Part 2

The binding of books until a comparatively recent date was entirely done by hand. The process was so slow that only a few books could be bound in a day, even by the largest establishment. Folding machines were not used by binders until 1875, rounding and backing machines until about 1888, sewing machines and case-making machines until about 1890, gathering machines until about 1895, casing-in machines until about 1900. It is well known to you that a modern bindery in which up-to-date machinery is installed is able to produce per day from 20,000 to 60,000 three-hundred-page sewed books of octavo size. It is therefore evident that there has been as wonderful an improvement in the method of binding books in the last century as in the method of printing them, and that the output of a modern bindery is now so enormous that it would have made the heads of the early hand binders dizzy just to think of it.

_The New England Primer_ was, of course, bound by hand. Its covers were of thin oak that cracked and splintered badly with use, in spite of the coarse blue paper that was pasted over the wood. The back was of leather. Neither back nor sides had any printing on them. Yet, despite its ugly appearance, this book has had a sale of at least two million copies since Harris first printed it in or before 1691.

The binding of the old Blue Back Speller until 1829 consisted of back of leather and sides of thin oaken boards pasted over with a dull blue paper. “Blue paper of a somewhat brighter tint,” says Johnson, “was used on the later editions, which gave rise to the name _Blue Back_.” This book, as you know, has enjoyed a sale larger than that of any other schoolbook ever made in this or any other country--a sale which Mr. Appleton has recently told me has reached the stupendous figure of sixty-four millions of copies.

Adams’ Arithmetic, which I have shown you, you observe was covered with leather pasted over a very thin pasteboard. It had no headbands, and its sheets were stitched by hand. Leather binding on the larger books, Dr. Vail tells us, persisted for a number of years after the beginning of the nineteenth century. This gentleman informs us that the First Reader of the original McGuffey series made a thin 18mo book of 72 pages, having green paper covered sides.

Peter Parley’s _Method of Telling About Geography_, published in 1829, was a thin, square little book with leather back and flexible pasteboard sides. His _National Geography_, published in 1845, was the earliest to take the large, flat quarto shape. This form enabled it to include good-sized maps and do away with the necessity for a separate atlas.

Cover designs were not used until quite late in the nineteenth century, and of course books whose covers bore no designs of any sort were far less attractive than those bound to-day.

In 1874, under the direction of Mr. James McNally, of Rand McNally & Company, that concern began the publication of atlases, pocket and large wall maps. In 1872, the Company had introduced the then new relief line engraving process for making maps--a process which revolutionized the methods of that day and cut the cost of production by several hundred per cent. Maps that can now be bought for from 25 cents to $1.00 each used to cost, under the old method of map making, all the way from $5.00 to $10.00 apiece. The modern map, well and thoroughly made, records faithfully every fact concerning the surface of the earth now known to man, and there is very little about it that scholarly geographers do not now know. In addition to the modern map’s accuracy, it is as much more attractive than its forebears to the eye as the beautiful color pictures now used in textbooks are seen to be when compared with the muddy wood cuts that appeared in schoolbooks a century or more ago.

It is not necessary for me to speak in such a presence as this of the contents of modern schoolbooks in order to point out how vastly superior in every respect they are to the contents of books of the earlier days. It would be a work of supererogation for me to comment at length, for instance, upon the character of the literature now included in reading books, or to note the scientific work that is now commonly done in the preparation of one of the most difficult books to prepare, namely, the primer, whose text matter and vocabulary are so splendidly adapted to the capacity of the young child, and whose illustrations picture his pets, his toys, his games, his playmates, and other things with which he is thoroughly familiar. I asked a literary friend to pick out a half dozen of the choicest selections of literature that he knew in modern readers. He replied as follows:

“Even a cursory survey of modern school readers soon reveals that no period in the whole world’s literature has been neglected as a source of selection. We have majestic passages from the Bible, Shakespeare, Milton, Bacon, and Bunyan. The later centuries of English literature afford the names of Sir Walter Scott, Wordsworth, Shelley, Browning, Dickens, Thackeray, and on to Tennyson and Stevenson. The early classic American period contributes freely from Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson, Thoreau, and Irving, and our early patriots and philosophers like Washington, Patrick Henry, Franklin, and Lincoln, live to-day in the school readers. Even our modern authors have their place. James Whitcomb Riley, Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Bailey Aldrich, Joel Chandler Harris, and a score of others are no strangers to the child who has in his possession a school reader of the present day. If these were not enough, we have occasional excursions into the Greek and Roman myths, and for the little people touches of the fascinating German and Scandinavian folklore.

