CHAPTER IX

RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYED

The printing industry has always been liable to friction between the employers and the employed. We have already made reference from time to time to strikes and labor disputes, going back to the very beginnings of the industry. Previous to the reorganization of 1618 the workmen generally had recourse to strikes for the settlement of disputes and the masters in turn appealed to the civil authorities. In conformity with the ideas of those days the authorities intervened, if at all, to suppress the strike. The idea of authority was very strong at that period and rebellion or disobedience on the part of laborers was regarded as little less than sedition or treason. Social lines were sharply drawn and every attempt possible was made to secure and maintain the supremacy of those in authority, whether that authority were civil, ecclesiastical, or industrial.

After the reorganization of 1618, however, the strike as a means of settlement was rarely resorted to until revived in modern times. The very organization of the industry made it amenable to authority and made it possible to settle disputes by legal processes. Accordingly, we find that both masters and journeymen presented their cases before the courts or the executive officers having authority and endeavored to gain their points by means of laws or edicts. The journeymen on the whole were more successful by this method than they had previously been, although the points of dispute were never permanently settled.

The organization of the Community united the masters, but the attempts of the journeymen to unite were met with constant opposition and were frequently prohibited by law. The germ of the journeymen’s organization was the chapel. Originally the chapel was a group of workmen engaged on the same job and consequently dependent upon each other for its success and for the regular progress of the work. The origin of the name is somewhat in doubt, but it probably is either derived from the fact that many of the early printing establishments were connected with monasteries, or under the patronage of the church, or from the fact that the printers were educated men, and in the 15th century educated men were generally identified with the clergy. In English law, until within a comparatively recent time, a man convicted of certain crimes could escape capital punishment if he could prove that he could read and write. This proof was held to identify him with the clergy, who were exempted from certain criminal provisions of the statutes. This process was technically known as “pleading one’s clergy.”

The chapel was soon extended to include in its membership all the workmen in one shop, and in this significance the name is still in use. The organization of journeymen into chapels runs back to the early days of printing. There never seems to have been any serious attempt to prevent this organization in individual shops for the reason that such an organization was highly beneficial to the masters themselves, securing the better co-ordination of related processes and hence more efficient production. In France the chapel was legally recognized in 1777, only a short time before the break-up of the old order. The chapel had certain revenues which were derived from assessments and fees which it laid upon its members and particularly from the sale of books. It was the custom to give to the chapel a certain number of copies of every book printed. These revenues appear to have been intended originally as provision for certain periodical feasts and festivals such as were common in all the guilds of the middle ages. Later they were extended to cover charity and also to provide a sort of war chest out of which the expense of litigation could be met.

The combination of these chapels or the formation of tacit understandings between them created a sort of trade union, and the combination of their funds made possible the raising of the large amounts of money necessary to employ counsel and carry on the litigations against the employers. The employers, often backed by the authorities, strove throughout this period to prevent these combinations. They understood fully the tactical value of the precept “divide and rule,” and they did their best to keep the journeymen divided and at the same time to strengthen the bonds of their own union. In this, however, they were only partially successful. In spite of edicts to the contrary, the chapels, though unable to form an open, strong organization which could meet the Community on equal terms or to act with the openness and authority of the modern trade union, nevertheless maintained a very real and often effective organization through correspondence, conferences, and other methods of securing mutual agreement and common action.

In addition to the general settlements of industrial conditions which were sought by legislation, individual disputes in particular shops or localities were often settled by arbitration. The great difficulty about these arbitrations, which rendered their results unsatisfactory and was never obviated during this whole period, arose from the impossibility of agreeing on a satisfactory board of arbitrators. The masters insisted that all these arbitrations should be referred either to the courts or to the syndics. To this the journeymen seriously objected. They felt that the courts would not really arbitrate but would settle the matter by an application of the statutes, and they knew by experience that the statutes were generally construed against the journeymen wherever possible. They were on the whole very law-abiding people. They had no disposition to break the statutes, but the questions which they wanted decided were either as to the application of the statutes or as to points not covered by them. On the other hand they felt that the syndics were entirely unqualified to act as arbitrators for the reason that they were masters and consequently interested parties. The masters were insistent whenever possible that these cases should go to the syndics, although as an alternative they were willing that they should go to the courts.

