Part 3

Bailey (James Napier), Socialist, edited the Model Republic, 1843, the Torch, and the Monthly Messenger. He published Gehenna: its Monarch and Inhabitants; Sophistry Unmasked, and several other tracts in the "Social Reformer's Cabinet Library," and some interesting Essays on Miscellaneous Subjects, at Leeds, 1842.

Bailey (Samuel), philosophical writer, of Sheffield, b. in 1791. His essay on the Formation and Publication of Opinions appeared in 1821. He vigorously contends that man is not responsible for his opinions because they are independent of his will, and that opinions should not be the subject of punishment. Another anonymous Freethought work was Letters from an Egyptian Kaffir on a Visit to England in Search of Religion. This was at first issued privately 1839, but afterwards printed as a Reasoner tract. He also wrote The Pursuit of Truth, 1829, and a Theory of Reasoning, 1851. He was acquainted with both James and John Stuart Mill, and shared in most of the views of the philosophical Radicals of the period. Died 18 Jan. 1870, leaving £90,000 to his native town.

Bailey (William S.), editor of the Liberal, published in Nashville, Tennessee, was an Atheist up till the day of death, March, 1886. In a slave-holding State, he was the earnest advocate of abolition.

Baillie (George), of Garnet Hill, Glasgow. Had been a sheriff in one of the Scotch counties. He was a liberal subscriber to the Glasgow Eclectic Institute. In 1854 he offered a prize for the best essay on Christianity and Infidelity, which was gained by Miss Sara Hennell. In 1857 another prize was restricted to the question whether Jesus prophesied the coming of the end of the world in the life-time of his followers. It was gained by Mr. E. P. Meredith, and is incorporated in his Prophet of Nazareth. In 1863 Mr. Baillie divested himself of his fortune (£18,000) which was to be applied to the erection and endowment of an institution to aid the culture of the operative classes by means of free libraries and unsectarian schools, retaining only the interest for himself as curator. He only survived a few years.

Baillière (Gustave-Germer), French scientific publisher, b. at Paris 26 Dec. 1837. Studied medicine, but devoted himself to bringing out scientific publications such as the Library of Contemporary Philosophy, and the International Scientific Series. He was elected 29 Nov. 1874 as Republican and anti-clerical member of the Municipal Council of Paris.

Bain (Alexander) LL.D. Scotch philosopher, b. at Aberdeen in 1818. He began life as a weaver but studied at Marischal College 1836-40, and graduated M.A. in 1840. He then began to contribute to the Westminster Review, and became acquainted with John Stuart Mill, whose Logic he discussed in manuscript. In 1855 he published The Senses and The Intellect, and in 1859 The Emotions and the Will, constituting together a systematic exposition of the human mind. From 1860 to 1880 he occupied the Chair of Logic in the University of Aberdeen, his accession being most obnoxious to the orthodox, and provoking disorder among the students. In 1869 he received the degree of LL.D. In addition to numerous educational works Dr. Bain published a Compendium of Mental and Moral Science (1868), Mind and Body (1875), and Education as a Science (1879), for the International Scientific Series. In 1882 he published James Mill, a Biography, and John Stuart Mill: a Criticism, with Personal Recollections. In 1881 he was elected Lord Rector of the University of Aberdeen, and this honor was renewed in 1884, in which year he published Practical Essays.

Bainham (James), martyr. He married the widow of Simon Fish, author of the Supplycacion of Beggars, an attack upon the clergy of the period. In 1531 he was accused of heresy, having among other things denied transubstantiation, the confessional, and "the power of the keys." It was asserted that he had said that he would as lief pray to his wife as to "our lady," and that Christ was but a man. This he denied, but admitted holding the salvation of unbelievers. He was burnt 30 April, 1532.

Baissac (Jules), French littérateur, b. Vans, 1827, author of several studies in philology and mythology. In 1878 he published Les Origines de la Religion in three volumes, which have the honor of being put upon the Roman Index. This was followed by l'Age de Dieu, a study of cosmical periods and the feast of Easter. In 1882 he began to publish Histoire de la Diablerie Chrétienne, the first part of which is devoted to the person and "personnel" of the devil.