“Most wonderful of all, however, is the skill of the editors and publishers of these modern readers in selecting from this world-wide galaxy of authors just the particular poem, tale, or episode that the childish mind can assimilate and digest, and thus be left not only with an introduction to these famous authors, but better yet with a desire to know more of them.”

Recently it was my pleasure to examine the illustrations in a set of modern school readers. I found in them a number of pictures beautifully done in color, copied from some of the masterpieces of world-famous artists, as, for instance, _The Age of Innocence_, by Reynolds, _The Blue Boy_, Gainsborough, _The Melon Eaters_, Murillo, _Portrait of a Man_, Franz Hals, _King David_, Rubens, _Mona Lisa_, Leonardo da Vinci, _The Tapestry Weavers_, Velasquez, _The Architect_, Rembrandt, as well as many others made from drawings cleverly done by artists of manifest ability. The pictures in this series of readers were evidently selected with as much care as the text, which contained selections of high literary value.

“If I were asked,” said James Russell Lowell, “what book is better than a cheap book, I should answer that there is one book better than a cheap book, and that is a book honestly come by.”

Prior to the enactment of state copyright laws, the first of which was passed by Connecticut in 1783 and the last of which were enacted by Georgia and New York in 1786, and the passage of a national copyright law by Congress in 1790, literary property had no protection whatever against piracy. Printers could help themselves _ad lib._ to books of all kinds turned out by other printers. Dr. Noah Webster, realizing the danger to an author arising from such piracy, labored diligently for many years to secure the enactment of a copyright law. He pleaded that the Constitution of the United States authorized Congress to “promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.”

Previous to the adoption of the Constitution in 1787, the nation had no power to act, but on Madison’s motion Congress in May, 1783, recommended the states to pass acts securing copyright for fourteen years. Dr. Webster traveled from state to state, urging members of legislatures to secure the passage of copyright laws in their states, and some thirteen states did pass such laws prior to the national act; but when Congress finally took action in the matter, Webster’s work was done. It was to his great advantage and that of all authors who have produced books subsequent to 1790 that a national law preventing the stealing of literary property was passed. To Noah Webster and his successful work in securing the enactment of a national copyright law, the literary world owes a great debt.

The international copyright bill passed Congress March 3, 1891, thanks to the diligent and unceasing labors of Mr. W. W. Appleton, the present President of the Copyright League, Major George Haven Putnam, its Secretary, and Robert Underwood Johnson.

It is my hope that this brief and most incomplete historical sketch will convince us afresh of the truth of such almost axiomatic statements as that made in the New York _Sun_ in 1915, namely, that the advance in the United States in textbooks has been as great as in any other phase of American life. Large credit is due both to authors and to publishers for this really wonderful advancement, for both have keenly realized the truth of Disraeli’s epigram which declared that “the youth of a nation are the trustees of posterity,” and have labored diligently to place in the hands of this youth books sound in their pedagogy, accurate as to facts, inspiring in their influence, and as attractive as possible in their appearance, to the end that these trustees of posterity may be sent from the schools full armed to cope successfully with ignorance, foolish and dangerous theories concerning religious and political life, and all other evils that now or in the future may menace our civilization.

The immortal Milton declared that “a good book is the precious life blood of a master spirit.” It has been and will continue to be the happy privilege of the publisher to clothe the good book of the master spirit in a style befitting its character, and to place it within the reach of those who should have its message. That the educational publisher is doing that work with much greater skill now than at any time during the past two centuries is manifest; that he will, as time grows apace, do it increasingly better, who can doubt?