The journeymen desired that arbitration boards should be composed of masters, workmen, and citizens not connected with the industry. They maintained that only thus could the interests of all be fairly represented and an impartial arbitration secured. To this type of board the masters almost invariably objected, and they generally refused to submit to its findings. In this regard the journeymen appear to much better advantage than the masters throughout this period.

The main points of dispute have already been indicated and were on the whole not different from similar difficulties today.

First and foremost came the question of pay and food, usually together. Occasionally men were satisfied with their food but not with their pay or vice versa, but ordinarily the two went together. The man who paid badly was likely to feed badly. Another burning question was the right of combination on the part of the journeymen or, as we should say today, the question of the recognition of the union. Another point was the matter of discharge or leaving without notice. The grievance arising from discharge without notice has already been discussed. The masters complained that the men would leave without notice and so render it impossible for them to complete their jobs according to contract. This was one of the evils attendant on the piece system which has already been described. On the one hand the masters tried to manipulate it by hiring extra men and the like so as to increase their profits, while on the other hand workmen facing the danger of a period of unemployment would leave a job unfinished if they could get employment on another job which promised several weeks or even months of work.

Another fruitful cause of difference was tickets of leave or cards of dismissal. When a man left a job he was supposed to be given a card which identified him, told where he had been employed, what he did there, how well he did it, and what his conduct had been in the shop. He was supposed to show this card before obtaining employment. The workmen complained that these cards were withheld or improperly filled out for personal or other unworthy reasons. Sometimes masters were very particular about giving and demanding these cards. At other times they were very lax in both these regards and the consequence was that the card system was a source of constant annoyance to all concerned.

The complaint was also made by journeymen that members of the Community maintained a black-list, and if a journeyman offended a single member of the Community or fell into disfavor in a single shop he might be placed on this black-list and find it impossible to obtain employment.

Of course, there were many other questions which arose from time to time but these were the particular causes of difficulty which we find constantly recurring, just as the questions of pay, hours, recognition of the union, and handling of non-union material constantly recur today.

A fairly careful study of the conditions of this period shows that according to our modern ideas the journeymen generally appear to better advantage than the masters. There is no question, of course, that there were unreasonable demands and that individual journeymen or even groups of journeymen behaved at times in objectionable ways. On the whole, however, the effort of the journeymen of this period seems to have been only to obtain fair treatment and a reasonable recognition of their rights. They especially desired to be treated as men and to confer on equal terms with their employers instead of being treated as inferior beings bound to accept without protest what was handed down to them. It must be remembered that they were far more highly educated than the workers in any other industry and that they had been officially recognized many times as being in a class apart from the ordinary workmen. They appear to have attempted only to secure in the industry the same recognition which they legally enjoyed socially. While they did attempt to have a voice in the fixing of wages and hours there is very little evidence of any attempt to enforce upon the shops the observance of rules and regulations made by themselves. The masters on the other hand had those ancient ideas of authority which have already been mentioned. They were not willing that their employees should rise above the level of other workers and they were not willing to recognize them as men entitled to fair consideration, to say nothing of equal rights. They lived in the days of serfdom and they took their position as masters quite seriously and quite literally. This opposition in spirit between the masters who, by their wealth, their education, and their social position were associated with the upper classes and imbued with all of their ancient pride, and the men who, themselves educated and imbued with a spirit of progress and a desire for freedom, were attempting to rise above the condition of serfdom in which the laborers of that age were commonly held was the real root of the struggles in the medieval printing trade. The purely industrial questions involved were the occasions rather than the causes of strife.

The end of the old regime is marked in France by the date 1789. This date marks the beginning of the French Revolution when great masses of medieval statutes were swept from the statute books, including all those which regulated the trade of printing. The Community, censorship, licenses to print, and all the edicts regulating conditions in the industry went by the board together. The French Revolution, however, was only an incident of a change which was coming over the thinking of the whole world. A new condition had been growing up under the old forms and the time had come when the old forms had to break to make way for the new life. They broke in the most dramatic and tragic fashion in France and therefore we think and speak of this event as the French Revolution, but the change took place elsewhere in as real though a less striking manner.

