Chapter 13

[Footnote: John Randolph of Roanoke was not prominent in the republican party until a later administration, being elected representative in 1799. He was a descendant of Pocahontas, of which fact he often boasted, and was noted for his keen retorts, reckless wit, and skill in debate. His tall, slender, and cadaverous form, his shrill and piping voice, and his long, skinny fingers--pointing toward the object of his invective--made him a conspicuous speaker. For thirty years, says Benton, he was the "political meteor" of Congress.]

[Footnote: The federalists favored the granting of power to the general government, which they thought should be made strong. The republicans, fearing lest the republic should become a monarchy and the President a king, opposed this idea and advocated State rights. In this election the republicans were accused of being friends of France, and the federalists of being attached to Great Britain and its institutions. The republicans declared themselves to be the only true friends of the people, and stigmatized all others as aristocrats and monarchists.]

Washington having declined to serve a third term, now issued his famous farewell address. So close was the contest between the rival parties that Adams, the federalist candidate, was elected President by a majority of only two electoral votes over Jefferson, the republican nominee.

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ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION.

[Footnote: John Adams was born 1735; died 1826. He was a member of the first and the second Congress, and nominated Washington as commander-in-chief. Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, but Adams secured its adoption in a three-days debate. He was a tireless worker, and had the reputation of having the clearest head and firmest heart of any man in Congress. In his position as President he lost the reputation he had gained as Congressman. His enemies accused him of being a bad judge of men, of clinging to old unpopular notions, and of having little control over his temper. They also ridiculed his egotism, which they declared to be inordinate. He lived, however, to see the prejudice against his administration give place to a juster estimate of his great worth and exalted integrity. As a delegate to the Constitutional Convention he was honored as one of the fathers of the republic. Adams and Jefferson were firm friends during the Revolution, but political strife alienated them. On their return to private life they became reconciled. They died on the same day--the fiftieth anniversary of American independence. Adams's last words were, "Thomas Jefferson still survives." Jefferson was, however, already lying dead in his Virginia home. Thus, by the passing away of these two remarkable men, was made memorable the 4th of July, 1826.]

(SECOND PRESIDENT: 1797-1801)

Domestic Affairs.--_Alien and Sedition Laws._--Owing to the violent denunciations of the government by the friends and emissaries of France, the _alien and sedition_ laws were passed. Under the former, the President could expel from the country any foreigner whom he deemed injurious to the United States; under the latter, any one libelling Congress, the President, or the government, could be fined or imprisoned. This was a most unpopular measure, and excited the bitterest feeling.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.--_France_.--French affairs early assumed a serious aspect. Our flag was insulted, our vessels were captured, and our envoys were refused audience by the French Directory unless a bribe should be paid. The news of this insult aroused the nation, and the friends of France were silenced. Orders were issued to raise an army, of which Washington was appointed commander-in-chief. Hostilities had commenced on the sea, when Napoleon became the First Consul of France and the war was happily arrested.

[Footnote: Charles C. Pinckney--our envoy to France--is reported to have indignantly replied, "Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute."]

POLITICAL PARTIES.--An intense party feeling prevailed during the entire administration. The unpopularity of the alien and sedition laws, especially, reduced the vote for Adams, the federal candidate for re-election, and the republican nominee, Jefferson, became the next President.

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JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION.

[Footnote: Thomas Jefferson was born 1743; died 1826. "Of all the public men who have figured in the United States," says Parton, "he was incomparably the best scholar and the most variously accomplished man." He was a bold horseman, a skilful hunter, an elegant penman, a fine violinist, a brilliant talker, a superior classical scholar, and a proficient in the modern languages. On account of his talents he was styled "The Sage of Monticello." That immortal document, the Declaration of Independence, was, with the exception of a few words, entirely his work. He was an ardent supporter of the doctrine of State rights, and led the opposition to the federalists. After he became President, however, he found the difficulty of administering the government upon that theory. "The executive authority had to be stretched until it cracked, to cover the purchase of Louisiana;" and he became convinced on other occasions that the federal government, to use his own expression, must "show its teeth." Like Washington, he was of aristocratic birth, but his principles were intensely democratic. He hated ceremonies and titles; even "Mr" was distasteful to him. These traits were the more remarkable in one of his superior birth and education, and peculiarly endeared him to the common people. Coming into power on a wave of popularity, he studiously sought to retain this favor. There were no more brilliant levees or courtly ceremonies as in the days of Washington and Adams. On his inauguration day he dressed in plain clothes, rode unattended down to Congress, dismounted, hitched his horse, and went into the chamber to read his fifteen-minutes inaugural. Some of the sentences of that short but memorable address have passed into proverbs. The unostentatious example thus set by the nation's President was wise in its effects. Soon the public debt was diminished, the treasury was replenished, and the army and navy were reduced. A man of such marked character necessarily made bitter enemies, but Jefferson commanded the respect of even his opponents, while the admiration of his friends was unbounded. The last seventeen years of his life were passed at Monticello, near the place of his birth. By his profuse hospitality, he had, long before his death, spent his vast estates. He died poor in money, but rich in honor. His last words were, "This is the fourth day of July."]