Bakunin (Mikhail Aleksandrovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Torshok (Tver) 1814, of an ancient aristocratic family. He was educated at St. Petersburg, and entered as an ensign in the artillery. Here he became embued with revolutionary ideas. He went to Berlin in 1841, studied the Hegelian philosophy, and published some philosophical writings under the name of Jules Elisard. In '43 he visited Paris and became a disciple of Proudhon. In '48 he was expelled from France at the demand of Russia, whose government set the price of 10,000 silver roubles on his head, went to Dresden and became a member of the insurrectionary government. He was arrested and condemned to death, May '50, but his sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life. He escaped into Austria, was again captured and sentenced to death, but was handed over to Russia and deported to Siberia. After several years' penal servitude he escaped, travelled over a thousand miles under extreme hardship, reached the sea and sailed to Japan. Thence he sailed to California, thence to New York and London, where with Herzen he published the Kolokol. He took part in the establishment of the International Society, but being at issue with Karl Marx abandoned that body in 1873. He died at Berne 1 July 1876, leaving behind a work on God and the State, both being vigorously attacked. Laveleye writes of him as "the apostle of universal destruction."

Ball (William Platt), b. at Birmingham 28 Nov. 1844. Educated at Birkbeck School, London. Became schoolmaster but retired rather than teach religious doctrines. Matriculated at London University 1866. Taught pyrotechny in the Sultan's service 1870-71. Received the order of the Medjidieh after narrow escape from death by the bursting of a mortar. Upon his return published Poems from Turkey (1872). Mr. Ball has contributed to the National Reformer since 1878 and since 1884 has been on the staff of the Freethinker. He has published pamphlets on Religion in Schools, the Ten Commandments and Mrs Besant's Socialism, and has compiled with Mr. Foote the Bible Handbook. Mr. Ball is a close thinker and a firm supporter of Evolutional Malthusianism, which he has ably defended in the pages of Progress. He has of late been engaged upon the question: Are the Effects of Use and Disuse Inherited?

Ballance (John), New Zealand statesman, b. Glenary, Antrim, Ireland, March 1839. Going out to New Zealand he became a journalist and started the Wanganui Herald. He entered Parliament in 1875 and became Colonial Treasurer in '78. With Sir Robert Stout he has been a great support to the Freethought cause in New Zealand.

Baltzer (Wilhelm Eduard). German rationalist, b. 24 Oct. 1814, at Hohenleine in Saxony. He was educated as a Protestant minister, but resigned and founded at Nordhausen in 1847 a free community. He took part in the Parliament of Frankfort in '48; has translated the life of Apollonius of Tyana, and is the author of a history of religion and numerous other works. Died 24 June, 1887.

Bancel (François Désiré). French politician, b. Le Mastre, 2 Feb. 1822. Became an advocate. In 1849, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly. After the coup d'état he retired to Brussels, where he became Professor at the University. In 1869 he was elected deputy at Paris in opposition to M. Ollivier. He translated the work on Rationalism by Ausonio Franchi, and wrote on Mysteries, 1871, besides many political works. Died 23 June, 1871.

Barbier (Edmond). French translator of the works of Darwin, Lubbock, and Tylor. Died 1883.

Barbier d'Aucour (Jean). French critic and academician, b. Langres, 1642. Most of his writings are directed against the Jesuits. Died Paris, 13 Sept. 1694.

Barlow (George). Poet, b. in London, 19 June, 1847. In his volumes, Under the Dawn and Poems, Real and Ideal, he gives utterance to many Freethought sentiments.

Barlow (Joel). American statesman, writer and poet, b. Reading, Connecticut, 24 March, 1754. Served as a volunteer in the revolutionary war, became a chaplain, but resigned that profession, taking to literature. In England, in 1791, he published Advice to the Privileged Orders. In France he translated Volney's Ruins of Empires, and contributed to the political literature of the Revolution. Paine entrusted him with the MS. of the first part of the Age of Reason. His chief work is entitled the Columbiad, 1808. He was sent as minister to France, 1811, and being involved in the misfortunes following the retreat from Moscow, died near Cracow, Poland, 24 Dec. 1812.

Barni (Jules Romain). French philosophic writer, b. Lille, 1 June, 1818. He became secretary to Victor Cousin, and translated the works of Kant into French. He contributed to La Liberté de Penser (1847-51) and to l'Avenir (1855). During the Empire he lived in Switzerland and published Martyrs de la Libre Pensée (1862), La Morale dans la Démocratie (1864), and a work on the French Moralists of the Eighteenth Century (1873). He was elected to the National Assembly, 1872; and to the Chamber of Deputies, 1876. Died at Mers, 4 July, 1878. A statue is erected to him at Amiens.