One of the features of this change was the birth of the newspaper and an enormous production of pamphlets and other minor literature. There had been newspapers and periodicals for a long time before, but the ferment of men’s minds which began in the middle of the eighteenth century naturally caused a great production of printed matter and a demand that it should be produced very quickly. Much of this printed matter was of a sort forbidden by the old laws and regulations. The greater part of it, being produced under conditions of haste inconsistent with good workmanship and under a demand for cheapness also inconsistent with good workmanship, was of a very poor quality. The industry was disordered by a great increase in the number of shops, particularly shops of a poorer character. At first the workmen profited greatly, but as is always the case conditions gradually settled back to a normal state.

The general history of printing may be left at this point. From this time on the conditions with which we are familiar are coming into shape. The old day with its old conditions has gone. We need to know the history of these old times in order that we may understand the records and experiences of the early day. The later conditions we understand from our own surroundings. The periodical literature which forms so large a part of the output of the press has fairly come to life by the end of the eighteenth century. Commercial printing, which is now entering upon so positive a career of usefulness and importance, is about to begin. The invention of the Stanhope press about 1800 is the first of that long series of inventions which have made possible the printing establishments of today and their wonderful product. These things are elsewhere treated. Here we say good-bye to our elder brothers of the home-made type, the ink balls, and the hand press.

_Supplementary Reading_

The material bearing on the economic history of printing is very scattered. So far as the present writer is aware there is no book on the subject in English. The nearest approach to such a treatment will perhaps be found in the second volume of Mr. George Haven Putnam’s excellent book _Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages_. Some information may be obtained from Mr. DeVinne’s _Invention of Printing_; _Notable Printers of Italy During the Fifteenth Century_; and _Christopher Plantin and the Plantin-Moretus Museum at Antwerp_. The “Plantin” is a publication of the Grolier Club, but may be found in substance in _The Century_ for June, 1888. Some very excellent historical articles have been published in recent years in _The Inland Printer_ by Mr. Henry L. Bullen and Mr. John Rittenour. The student will do well to examine the files of this and other leading trade journals for some years back and to consult the local librarian for such material as may be found in libraries.

SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS

The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own words.

A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed that nothing should be omitted.

In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis of frequent written work and of final examinations.

The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge correctly and in good form.

If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form it will be doubly useful.

QUESTIONS

1. How were industries carried on in the days of Gutenberg?

2. What was the general relation between an apprentice and a master?

3. What was a guild, and what did it do?

4. Did printing fit into this scheme, and why?

5. How was printing regulated, and why?

6. What was the effect of the invention of printing on the manuscript makers?

7. What did the copyists do?

8. What did the illuminators do?

9. What was the attitude of the authorities?

10. What king is especially noted as a patron of printing, and what were some of the things he did?

11. How did he deal with labor troubles in the printing industry?

12. What important edict was issued by King Henry III of France, and on what grounds?

13. How did the early printers deal with typographical errors?

14. How did a French king endeavor to deal with this difficulty, and with what result?

15. What important event took place in 1618?

16. Give the general points in the regulations of 1686.

17. What additional regulations were made by Louis XVI?

18. What happened in 1789, and what was the result?

19. What are some of the differences between the product of a print shop and that of the ordinary factory?

20. What were some of the problems arising out of this difference?

21. What was the 15th century substitute for copyright and patents? Describe it.

22. What did trades do to protect themselves if they could not get the form of protection just described?

23. Why did the printer especially need some kind of protection?

24. Discuss briefly under four heads the system of protection in use in Venice.

25. What were the practical defects of this system?

26. What kind of books were printed in Germany for the first fifty years?

27. What evil practice did Fust begin, and why did he think it was right?

28. Was there a profession of authorship, and why?

29. How did Germany undertake to protect printers?

30. Give a brief sketch of the political organization of Germany in the 15th century.

31. What effect did this have on the protection of printers?

32. What did the printers do about it?

33. What did printers’ privileges cover in Germany?

34. How did France deal with the question of printers’ privileges, and what were some of the peculiarities of French law?