(THIRD PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1801-1809.)

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.--_Purchase of Louisiana_ (1803).--The most important event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana from Napoleon. Over one million square miles of land and the full possession of the Mississippi were obtained for $15,000, 000 (see map, VIth Epoch).

[Footnote: This territory (p. 90) was ceded back to France in 1800. From it we have since carved five States, four Territories, and parts of three States and three Territories.]

_Aaron Burr_, the Vice-President, was Alexander Hamilton's bitter rival, both in law and in politics, and at last challenged him to a duel. Hamilton accepted. The affair took place at Weehawken (July 11, 1804). Hamilton fell at the first fire, on the very spot where his eldest son had been killed shortly before, in the same manner. His death produced the most profound sensation. Burr afterward went west and organized an expedition with the avowed object of forming a settlement in northern Mexico. Being suspected, however, of a design to break up the Union and found a separate confederacy beyond the Alleghanies, he was arrested and tried (1807) on a charge of treason. Although acquitted for want of proof, he yet remained an outcast.

[Footnote: While awaiting his trial, Burr was committed to the common jail. There, among its wretched inmates, stripped of all his honors, lay the man who once lacked but a single vote to make him President of the United States.]

[Footnote: Closely connected with Burr's conspiracy is the romantic story of Blennerhassett. He and his beautiful wife. Having settled on an island in the Ohio Kiver, they had transformed the wilderness into a garden of beauty, and every luxury and refinement which wealth or culture could procure clustered about their homes. Into this paradise came Burr, winning their confidence, and engaging them in his plans. On his downfall, Biennerhassett as arrested. When finally acquitted everything had been sold, the grounds turned into a hemp field, and the mansion into a store-house.]

_Fulton's Steamboat_.--The year 1807 was made memorable by the voyage from New York to Albany of Robert Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont. For years the Hudson could boast of having the only steamboat in the world.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.--

_War with Tripoli_.--The Barbary States, of which Tripoli is one, for many years sent out cruisers which captured vessels of all Christian nations, and held their crews as slaves until ransomed. The United States, like the European nations, was accustomed to pay annual tribute to these pirates to secure exemption from their attacks. The Bashaw of Tripoli became so haughty that he declared war (1801) against the United States. Jefferson sent a fleet which blockaded the port and repeatedly bombarded the city of Tripoli. The frightened Bashaw was at last glad to make peace.

[Footnote: During this blockade a valiant exploit was performed by Lieutenant Decatur. The frigate Philadelphia had unfortunately grounded and fallen into the enemy's hands. Concealing his men below he entered the harbor with a small vessel which he warped alongside the Philadelphia, in the character of a ship in distress. As the two vessels struck, the pirates first suspected his design. Instantly he leaped aboard with his men, swept the affrighted crew into the sea, set the ship on fire, and amid a tremendous cannonade from the shore escaped without losing a man.]

_England and France_.--During this time England and France were engaged in a desperate struggle. England tried to prevent trade with France, and, in turn, Napoleon forbade all commerce with England. As the United States were neutral, they did most of the carrying trade of Europe. Our vessels thus became the prey of both the hostile nations. Besides, England claimed the right of stopping American vessels on the high seas, to search for seamen of English birth, and press them into the British navy. The feeling, already deep, was intensified when the British frigate Leopard fired into the American frigate Chesapeake, off the coast of Virginia.

The American vessel, being wholly unprepared for battle, soon struck her colors. Four of the crew, three being Americans by birth, were taken, on the pretence that they were deserters. Jefferson immediately ordered all British vessels of war to quit the waters of the United States. Though England disavowed the act, no reparation was made. An embargo was then laid by Congress on American vessels, forbidding them to leave port. This was so injurious to our commerce that it was removed, but all intercourse either with England or France was forbidden.

[Footnote: The American doctrine was that a foreigner naturalized became an American citizen; the British, Once an Englishman always an Englishman]

POLITICAL PARTIES.--While the country was in this feverish state, Jefferson's second term expired. James Madison, the republican candidate, who was closely in sympathy with his views, was elected as his successor by a large majority. The republicans were generally in favor of a war with England. The federalists, however, were a strong minority, and throughout this administration bitterly opposed the war policy of the republicans.

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MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION.