Barnout (Hippolyte). French architect and writer, b. Paris 1816, published a Rational Calendar 1859 and 1860. In May 1870 he established a journal entitled L'Athée, the Atheist, which the clerical journals declared drew God's vengeance upon France. He is also author of a work on aerial navigation.

Barot (François Odysse). French writer, b. at Mirabeau 1830. He has been a journalist on several Radical papers, was secretary to Gustave Flourens, and has written on the Birth of Jesus (1864) and Contemporary Literature in England (1874).

Barrett (Thomas Squire). Born 9 Sept. 1842, of Quaker parents, both grandfathers being ministers of that body; educated at Queenwood College, obtained diploma of Associate in Arts from Oxford with honors in Natural Science and Mathematics, contributed to the National Reformer between 1865 and 1870, published an acute examination of Gillespie's argument, à priori, for the existence of God (1869), which in 1871 reached a second edition. He also wrote A New View of Causation (1871), and an Introduction to Logic and Metyphysics (1877). Mr. Barrett has been hon. sec. of the London Dialectical Society, and edited a short-lived publication, The Present Day, 1886.

Barrier (F. M.). French Fourierist, b. Saint Etienne 1815, became professor of medicine at Lyons, wrote A Sketch of the Analogy of Man and Humanity (Lyons 1846), and Principles of Sociology (Paris 1867), and an abridgment of this entitled Catechism of Liberal and Rational Socialism. Died Montfort-L'Amaury 1870.

Barrillot (François). French author, b. of poor parents at Lyons in 1818. An orphan at seven years of age, he learnt to read from shop signs, and became a printer and journalist. Many of his songs and satires acquired popularity. He has also wrote a letter to Pope Pius IX. on the OEcumenical Council (1871), signed Jean Populus, and a philosophical work entitled Love is God. Died at Paris, 11 Dec. 1874.

Barthez (Paul Joseph), French physician, b. Montpelier 11 Dec. 1734. A friend of D'Alembert, he became associate editor of the Journal des Savants and Encyclopédie Méthodique. He was made consulting physician to the king and a councillor of State. Shown by the Archbishop of Sens a number of works relating to the rites of his see he said, "These are the ceremonies of Sens, but can you show me the sense [Sens] of ceremonies." His principal work is New Elements of the Science of Man. Died 15 Oct. 1806.

Basedow (Johann Bernhard), German Rationalist and educational reformer, b. at Hamburg 11 Sept. 1723. He studied theology at Leipsic, became professor at the Academy of Sora, in Denmark, 1753-1761, and at Altona, 1761-1768. While here he published Philalethea, the Grounds of Religion, and other heterodox works, which excited so much prejudice that he was in danger of being stoned. He devoted much attention to improving methods of teaching. Died at Magdeburg 25 July, 1790.

Baskerville (John), famous printer, b. Sion Hill, Wolverley, Worcestershire, 28 Jan. 1706. Lived at Birmingham. He was at first a stone-mason, then made money as an artistic japanner, and devoted it to perfecting the art of type-founding and printing. As a printer-publisher he produced at his own risk beautiful editions of Milton, Addison, Shaftesbury, Congreve, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius, Terence, etc. He was made printer to Cambridge University 1758. Wilkes once visited him and was "shocked at his infidelity" (!) He died 8 Jan. 1775, and was buried in a tomb in his own garden. He had designed a monumental urn with this inscription: "Stranger, beneath this cone in unconsecrated ground a friend to the liberties of mankind directed his body to be inurned. May the example contribute to emancipate thy mind from the idle fears of superstition and the wicked arts of priesthood." His will expresses the utmost contempt for Christianity. His type was appropriately purchased to produce a complete edition of Voltaire.

Bassus (Aufidus). An Epicurean philosopher and friend of Seneca in the time of Nero. Seneca praises his patience and courage in the presence of death.

Bate (Frederick), Socialist, author of The Student 1842, a drama in which the author's sceptical views are put forward. Mr. Bate was one of the founders of the social experiment at New Harmony, now Queenswood College, Hants, and engraved a view representing the Owenite scheme of community.