35. What moral and political danger was perceived shortly after the invention of printing?

36. How was it dealt with by church and state?

37. What action was taken by Pope Innocent VIII?

38. What was the result in Venice?

39. What had the Inquisition to do with printing?

40. What is the Index Expurgatorius? Why was it drawn up?

41. What were the general lines of legislation in Venice regarding censorship?

42. What was done in 1549, and why?

43. What was the purpose of the guild of printers and booksellers?

44. What were the requirements in 1671 for the publishing of a book in Venice?

45. How did censorship work in Germany, and why?

46. What was the result of Pope Innocent’s action in France?

47. By whom was censorship exercised in France?

48. What was the result of this system, and how was it improved?

49. Give some features of the press laws of France, and state the penalties.

50. What was the effect of this legislation, and how were the worst effects avoided?

51. What was the end of it all?

52. How did authorship come to be recognized as a profession?

53. How did the idea arise that the author had the right to control his work?

54. What was the early German idea of copyright as illustrated by the experiences of Luther?

55. What two ideas gradually came into prominence at this time with regard to literary property?

56. When and how did copyright come into general existence?

57. When was international copyright recognized?

58. What is the record of the United States with regard to international copyright?

59. What is the outstanding factor in the industrial life of the Middle Ages?

60. Describe it briefly.

61. What conditions made it possible?

62. State and discuss briefly the five general principles which governed it.

63. What was its relation to the state and to religion?

64. What was the best period of this organization?

65. When did it decline?

66. Give three reasons for this decline.

67. Why was the printing industry an important factor in this decline?

68. How were wages and prices fixed in the early Middle Ages, and why?

69. What happened after the discovery of America?

70. What was the effect on prices and what the effect on wages?

71. What was the result on the social and industrial organization?

72. How did printing relate itself to the industrial system of the sixteenth century?

73. What was the result of this relation?

74. What difficulties arose, and how were they met?

75. What was the effect of the legislation of 1618?

76. Who composed the Community of Printers?

77. Who were the syndics? How were they elected, and for what purpose?

78. What advantages were gained by the new organization?

79. What was the relation between printers and booksellers, and why?

80. What did the old-time printer have to do?

81. What was the early paper like?

82. Describe the types in use at this period.

83. Describe the presses in use at this period.

84. Describe the ink of this period, and tell how it was spread.

85. How were compositors paid?

86. What did the old-time pressman have to do?

87. Describe the old method of two-color printing.

88. How were the printed sheets treated when they came from the press?

89. How were pressmen paid?

90. What was the custom with regard to proofreading?

91. Describe the system of cost finding and estimating of this period.

92. What four different classes of workmen are enumerated?

93. What was an apprentice?

94. What were the qualifications necessary to apprenticeship?

95. What were the conditions of an apprenticeship agreement?

96. How were these agreements abused by both sides?

97. Describe the work of an apprentice.

98. How many apprentices were allowed?

99. What can you say about the enforcement of these conditions?

100. Who were the laborers, and how did they affect the industry?

101. How did an apprentice come to be a journeyman?

102. How did the journeyman become a master?

103. Did journeymen commonly become masters, and why?

104. What were the hours of labor at this period?

105. How did the journeymen live?

106. What sort of men were they?

107. What two compensations did they have for the hard conditions of the industry?

108. What influences tended to lower wages?

109. How were journeymen divided?

110. What were the conditions of employment of each?

111. What were the difficulties of the second class?

112. How were journeymen graded?

113. What division of labor existed in the composing room, and what in the press room?

114. Describe the foreman of this period.

115. What happened to the old or disabled workmen?

116. What was the place of the master?

117. Was the general condition of the industry good or bad, and why?

118. What were the relations between the masters and journeymen before 1618?

119. What were these relations after 1618?

120. What was a chapel?

121. What difficulties did the organization of journeymen have to meet?

122. Describe briefly the growth of organization among the journeymen.

123. How did masters desire to settle their disputes with the journeymen, and why?

124. How did the journeymen desire to settle them, and why?

125. What were the principle causes of dispute?

126. According to modern ideas, which party of these disputes generally appears to the better advantage, and why?

127. What was the French Revolution?

128. How did the French Revolution contribute to the coming in of modern conditions in the printing industry?

TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES

The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in courses of printing instruction, and by individuals.

Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of the United States—employers, journeymen, and apprentices—with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.

The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each title in the following list.

Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text.

In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books.

These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America.

Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A.

TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES _for_ APPRENTICES