[Footnote: James Madison was born in Virginia in 1751; died 1836. Entering Congress in 1789, he became one of the strongest advocates of the Constitution, and did much to secure its adoption. From his political principles he was obliged, though reluctantly, to oppose Washington's administration, which he did in a courteous and temperate manner. He led his party in Congress, where he remained till 1797. The next year he drafted the famous "1798-99 Resolutions," enunciating the doctrine of State rights, which, with the accompanying "Report" in their defence, have been the great text-book of the democratic party. He was Secretary of State to Jefferson. After his Presidential services, he retired from public station. Madison's success was not so much the result of a great national ability as of intense application and severe accuracy. His mind was strong, clear, and well-balanced, and his memory was wonderful. Like John Quincy Adams, he had laid up a great store of learning, which he used in the most skilful manner. He always exhausted the subject upon which he spoke. "When he had finished, nothing remained to be said." His private character was spotless. His manner was simple, modest, and uniformly courteous to his opponents. He enjoyed wit and humor, and told a story admirably. His sunny temper remained with him to the last. Some friends coming to visit him during his final illness, he sank smilingly back on his couch, saying: "I always talk better when I _lie_." It has been said of him: "It was his rare good fortune to have a whole nation for his friends."]

(FOURTH PRESIDENT--TWO TERMS: 1809-1817.)

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.--_Battle of Tippecanoe_ (November 7, 1811). --British emissaries had been busy arousing the Indians to war. Tecumseh, a famous chief, seized the opportunity to form a confederacy of the northwestern tribes. General Harrison having been sent against them with a strong force, was treacherously attacked by night near the Tippecanoe. The Indians, however, were routed with great slaughter.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.--_England_.--This war greatly aroused the people of the West against England. The impressment of our seamen and the capture of our ships continued. The British government went so far as to send war vessels into our waters to seize our ships as prizes. The American frigate President having hailed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt, received a cannon-shot in reply. The fire was returned, and the sloop soon disabled; a civil answer was then returned. The British government refusing to relinquish its offensive course, all hope of peace was abandoned. Finally (June 19th, 1812), war was formally declared against Great Britain.

[Footnote: Madison, whose disposition was very pacific, hesitated so long, that one of the federalists declared in Congress that "he could not be kicked into a fight." This expression passed into a proverb.]

SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, 1812-14.

SURRENDER OF DETROIT (August 16).--As in the previous wars, it was determined to invade Canada. General William Hull accordingly crossed over from Detroit and encamped on Canadian soil. While preparing to attack Fort Malden (mahl-den), he learned that the enemy were gathering in great force, and had already captured Fort Mackinaw. He, therefore, retreated to Detroit. The British under General Brock and the Indians under Tecumseh followed thither, and landing, advanced at once to assault the fort at that place. The garrison was in line, and the gunners were standing with lighted matches awaiting the order to fire, when Hull, apparently unnerved by the fear of bloodshed, ordered the white flag--a table-cloth--to be raised. Amid the tears of his men, it is said, and without even stipulating for the honors of war, he surrendered not only Detroit, with its garrison and stores, but the whole of Michigan.

BATTLE OF QUEENSTOWN HEIGHTS (October 13).--Late in summer, another attempt was made to invade Canada. General Van Rensselaer (ren'-se-ler) finding that his men were eager for a fight, sent a small body across the Niagara River to attack the British at Queenstown Heights. The English were driven from their position, and General Brock was killed. General Van Rensselaer now returned to the American shore to bring over the rest of the army; but the militia denying the constitutional right of their commander to take them out of the State, refused to embark. Meantime their comrades on the Canadian shore, thus basely abandoned, after a desperate struggle, were compelled to surrender.

NAVAL VICTORIES.--These signal disgraces by land were in striking contrast to the successes on the sea.

_Constitution and Guerriere_ (August 19).--The fight off the coast of Massachusetts, between the American frigate Constitution (popularly called Old Ironsides) and the Guerriere (gayre-e-ayre) is memorable. The latter vessel opened fire first. Captain Isaac Hull refused to answer until he had brought his ship into the exact position he desired, when he poured broadside after broadside into his antagonist, sweeping her deck, shattering her hull, and cutting her masts and rigging to pieces. The Guerriere soon became unmanageable, and was forced to surrender. She was so badly injured that she could not be brought into port; while the Old Ironsides, in a few hours, was ready for another fight.

