Part 29

Spencer (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He was articled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He wrote in the Westminster Review, and at the house of Dr. Chapman met Mill, Lewes and "George Eliot." His first important work was Social Statistics, '51. Four years later appeared his Principles of Psychology, which with First Principles, '62; Principles of Biology, '64; Principles of Sociology, '76-85, and Data of Ethics, '79, form part of his "Synthetic Philosophy" in which he applies the doctrines of evolution to the phenomena of mind and society no less than to animal life. He has also published Essays, 3 vols, '58-74; a work on Education '61; Recent Discussions on Science, Philosophy and Morals, '71; The Study of Sociology, '72; Descriptive Sociology, '72-86, an immense work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed against Socialism; The Coming Slavery, '84; and Man and the State, '85, and has contributed many articles to the best reviews.

Spinoza (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, b. of Jewish parents, Amsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the study of theology and philosophy, and, making no secret of his doubts, was excommunicated by the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time he narrowly escaped death by a fanatic's dagger. To avoid persecution, he retired to Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to philosophy, earning his living by polishing lenses. About 1670 he settled at the Hague, where he remained until his death. In 1670 he issued his Tractatus Theologico-politicus, which made a great outcry; and for more than a century this great thinker, whose life was gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as an atheist, a monster, and a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with Lessing and Goethe, upon whom he had great influence. Though formerly stigmatized as an atheist, Spinoza is now generally recognised as among the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague, 21 Feb. 1677. His Ethics was published with his Opera Posthuma. The bi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an eloquent address from M. Rénan.

Spooner (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19 Jan. 1808. His first pamphlet was A Deist's Reply to the alleged Supernatural Evidences of Christianity. He started letter-carrying from Boston to New York, but was overwhelmed with prosecutions. He published many works against slavery, and in favor of Individualism. Died at Boston, 14 May, 1887.

Stabili (Francesco), see Cecco' d'Ascoli.

Stamm (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote The Religion of Action, translated into English, 1860. After the events of '48, he came to England, went to America, Aug. '54.

Standring (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. 1855, was for some years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but discarded theology after independent inquiry in '73. He became hon. sec. of the National Secular Society about '75, resigning on appointment of paid sec., was auditor and subsequently vice-president. Started Republican Chronicle, April, 1875, this was afterwards called The Republican, and in Sept. '88 The Radical. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation, and has contributed to the National Reformer, Freethinker, Progress, Our Corner, Reynolds's and Pall Mall Gazette. His brother, Sam., b. 27 July, 1853, is also an active Freethinker.

Stanley (F. Lloyd), American author of An Outline of the Future Religion of the World (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic work in which he criticises preceding religions.

Stanton (Elizabeth, née Cady), American reformer, b. Johnstone, New York, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine Rose and Lucretia Mott, she was associated with them in the Anti-Slavery and the Woman's Rights crusades, of which last the first convention was held at her home in Seneca Falls, July '48. She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony and Parker Pilsbury, The Revolution, and is joint author of History of Woman's Suffrage ('80-86). She has written in the North American Review notably on "Has Christianity Benefited Woman," May, 1885.

Stap (A.), author of Historic Studies on the origins of Christianity. Bruxelles, 1864, and The Immaculate Conception, 1869.

Starcke (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the University of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple of Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in '83. This able Monograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in '85, published in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since published in the "International Scientific Series," a work on The Primitive Family, in which he critically surveys the views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan, etc. He is now engaged on a work on Ethics based on the doctrines of Ludwig Feuerbach.

Stecchetti (Lorenzo). See Guerrini (O.)

Stefanoni (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, 1842. In '59, his first Romance, The Spanish in Italy was suppressed by the Austrians. He joined Garibaldi's volunteers and contributed to Unita Italiana. In '66, he founded at Milan the Society of Freethinkers and the organ Il Libero Pensiero, in which he wrote A critical History of Superstition, afterwards published separately 2 vols. '69. He also compiled a Philosophical Dictionary, '73-75; and wrote several romances as L'Inferno, The Red and Black of Rome, etc. He translated Büchner's Force and Matter, Morin's Jesus réduit, La Mettrie's Man-machine, Letourneau's Physiology of the Passions, and Feuerbach's Essence of Religion.

Steinbart (Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. Züllichau, 21 Sept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he became a Freethinker through reading Voltaire. In '74, he became Prof. of Philosophy at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a System of Pure Philosophy, '78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809.

Steinthal (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Gröbzig, 16 May, 1823, has written many works on language and mythology.

Steller (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical work, Pilatus liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus, Dresden, 1674.

"Stendhal (M. de)," Pseud, see Beyle (M. H.)

Stephen (Sir James FitzJames), English judge and writer, b. London, 3 March, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. '52, and was called to the bar in '54. He was counsel for the Rev. Rowland Williams when tried for heresy for writing in Essays and Reviews, and his speech was reprinted in '62. He wrote in the Saturday Review, and reprinted Essays by a Barrister. From Dec. '69, to April, '72, he was Legal Member of the Indian Council, and in '79 was appointed judge. He is author of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, '73, and some valuable legal works. He has written much in the Nineteenth Century, notably on the Blasphemy Law '83, and Modern Catholicism, Oct. '87.

Stephen (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of preceding, b. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he graduated M.A., '57. He married a daughter of Thackeray, and became editor of the Cornhill Magazine from '71-82, when he resigned to edit the Dictionary of National Biography. Mr. Stephen also contributed to Macmillan, the Fortnightly, and other reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found in Essays on Freethinking and Plainspeaking, '73. He has also written an important History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, '76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and The Science of Ethics, '82, besides many literary works.