A BRIEF HISTORY OF AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHERS

Allow me to close this paper by giving a brief record of the organization of the houses now engaged in educational publishing, mentioning the titles of some of the earlier textbooks produced. In this brief record I have considered the history of these houses in chronological sequence rather than in alphabetical order, beginning with the earliest American house engaged in textbook publishing.

CHRISTOPHER SOWER COMPANY.--Christopher Sower (Saür), the founder of this house, issued in 1733 as his first venture in publishing, a _schoolbook_ entitled _Ein A B C und Buchstabier Buch_. In 1747 he published a German and English Grammar; in 1750, _The Golden A B C, or the School of Knowledge in Rhymes_ (English translation of German title); in 1771, _The New England Primer, Enlarged_. Although he began publishing in German, he was soon printing in both German and English, and he issued from six to twelve books a year until his death. His most important educational publication was _Die Schul-Ordnung_, written by Christopher Dock, a remarkable schoolmaster in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. This is known as the first American treatise on school teaching.

In 1758 Christopher Sower was succeeded by his son, Christopher Sower, 2nd, and he by his son, Samuel. In 1799 another son, David, Sr., took charge of the business. In 1842 Charles G., son of David, Jr., succeeded his father. In 1888, 150 years after the founding, the firm was incorporated as the Christopher Sower Company, with Charles D. Sower as President. In 1910 the officers were: Albert M. Sower, President; James L. Pennypacker, Vice President; Daniel B. Hassan, Secretary and Treasurer.

LITTLE, BROWN & COMPANY, INC.--This business began as a retail store started by Ebenezer Battelle in Boston in 1784. Four years later the concern issued its first book and became a publisher in the strict sense of the word. From 1784 to 1913 there was a succession of partners entering and leaving the organization, and in the early days the name of the house was changed frequently, according to the changes in partnership. The name of Little & Brown was adopted in 1830, when James Brown and Charles C. Little owned the business. James Brown may more truly be called the founder of the present house than any other one man. In 1898 Little, Brown & Company absorbed the successful publishing firm of Roberts Brothers of Boston, thereby securing a large miscellaneous line, including the works of Louisa Alcott. In 1913 the house was incorporated as Little, Brown & Company, Inc., without change in the personnel of the organization.

The present educational enterprise of this company was started in May, 1904, and the first two schoolbooks of the present list were a school edition of _The Man Without a Country_, and the series known as the _Wide Awake Readers_. Little, Brown & Company are known as the publishers of Bancroft’s _History of the United States_, also of Daniel Webster’s works.

BENZIGER BROTHERS.--This firm was founded in 1792 in Einsiedeln, Switzerland, by Joseph Charles Benziger. In 1883, he was succeeded by his sons, Charles and Nicholas Benziger.

In 1853, the New York house was founded. J. N. Adelrich Benziger, a son of Charles, and Louis, a son of Nicholas, took charge of the New York house. The American firm is now entirely independent of its parent house in Switzerland. In 1860 a branch house was opened in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1880, Nicholas C. Benziger became a partner. His father, Nicholas, was a partner in Einsiedeln, and was the son of Nicholas mentioned above. In 1887, a branch house was opened in Chicago. In 1894, Louis G. Benziger, son of Louis, became a partner, retiring in 1914. In 1912 Xavier N. Benziger, and in 1919 Bernard A. Benziger, both sons of Nicholas C., became partners.

This firm has been publishing schoolbooks since 1860. From 1874 to 1877 the _Gilmour Readers_ were published. _The Catholic National Readers_ were brought out in the years 1889-1894. _The New Century Catholic Readers_ were issued from 1903 to 1905. The house has also published a _History of the United States_ in two volumes, an _Elementary Geography_, _Advanced Geography_, and two series of Arithmetics.

The present partners of the firm are Nicholas C. Benziger and his sons, Xavier N. and Bernard A. Benziger.

