Brief outlines of the history of zoology may be found in many zoological and biological text-books.

For the history of American zoology the reader is referred to Packard’s report on “A Century’s Progress in American Zoology,” published in the American Naturalist, (10, 591, 1876), to Packard’s “History of Zoology,” published in volume 1 of the Standard Natural History (pp. lxii to lxxii, 1885); to G. B. Goode’s “Beginnings of Natural History in America,”[172] and “Beginnings of American Science,”[173] and to H. S. Pratt’s Manual of the Common Invertebrate Animals (pp. 1–9), 1916. In Binney’s “Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks of the United States” (1851) is a chapter on the rise of scientific zoology in the United States which well describes the zoological conditions in the early part of the century, while numerous monographs and papers give the history of the investigations on the various groups of animals or on special fields of study.

Brief biographical sketches of the most distinguished of our older Naturalists—Wilson, Audubon, Agassiz, Wyman, Gray, Dana, Baird, Marsh, Cope, Goode and Brooks are given in “Leading American Men of Science,” edited by David Starr Jordan, 1910. More extensive biographies have been published separately, and the activities of a number of the more prominent American zoologists have been recorded in the Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences.

The developmental history of zoology in America falls naturally into four fairly well marked periods, namely:—1, _Period of descriptive natural history_, previous to 1847, embracing the early studies on the classification and habits of animals, characteristic of the zoological work previous to the arrival of Louis Agassiz in America. 2, _Period of morphology and embryology_, 1847–1870, during which the influence of Agassiz directed the zoological studies toward problems concerning the relationships of animals as indicated by their structure and developmental history. 3, _Period of evolution_, 1870–1890, when the principle of natural selection received general recognition and the zoological studies were largely devoted to the applications of the theory to all groups of animals. 4, _Period of experimental biology_, since 1890, during which time have occurred the remarkable advances in our knowledge of the nature of organisms through the application of experimental methods in the various branches of the modern science of biology.

_American Zoology in 1818._

At the beginning of the century which this volume commemorates, the accumulated biological knowledge of the world consisted mainly of what is to-day called descriptive natural history. The zoological treatises of the time were devoted to the names, distinguishing characters and habits of the species of animals and plants known to the naturalists of Europe either as native species or as the results of explorations in other parts of the world. This required little more than a superficial knowledge of their general anatomical structures.

The naturalists of those days had no conception of the life within the cell which we now know to form the basis of all the activities of animals and plants, nor had they even the necessary means of studying such life. The compound microscope, so necessary for the study of even the largest of the cells of the body, was not adapted to such use until 1835, although the instrument was invented in the seventeenth century. With the perfection of the microscope came a period of enthusiastic study of microscopic organisms and microscopic structures of higher animals and plants. It was not until twenty years after the founding of the Journal that the cell theory of structure and function in all organisms was established by the discoveries of Schleiden and Schwann.

The beginning of the nineteenth century saw great zoological activity in Europe, and particularly in France. Buffon’s great work on the Natural History of Animals had recently been completed, Cuvier had only one year before published his classic work in comparative anatomy, “Le Regne Animal,” and Lamarck’s “Philosophie Zoologique” had then aroused a new interest in classification and comparative anatomy from an evolutionary standpoint. E. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire was at the same time supporting an evolutionary theory based on embryonic influences resulting in sudden modifications of adult structure. These epoch-making discoveries and theories gained a considerable following in France, Germany and England, but seem to have had little influence on the zoological work of the following half century in America.

The science of zoology as understood to-day is commonly said to have been founded by Linnæus by the publication of the modern system of classification in the tenth edition of his “Systema Naturæ” in 1758. The influence of Linnæus aroused an interest in biological studies throughout Europe and stimulated new investigations in all groups of organisms. Such studies as related to animals naturally followed first the classification and relationship of species, that is, systematic zoology, and then led gradually into the development of the different branches of the subject, as morphology, comparative anatomy, physiology, and embryology, which eventually were recognized as almost independent sciences.

Of these sciences systematic zoology, which has come to mean the classification, structure, relationship, distribution and habits, or natural history, is the pioneer in any region. Thus we find in our new country at the time of the founding of the Journal in 1818, only sixty years after the publication of Linnæus’ great work, the beginning of American zoology taking the form of the collection and description of our native animals.