[Footnote: "Captain Hull sent an officer to take possession of the Guerriere. When he arrived alongside, he demanded of the commander of the English frigate if he had struck. Dacres was extremely reluctant to make this concession in plain terms, but, with a shrewdness which would have done honor to a Yankee, endeavored to evade the question. 'I do not know that it would be prudent to continue the engagement any longer,' said he. 'Do I understand you to say that you have struck?' inquired the American lieutenant. 'Not precisely,' returned Dacres; 'but I don't know that it will be worth while to fight any longer.' 'If you cannot decide, I will return aboard,' replied the Yankee, 'and we will resume the engagement.' 'Why, I am pretty much _hors de combat_ already,' said Dacres; 'I have hardly men enough left to work a gun, and my ship is in a sinking condition.' 'I wish to know, sir,' peremptorily demanded the American officer, 'whether I am to consider you as a prisoner of war or an enemy. I have no time for further parley.' 'I believe there is now no alternative. If I could fight longer, I would with pleasure; but I--must surrender--myself--_a prisoner of war!_'"]

[Footnote: Nephew of General Hull. His bravery retrieved the name from its disgrace.]

_Frolic and Wasp_ (October 13).--The next noted achievement was the defeat of the English brig Frolic by the sloop-of-war Wasp, off the coast of North Carolina. When the former was boarded by her captors, her colors were still flying, there being no one to haul them down. The man at the helm was the only sailor left on deck unharmed.

Other victories followed. Privateers scoured every sea, inflicting untold injury on the British commerce. During the year over three hundred prizes were captured.

_The Effect of these Naval Victories_ was to arouse enthusiasm and inspire confidence. Volunteer corps were rapidly formed. Madison was re-elected, thus stamping his war policy with the popular approval.

1813.

PLAN OF THE CAMPAIGN.--Three armies were raised: (I) the Army of the Centre, under General Dearborn, on the Niagara River; (2) the Army of the North, under General Hampton, along Lake Champlain; and (3) the Army of the West, under General Harrison, of Tippecanoe fame. All three were ultimately to invade Canada. Proctor was the British general, and Tecumseh had command of his Indian allies.

[Footnote: When the British heard that Dearborn had sailed away from Sackett's Harbor with the fleet, they immediately made an attack on that place. They were bravely repulsed by General Brown and a few regulars.]

THE ARMIES OF THE CENTRE AND NORTH did but little. General Dearborn attacked York, General Pike gallantly leading the assault. Unfortunately, in the moment of success the magazine blew up, killing Pike and making sad havoc among his men. Dearborn did nothing, and soon after resigned. General Wilkinson, his successor, was directed to descend the St. Lawrence in boats, and join General Hampton in an attack on Montreal. At Chrysler's Field he repulsed the British, but owing to a disagreement with General Hampton he returned. (Map opp. p. 160.) General Hampton went north as far as St. John's, where he was defeated by the British. He then made the best of his way back to Plattsburg, where, in the winter, he was joined by General Winchester's men. Thus ingloriously ended the campaign of these two armies.

ARMY OF THE WEST.--A detachment of General Harrison's men was captured at Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, by Proctor, who then besieged Harrison himself at Fort Meigs (megz). Repulsed here, Proctor stormed Fort Stephenson, garrisoned by only one hundred and fifty men under Major Croghan, a young man of twenty-one. Beaten again, he returned to Malden. As yet, however, the British held Michigan and threatened Ohio, and the Americans had been as unsuccessful this year as they were the preceding, when a glorious triumph on Lake Erie gave a new aspect to the campaign.

[Footnote: This party was stationed on the Maumee, under General Winchester. Having learned that the people of Frenchtown feared an attack from the Indians, he allowed his military judgment to yield to his humanity, and marched to their relief. He defeated the enemy, but was soon attacked by a body of fifteen hundred British and Indians under Proctor. Winchester, being captured in the course of the battle, agreed to the surrender of his men under the solemn promise that their lives and property should be safe. Proctor, however, immediately returned to Maiden with the British, leaving no guard over the American wounded. Thereupon the Indians, maddened by liquor and the desire for revenge, mercilessly tomahawked many, set fire to the houses in which others lay, and carried the survivors to Detroit, where they were dragged through the streets and offered for sale at the doors of the inhabitants. Many of the women of that place gave for their ransom every article of value which they possessed. The troops were Kentuckians, and the war-cry of their sons was henceforth "Remember the Raisin."--The great object of the Indians in battle was to get scalps, Proctor paying a regular bounty for every one. They were therefore loth to take prisoners. Proctor, brutal and haughty, was a fit leader under a government that would employ savages in a civilized warfare.]

PERRY'S VICTORY (September 10).--When Captain Perry, then only twenty-seven years old, was assigned the command of the flotilla on Lake Erie, the British were undisputed masters of the lake, while his fleet was to be, in part, made out of the trees in the forest. By indefatigable exertion he got nine vessels, carrying fifty-four guns, ready for action, when the British fleet of six vessels and sixty-three guns bore down upon his little squadron.

[Footnote: Perry had never seen a naval battle, while Captain Barclay, the British commander, was one of Nelson's veterans, and had lost an arm in the service.]