BENJ. H. SANBORN & CO.--Mr. Young, the present President of this organization, writes:

“The records of the family tree of the Sanborn publications go back into the eighteenth century. The predecessors of the present concern appear to have been in the textbook business from the beginning, and to have specialized in English grammars. The earliest trace we have is of the publication of Staniford’s _Short but Comprehensive Grammar Rendered Simple and Easy by Familiar Questions and Answers Adapted to the Capacity of Youth_. This was printed by Mannering & Loring, of Boston, January, 1797. Later came _The Elements of English Grammar_ by Adoniram Judson in 1808. Following Mannering & Loring came the firm of Loring & Edmunds. They were the publishers of Lindley Murray’s Grammar. Following Loring & Edmunds came Robert S. Davis, then Robert S. Davis & Company, then Leach, Shewell & Sanborn, and now Benj. H. Sanborn & Company.

“In addition to the Lindley Murray Grammar, one of the notable achievements of the predecessors of Benj. H. Sanborn & Company was the publication of the Greenleaf Arithmetics. The first contract for these books goes back to 1832. Greenleaf, by the way, a Maine teacher, sold the copyright of his first book for $10,000 in gold. This was more money than Greenleaf had ever seen before in his life, and he at once took the boat to Boston to deposit it.”

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.--Charles Wiley established the business in 1807. John Wiley came into it as a clerk in 1820 and continued until 1890. He had associated with him at various times George Palmer Putnam, Mr. Long, and Robert Halsted. The concern became John Wiley & Sons in 1865. Major William H. Wiley entered it in 1875, and W. O. Wiley in 1890. The house was incorporated in 1904.

The first educational publication was a _History of the United States_, which was issued by the founder of the house just after the War of 1812, and contained an account of that war. The first technical book was published in 1819, entitled _A View of the Lead Mines of Missouri_, by Henry R. Schoolcraft.

HARPER & BROTHERS.--This house was founded in 1817 by John Harper, Wesley Harper, James Harper, and Fletcher Harper. Harper & Brothers began to publish educational books in 1836, the title of their first publication being Professor Anthon’s Classical Series. Some of their most notable educational books are the Harper Geographies, Harper’s United States Series of Readers, Harper’s Arithmetics, Rolfe’s Shakespeare, Swinton’s Language Books, Green’s _Short History of the English People_, Harper’s Greek and Latin texts. In 1890 or thereabouts, the American Book Company bought the educational list of Harper & Brothers.

James Harper, the oldest brother of the original four Harpers, was elected Mayor of New York City in 1844. He originated the idea of the magazine, and Fletcher, who was an unusually fine business man, the idea of _Harper’s Weekly_.

D. APPLETON & COMPANY.--Mr. Daniel Appleton, who was a dry goods merchant in Boston, moved and established himself in business in New York in 1825. He began the bookselling business at 16 Exchange Place by the importation of editions of English books. The bookselling business was soon carried on by Daniel Appleton’s eldest son, William H. Appleton. The first book published in this country by Mr. Appleton was a little volume entitled _Crumbs from the Master’s Table_, issued in 1831. William H. Appleton became a partner with his father in 1838, and the firm became D. Appleton & Company. In 1848, Daniel Appleton retired, and William H. and his brother, John A. Appleton, became partners in the business. Daniel Appleton died in 1849. His son, Daniel Sidney Appleton, became a partner in 1849, and later George S. Appleton and Samuel Francis Appleton, also sons of Daniel Appleton, became partners. D. Appleton & Company was incorporated in 1897. Mr. W. W. Appleton writes:

“I cannot give the exact time when educational books were first issued, but somewhat late in the 1830’s a number of such works were published, some of them in foreign languages--French, Spanish, and German--and in the 40’s several more were added. In the 1850’s the educational list became much more important and included Cornell’s Series of Geographies, Quackenbos’s standard textbooks, Perkins’ Arithmetics, Mandeville’s Readers, and a great number of educational books in the Spanish language. One of the most interesting publications was Noah Webster’s _Elementary Spelling Book_, which was originally issued in Hartford as the first part of _A Grammatical Institute of the English Language_. D. Appleton & Company secured the publication of Webster’s _Speller_ in 1855, and it sold nearly a million copies a year up to the beginning of the Civil War.”