It is true that many of our more conspicuous and easily collected animals were described long before the opening of the nineteenth century, but this is to be credited mainly to the work of European naturalists who had made expeditions to this country for the purpose of studying and collecting. These collections were then taken to Europe and the results published there. We thus find in the 12th edition of Linnæus descriptions of over 500 American species, about half of which were birds. As an illustration of the extent to which some of these works covered the field even in those early days may be mentioned a monograph in two quarto volumes with many beautifully colored plates on the “Natural History of the rarer Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia.” This was published in London in 1797 by J. E. Smith from the notes and drawings of John Abbot, one of the keenest naturalists of any period.

During the early years of the nineteenth century, however, economic conditions in our country became such as to give opportunity for scientific thought. Educated men then formed themselves into societies for the discussion of scientific matters. This naturally led to the establishment of publications whereby the papers presented to the societies could be published and made available to the advancement of science generally. The most influential of these was the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science, which was established in 1817, and was devoted largely to zoological papers. The Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History date from 1823, and the Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History from 1834. The Transactions of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia and the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in Boston also published many zoological articles.

In these publications and in the Journal, which was founded in 1818, appear the descriptions of newly discovered animal species, with observations on their habits.

The number of investigators in this field in the first quarter of the nineteenth century was but few, and most of these were compelled to take for the work such time as they could spare from their various occupations.

Gradually the workers became more numerous until about the middle of the century zoology was taught in all the larger colleges. The science thereby developed into a profession.

For some years the studies remained largely of a systematic nature, and embraced all groups of animals, but long before the close of the century the attention of the majority of the ever increasing group of zoologists was directed into more promising channels for research and there came the development of the sciences of comparative anatomy, physiology, embryology, experimental zoology, cytology, genetics, and the like, while the systematists became specialists in the various animal groups.

But the work in systematic zoology remains incomplete and many native species are still undescribed or imperfectly classified. It is perhaps fortunate that a few faithful systematists remain at their tasks and tend to keep the experimentalists from the disaster which might otherwise result from the confusion of the species under investigation.

_Period of Descriptive Natural History.—Previous to 1847._

Of the few American naturalists whose writings were published toward the end of the eighteenth century and at the beginning of the nineteenth the names of William Bartram (1739–1823), Benjamin Barton (1766–1815), Samuel Mitchill (1764–1831), William Peck (1763–1822), and Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), require special mention. Bartram’s entertaining volume describing his travels through the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida, published in 1793, contains a most interesting account of the birds and other animals which he found.

Barton wrote many charming essays on the natural history of animals, but was more particularly interested in botany. Mitchill’s most important works include a history of the fishes of New York (1814), and additions to an edition of Bewick’s General History of Quadrupeds. The latter, published in 1804, contains descriptions and figures of some American species and is the first American work on mammals.

Peck has the distinction of writing the first paper on systematic zoology published in America. This was a description of new species of fishes and was printed in 1794. He is also well known for his work on insects and fungi.

Jefferson in 1781 published an interesting book describing the natural history of Virginia, and during his presidency was of inestimable service to zoology through his support of scientific expeditions to the western portions of the country.

Previous to Agassiz’s introduction of laboratory methods of study in comparative anatomy and embryology in 1847, American naturalists generally confined their attention to the study of the classification and habits of the multitude of undescribed animals and plants of the region.

Such studies were naturally begun on the larger and more generally interesting animals such as the birds and mammals, and although many of these were fairly well described as to species before the opening of the nineteenth century, little was known of their habits. The natural history of our eastern birds first became well known through the accurate illustrations and exquisitely written descriptions of Alexander Wilson (in 1808–1813). Bonaparte’s continuation of Wilson’s work was published in four folio volumes beginning in 1826.

In 1828 appeared the first of Audubon’s magnificent folio illustrations of our birds. These were published in England, with later editions of smaller plates in America. Nuttall’s Manual of the Ornithology of the United States appeared in 1832–1834.

The second work on American mammals appeared in the second American edition of Guthrie’s Geography, published in 1815. The author is supposed to have been George Ord, although his name does not appear. In 1825 Harlan published his “Fauna Americana: Descriptions of the Mammiferous Animals inhabiting North America.” This was largely a compilation from European writers, particularly from Demarest’s Mammalogie, and had little value.