Baudelaire (Charles Pierre), French poet, b. Paris, 9 April 1821, the son of a distinguished friend of Cabanis and Condorcet. He first became famous by the publication of Fleurs du Mal, 1857, in which appeared Les Litanies de Satan. The work was prosecuted and suppressed. Baudelaire translated some of the writings of E. A. Poe, a poet whom he resembled much in life and character. The divine beauty of his face has been celebrated by the French poet, Théodore de Banville, and his genius in some magnificent stanzas by the English poet, Algernon Swinburne. Died Paris 31 Aug. 1867.

Baudon (P. L.), French author of a work on the Christian Superstition, published at Brussels in 1862 and dedicated to Bishop Dupanloup under the pseudonym of "Aristide."

Bauer (Bruno), one of the boldest biblical critics of Germany, b. Eisenberg, 6 Sept. 1809. Educated at the University of Berlin, in 1834 he received a professorship of theology. He first attained celebrity by a review of the Life of Jesus by Strauss (1835). This was followed by his Journal of Speculative Theology and Critical Exposition of the Religion of the Old Testament. He then proceeded to a Review of the Gospel History, upon the publication of which (1840) he was deprived of his professorship at Bonn. To this followed Christianity Unveiled (1843), which was destroyed at Zurich before its publication. This work continued his opposition to religion, which was carried still further in ironical style in his Proclamation of the Day of Judgement concerning Hegel the Atheist. Bauer's heresy deepened with age, and in his Review of the Gospels and History of their Origin (1850), to which Apostolical History is a supplement, he attacked the historical truth of the New Testament narratives. In his Review of the Epistles attributed to St. Paul (1852) he tries to show that the first four epistles, which had hardly ever before been questioned, were not written by Paul, but are the production of the second century. In his Christ and the Cæsars he shows the influence of Seneca and Greco-Roman thought upon early Christianity. He died near Berlin, 13 April, 1882.

Bauer (Edgar), b. Charlottenburg, 7 Oct. 1820, brother of the preceding, collaborated in some of his works. His brochure entitled Bruno Bauer and his Opponents (1842) was seized by the police. For his next publication, The Strife of Criticism with Church and State (1843), he was imprisoned for four years. He has also written on English freedom, Capital, etc.

Baume-Desdossat (Jacques François, de la), b. 1705, a Canon of Avignon who wrote La Christiade (1753), a satire on the gospels, in which Jesus is tempted by Mary Magdalene. It was suppressed by the French Parliament and the author fined. He died 30 April, 1756.

Baur (Ferdinand Christian von), distinguished theological critic, b. 21 June, 1792, near Stuttgart. His father was a clergyman. He was educated at Tübingen, where in 1826 he became professor of Church history. Baur is the author of numerous works on dogmatic and historic theology, in which he subverts all the fundamental positions of Christianity. He was an Hegelian Pantheist. Among his more important works are Christianity and the Church in the First Three Centuries and Paul: His Life and Works. These are translated into English. He acknowledges only four of the epistles of Paul and the Revelation as genuine products of the apostolic age, and shows how very far from simplicity were the times and doctrines of primitive Christianity. After a life of great literary activity he died at Tübingen, 2 Dec. 1860.

Bayle (Pierre), learned French writer, b. 18 Nov. 1647, at Carlat, France, where his father was a Protestant minister. He was converted to Romanism while studying at the Jesuit College, Toulouse, 1669. His Romanism only lasted seventeen months. He abjured, and fled to Switzerland, becoming a sceptic, as is evident from Thoughts on the Comet, in which he compares the supposed mischiefs of Atheism with those of fanaticism, and from many articles in his famous Dictionnaire Critique, a work still of value for its curious learning and shrewd observation. In his journal Nouvelles de la République des Lettres he advocates religious toleration on the ground of the difficulty of distinguishing truth from error. His criticism of Maimbourg's History of Calvinism was ordered to be burnt by the hangman. Jurieu persecuted him, and he was ordered to be more careful in preparing the second edition of his dictionary. He died at Rotterdam, 28 Dec. 1706. Bayle has been called the father of free discussion in modern times.

Bayrhoffer (Karl Theodor), German philosopher, b. Marburg, 14 Oct., 1812, wrote The Idea and History of Philosophy (1838), took part in the revolution of '48, emigrated to America, and wrote many polemical works. Died near Monroe, Wisconsin, 3 Feb. 1888.

Beauchamp (Philip). See Bentham and Grote.