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & COMPANY.--The original firm of which this company was the successor was Truman & Smith, organized about 1834 by William B. Truman and Winthrop B. Smith. On June 2, 1834, this house published an _Introduction to Ray’s Eclectic Arithmetic_. It was the firm’s first schoolbook. Mr. Truman retiring, Mr. Smith carried on the business of educational publishing in the second story over a small shop on Main Street, Cincinnati. He was the sole proprietor of the McGuffey Readers and his other publications from 1841 until about 1852. He then admitted, as partners, Edward Sargent and Daniel Bartow Sargent, his wife’s brothers, and the firm name became W. B. Smith & Co.

Mr. Smith made an arrangement with Clark, Austin & Smith, of New York, to become the Eastern publishers of the McGuffey Readers, and a duplicate set of plates was sent to New York. From these plates, editions of the Readers were manufactured, largely at Claremont, N. H., bearing on the title page the imprint of Clark, Austin & Smith. The Smith of this firm was Cornelius Smith, a brother of Winthrop B. Smith.

Mr. W. B. Smith retiring, a new firm under the name of Sargent, Wilson & Hinkle was organized April 20, 1863, with Edward Sargent, Obed J. Wilson, and Anthony H. Hinkle as partners, and with W. B. Smith and D. B. Sargent as special partners. In 1866, Mr. Lewis Van Antwerp was admitted as a partner, and on April 20, 1868, the firm of Sargent, Wilson & Hinkle was dissolved. Mr. Sargent retired, and the new firm, Wilson, Hinkle & Co., bought all the assets. Mr. Caleb Bragg in 1871 became a partner in Wilson, Hinkle & Co. On April 20, 1877, the firm of Wilson, Hinkle & Co. was dissolved, and the business was purchased by the new firm, Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., of which Lewis Van Antwerp, Caleb S. Bragg, Henry H. Vail, Robert F. Leaman, A. Howard Hinkle, and Henry T. Ambrose were the partners.

Mr. Van Antwerp retired January 22, 1890, just previous to the sale of the copyrights and plates owned by the firm to the American Book Company. The four active partners in that firm, each of whom had been in the schoolbook business some twenty-five years, entered the employ of the American Book Company. Mr. Bragg and Mr. Hinkle remained in charge of the Cincinnati business, Dr. Vail and Mr. Ambrose went to New York, the former as Editor-in-chief, the latter at first as Treasurer, but later he became the President of the Company.

The most notable books published by these several firms, preceding and including Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., were McGuffey’s Readers and Speller, Ray’s Arithmetics, and Harvey’s Grammars.

G. & C. MERRIAM COMPANY.--The business was started in 1831, but the publication of Webster’s Dictionary was not undertaken until 1843. The founders were the brothers, George and Charles Merriam, and the original copartnership style was G. & C. Merriam. In 1856 Homer Merriam joined the other brothers, with no change in the firm style.

In 1882 the firm name was changed to G. & C. Merriam & Company, and at that time Orlando M. Baker and H. Curtis Rowley were admitted to partnership. In 1892 the copartnership was changed to a corporation, styled G. & C. Merriam Company. George Merriam, one of the founders of the company, died shortly before 1882, and about that time Charles Merriam retired from the firm. Thereafter the active management of the business devolved upon Mr. Baker and Mr. Rowley. Later Mr. K. N. Washburn was made one of the Managers. Mr. Baker died in 1914, and at the present time the active management of the business is in the hands of Mr. Rowley, Mr. Baker’s two sons, A. G. Baker and H. W. Baker, and Mr. Washburn.

The original firm of G. & C. Merriam, shortly after becoming established in 1831, began publishing educational books in a small way. The first of these publications seem to have been a series of school readers, _The Child’s Guide_, _Village Reader_, etc. For many years, however, and probably almost from the time that they acquired the rights in Webster’s Dictionary, G. & C. Merriam and their successors have confined their publications to the Genuine Webster Dictionaries.