In 1826 Amos Eaton published a small “Zoological Text-book comprising Cuvier’s four grand divisions of Animals: also Shaw’s improved Linnean genera, arranged according to the classes and orders of Cuvier and Latreille. Short descriptions of some of the most common species are given for students’ exercises. Prepared for Rensselaer school and the popular class room.” “Four hundred and sixty-one genera are described in this text-book. They embrace every known species of the Animal Kingdom.” This is a compilation from European sources with a few American species of various groups included. On the other hand, Godman’s Natural History, in three volumes (1826–1828), was an illustrated and creditable work. Such was also the case with Sir John Richardson’s Fauna Boreali Americana of which the volume on quadrupeds was published in England in 1829. The other volumes on birds, fishes and insects appeared between 1827 and 1836. Audubon and Bachman’s beautifully illustrated “Quadrupeds of North America” was issued between 1841 and 1850.

About 1840 several of the states inaugurated natural history surveys and published catalogues of the local faunas. The reports on the animals of Massachusetts and New York are the most complete zoological monographs published in America up to that time. This is particularly true of DeKay’s Natural History of New York published between 1842 and 1844 in beautifully illustrated quarto volumes.

The leader in the systematic studies in the early part of the century was Thomas Say, who published descriptions of a large number of new species of animals, particularly reptiles, mollusks, crustacea and insects. Say’s conchology, printed in 1816 in Nicholson’s Cyclopedia, is the first American work of its kind. This was reprinted in 1819 under the title “Land and Fresh-water Shells of the United States.” In 1824–1828 appeared the three volumes of Say’s American Entomology.

The prominent position held by Say in the zoological work of this period is illustrated by the following paragraph from Eaton’s Zoological Text-book (1826, p. 133): “At present but a small proportion of American Animals, excepting those of large size, have been sought out ... And though Mr. Say is doing much; without assistance, his life must be protracted to a very advanced period to afford him time to complete the work. But if every student will contribute his mite, by sending Mr. Say duplicates of all undescribed species, we shall probably be in possession of a system, very nearly complete, in a few years.” How different is the attitude of the zoologist of to-day who sees the goal much further away after a century’s progress through the industry of hundreds of investigators.

During the period of Say’s most active work he is reported to have “slept in the hall of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, where he made his bed beneath the skeleton of a horse and fed himself on bread and milk.”

Next to Say, the most active zoologist of the early part of the century was Charles Alexander Lesueur, who described and beautifully illustrated many new species of fishes, reptiles, and marine invertebrates. A memoir by George Ord, published in this Journal (=8=, 189, 1849), gives a full list of Lesueur’s papers.

One of the most prolific writers of the period was Constantine Rafinesque, a man of great brilliancy but one whose imagination so often dominated his observations that many of his descriptions of plants and animals are wholly unreliable.

_United States Exploring Expedition._—In 1838 a fortunate circumstance occurred which eventually brought American systematic zoology into the front ranks of the science. This opportunity was offered by the United States Exploring Expedition under the command of Admiral Wilkes. With James D. Dana as naturalist, the expedition visited Madeira, Cape Verde Islands, eastern and western coasts of South America, Polynesia, Samoa, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Hawaiian Islands, west coast of United States, Philippines, Singapore, Cape of Good Hope, etc.

Of the extensive collections made on this four-years’ cruise, Dana had devoted particular attention to the study of the corals and allied animals (Zoophytes) and to the crustacea. In 1846 the report on the Zoophytes was published in elegant folio form with colored plates. Six years later the first volume of the report on Crustacea appeared, with a second volume after two additional years (1854). These reports describe and beautifully illustrate hundreds of new species, and include the first comprehensive studies of the animals forming well-known corals. They remain as the most conspicuous monuments in American invertebrate zoology. Unfortunately the very limited edition makes them accessible in only a few large libraries. The other, equally magnificent, volumes include: Mollusca and Shells, by A. A. Gould, 1856; Herpetology, by Charles Girard, 1858; Mammalogy and Ornithology, by John Cassin, 1858.

_Principal investigators._—Of the many writers on animals at this period of descriptive natural history, the following were prominent in their special fields of study:

Ayres, Lesueur, Mitchill, Storer, Linsley, Wyman, DeKay, Smith, Kirtland, Rafinesque and Haldeman described the fishes.

Green, Barton, Harlan, Le Conte, Say, and especially Holbrook, studied the reptiles and amphibia. Holbrook’s great monograph of the reptiles (North American Herpetology) was published between 1834 and 1845.

Wilson, Audubon, Nuttall, Cooper, DeKay, Brewer, Ord, Baird, Gould, Bachman, Linsley and Fox were among the numerous writers on birds.