Beausobre (Louis de), b. at Berlin, 22 Aug. 1730, was adopted by Frederick the Great out of esteem for his father, Isaac Beausobre, the author of the History of Manicheanism. He was educated first at Frankfort-on-Oder, then at Paris. He wrote on the scepticism of the wise (Pyrrhonisme du Sage, Berlin, 1754), a work condemned to be burnt by the Parliament of Paris. He also wrote anonymously The Dreams of Epicurus, and an essay on Happiness (Berlin, 1758), reprinted with the Social System of Holbach in 1795. Died at Berlin, 3 Dec. 1783.

Bebel (Ferdinand August). German Socialist, b. Cologne, 22 Feb. 1840. Brought up as a turner in Leipsic. Since '63, he became distinguished as an exponent of social democracy, and was elected to the German Reichstag in '71. In the following year he was condemned (6 March) to two years' imprisonment for high treason. He was re-elected in '74. His principal work is Woman in the Past, Present and Future which is translated by H. B. A. Walther, 1885. He has also written on the Mohammedan Culture Period (1884) and on Christianity and Socialism.

Beccaria (Bonesana Cesare), an Italian marquis and writer, b. at Milan, 15 March, 1738. A friend of Voltaire, who praised his treatise on Crimes and Punishments (1769), a work which did much to improve the criminal codes of Europe. Died Milan, 28 Nov. 1794.

Beesly (Edward Spencer), Positivist, b. Feckenham, Worcestershire, 1831. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took B.A. in 1854, and M.A. in '57. Appointed Professor of History, University College, London, in 1860. He is one of the translators of Comte's System of Positive Polity, and has published several pamphlets on political and social questions.

Beethoven (Ludwig van), one of the greatest of musical composers, b. Bonn 16 Dec. 1770. His genius early displayed itself, and at the age of five he was set to study the works of Handel and Bach. His many compositions are the glory of music. They include an opera "Fidelio," two masses, oratorios, symphonies, concertos, overtures and sonatas, and are characterised by penetrating power, rich imagination, intense passion, and tenderness. When about the age of forty he became totally deaf, but continued to compose till his death at Vienna, 26 March, 1827. He regarded Goethe with much the same esteem as Wagner showed for Schopenhauer, but he disliked his courtliness. His Republican sentiments are well known, and Sir George Macfarren, in his life in the Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography, speaks of him as a "Freethinker," and says the remarkable mass in C. "might scarcely have proceeded from an entirely orthodox thinker." Sir George Grove, in his Dictionary of Music and Musicians, says: "Formal religion he apparently had none," and "the Bible does not appear to have been one of his favorite books." At the end of his arrangement of "Fidelio" Moscheles had written, "Fine. With God's help." To this Beethoven added, "O man, help thyself."

Bekker (Balthasar), Dutch Rationalist, b. Metslawier (Friesland) 20 March, 1634. He studied at Gronigen, became a doctor of divinity, and lived at Francker, but was accused of Socinianism, and had to fly to Amsterdam, where he raised another storm by his World Bewitched (1691), a work in which witchcraft and the power of demons are denied. His book, which contains much curious information, raised a host of adversaries, and he was deposed from his place in the Church. It appeared in English in 1695. Died, Amsterdam, 11 June, 1698. Bekker was remarkably ugly, and he is said to have "looked like the devil, though he did not believe in him."

Belinsky (Vissarion Grigorevich), Russian critic, b. Pensa 1811, educated at Pensa and Moscow, adopted the Pantheistic philosophy of Hegel and Schelling. Died St. Petersburg, 28 May, 1848. His works were issued in 12 volumes, 1857-61.

Bell (Thomas Evans), Major in Madras Army, which he entered in 1842. He was employed in the suppression of Thugee. He wrote the Task of To-Day, 1852, and assisted the Reasoner, both with pen and purse, writing over the signature "Undecimus." He contemplated selling his commission to devote himself to Freethought propaganda, but by the advice of his friends was deterred. He returned to India at the Mutiny. In January, 1861, he became Deputy-Commissioner of Police at Madras. He retired in July, 1865, and has written many works on Indian affairs. Died 12 Sept. 1887.

Bell (William S.), b. in Allegheny city, Pennsylvania, 10 Feb. 1832. Brought up as a Methodist minister, was denounced for mixing politics with religion, and for his anti-slavery views. In 1873 he preached in the Universalist Church of New Bedford, but in Dec. '74, renounced Christianity and has since been a Freethought lecturer. He has published a little book on the French Revolution, and some pamphlets.