Godman, Ord, Richardson, Audubon, Bachman, DeKay, Linsley and Harlan published accounts of mammals.

On the invertebrates an important general work entitled “Invertebrata of Massachusetts; Mollusca, Crustacea, Annelida and Radiata” was published by A. A. Gould in 1841, which contains all the New England species of these groups known to that date.

Lea, Totten, Adams, Barnes, Gould, Binney, Conrad, Hildreth, Haldeman, were the principal writers on mollusks. The crustacea were studied by Say, Gould, Haldeman, Dana; the insects by Say, Melsheimer, Peck, Harris, Kirby, Herrick; the spiders by Hentz; the worms by Lee; the coelenterates and echinoderms by Say, Mantell and others.

The history of entomology in the United States previous to 1846 is given by John G. Morris in the Journal (=1=, =17=, 1846). In this article F. V. Melsheimer is stated to be the father of American Entomology, while Say was the most prolific writer. Say’s entomological papers, edited by J. L. Le Conte, were completely reprinted with their colored illustrations in 1859. The first economic treatise is that by Harris on Insects Injurious to Vegetation; printed in 1841. This has had many editions.

_Zoology in the American Journal of Science, 1818–1846._

The establishment of the Journal gave a further impetus to the scientific activities of Americans in furnishing a convenient means for publishing the results of their work. In the first volume of the Journal, for example, are two zoological articles by Say and a dozen short articles on various topics by Rafinesque, the latter being curious combinations of facts and fancy. Most of the zoological papers appearing in its first series of 50 volumes are characteristic of an undeveloped science in an undeveloped country. They deal, naturally, with observational studies on the structure and classification of species discovered in a virgin field, with notes on habits and life histories.

Many of the papers are purely systematic and include the first descriptions of numerous species of our mollusks, crustacea, insects, vertebrates and other groups. Of these, the writings of C. B. Adams, Barnes, A. A. Gould and Totten on mollusks, of J. D. Dana on corals and crustacea, of Harris on insects, of Harlan on reptiles, and of Jeffries Wyman and D. Humphreys Storer on fishes are representative and important.

The progress of zoology in America during the first twenty-eight years of the Journal’s existence, that is, up to the year 1846, is thus summarized by Professor Silliman in the preface to vol. 50 (page ix), 1847:

“Our zoology has been more fully investigated than our mineralogy and botany; but neither department is in danger of being exhausted. The interesting travels of Lewis and Clark have recently brought to our knowledge several plants and animals before unknown. Foreign naturalists are frequently visiting our territory; and, for the most part, convey to Europe the fruits of their researches, while but a small part of our own is examined and described by Americans: certainly this is little to our credit and still less to our advantage. Honorable exceptions to the truth of this remark are furnished by the exertions of some gentlemen in our principal cities, and in various other parts of the Union.”

During these 28 years the Journal had been of great service to zoology not only in the publication of the results of investigations but also in the review of important zoological publications in Europe as well as in America. There were also the reports of meetings of scientific societies. In fact all matters of zoological interest were brought to the attention of the Journal’s readers.

_The Influence of Louis Agassiz._

At the time of the founding of the Journal and for nearly thirty years thereafter descriptive natural history constituted practically the entire work of American zoologists. In this respect American science was far behind that in Europe and particularly in France. It was not until the fortunate circumstances which brought the Swiss naturalist, Louis Agassiz, to our country in 1846 that the modern conceptions of biological science were established in America.

Agassiz was then 39 years of age and had already absorbed the spirit of generalization in comparative anatomy which dominated the work of the great leaders in Europe, and particularly in Paris. The influence of Leuckart, Tiedemann, Braun, Cuvier and Von Humboldt directed Agassiz’s great ability to similar investigations, and he was rapidly coming into prominence in the study of modern and fossil fishes when the opportunity to continue his research in America was presented. On arriving on our shores the young zoologist was so inspired with the opportunities for his studies in the new country that he decided to remain.

Bringing with him the broad conceptions of his distinguished European masters, he naturally founded a similar school of zoology in America. It is from this beginning that the present science of zoology with its many branches has developed.

It must be remembered in this connection that the great service which Agassiz rendered to American zoology consisted mainly in making available to students in America the ideals and methods of European zoologists. This he was eminently fitted to do both because of his European training and because of his natural ability as an inspiring leader.