Stern (J)., Rabbiner, German writer, b. of Jewish parents, Liederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the town. In '58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and studied the Kabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do this he studied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In '63 he graduated at Stuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave discourses collected in his first book, Gottesflamme, '72. His Old and New Faith Among the Jews, '78, was much attacked by the orthodox Jews. In Women in the Talmud, '79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written Jesus as a Jewish Reformer, The Egyptian Religion and Positivism, and Is the Pentateuch by Moses? In '81 he went to live at Stuttgart, where he has translated Spinoza's Ethics, and is engaged on a history of Spinozism.

"Sterne (Carus)"; pseud. See Krause (E).

Stevens (E. A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American Secular Union, b. 8 June, 1846. Author of God in the State, and contributor to the American Freethought journals.

Stewart (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London before 1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked through India, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in London, 20 Feb. 1822.

"Stirner (Max)." See Schmidt (Kaspar).

Stosch (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also Stoss (Johann Friedrich), b. Berlin, 1646, and studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he published a little book, Concordia rationis et fidei, Amst. [or rather Berlin]. It was rigorously suppressed, and the possession of the work was threatened with a penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes him with German Spinozists, and says "Stosch curtly denies not only the immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul." Died 1704.

Stout (Sir Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick (Shetland Isles), 1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in '63 left for New Zealand. In '67 he began the study of the law, was elected to the General Assembly in '75, and became Attorney-General in March, '78. He has since been Minister of Education of the Colony.

Strange (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for many years a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, and long an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and ended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest advocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent student and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death, and sought to bring the prisoner "to Jesus." He professed himself influenced, but at the gallows "he proclaimed his trust to be in Rama and not in Christ." This set the judge thinking. He investigated Christianity's claims, and has embodied the result in his works. The Bible, Is it the Word of God? '71; The Speaker's Commentary Reviewed, '71; The Development of Creation on the Earth, '74; The Legends of the Old Testament, '74; and The Sources and Development of Christianity, '75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong, he died at Norwood, 4 Sept. 1884.

Strauss (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg (Wurtemburg), 27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at Tübengen, was ordained in '30, and in '32 became assistant-teacher. His Life of Jesus Critically Treated, '35, in which he shows the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused much controversy, and he was deprived of his position. In '39 the Zürich Government appointed him professor of church history, but they were obliged to repeal their decision before the storm of Christian indignation. His next important work was on the Christian Doctrines (2 vols.), '40. In '47 he wrote on Julian the Apostle, and in '58 an account of the Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten. He prepared a New Life of Christ for the German People, '64, followed by the Christ of the Creeds and the Jesus of History. In '70 he published his lectures on Voltaire, and two years later his last work The Old Faith and the New, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but with the belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant of truth, his mind was always advancing. He died at his native place, 8 Feb. 1874.

Strindberg (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the Scandinavian Rousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published many prominent rationalistic works, as The Red Chamber and Marriage. The latter was confiscated. He is one of the most popular poets and novelists in Sweden.

Stromer (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured on astronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote Confessions of a Freethinker. Died 1887.

Strozzi (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. of noble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned it for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry II. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June 1558, and being exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus, he calmly declared himself an Atheist.

Suard (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. Besançon, 15 Jan, 1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron d'Holbach and of Garat, and corresponded with Hume and Walpole. He wrote Miscellanies of Literature, etc. He had the post of censor of theatres. Died at Paris 20 July, 1817.

Sue (Marie Joseph, called Eugène), French novelist, b. Paris, 10 Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of which The Mysteries of Paris and The Wandering Jew, '42-45, were the most popular. In '50 he was elected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by the coup d'etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.

Sullivan (J.), author of Search for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin of the conception of God (London, 1859).

Sully Prudhomme (Renè François Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16 March 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many volumes. In '78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in '82 member of the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy of philosophical suggestion.

Sunderland (La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent in the temperance and anti-slavery movements. He came out of the Church as the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the forty years preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery and Pathetism, '47; Book of Human Nature, '53, and Ideology, 3 vols., '86-9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.

Suttner (Bertha von), Baroness, Austrian author of Inventory of a Soul, 1886, and of several novels.

Sutton (Henry S.), anonymous author of Quinquenergia; or, Proposals for a New Practical Theology, and Letters from a Father to a Son on Revealed Religion.

Swinburne (Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London, 5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he spent some time with W. S. Landor. Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius. Poems and Ballads, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power, and provoked some outcry. In his Songs before Sunrise, 1871, he glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies, and prose miscellanies.

Symes (Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841, of pious Methodist parents. In '64 he offered himself as candidate for the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in '67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy, he resigned in '72, preached his first open Freethought lecture at Newcastle, 17 Dec. '76. Had several debates, wrote Philosophic Atheism, Man's Place in Nature, Hospitals not of Christian Origin, Christianity a Persecuting Religion, Blows at the Bible, etc. He contributed to the Freethinker, and was ready to conduct it during Mr. Foote's imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. '83, and there established the Liberator, and has written Life and Death of My Religion, '84; Christianity and Slavery, Phallic Worship, etc.

Symonds (John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol, 5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in '62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his marriage. His chief work is on the Renaissance in Italy, 7 vols., completed in '86. He has also written critical sketches, studies, and poems. Ill health compels his living abroad.

Taine (Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters, b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the Condorcet Lyceum), in '53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In '56 appears his French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which he sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came to England and studied English Literature; his Hand History of which was sent in for the Academy prize, '63, but rejected on the motion of Bishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote on English Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In '71 Oxford made him D.C.L., and in Nov. '78, he was elected to the French Academy; his latest work is The Origins of Contemporary France.

Talandier (Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution of '48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades unions and co-operation, translated Smiles's Self-Help, and wrote in the National Reformer. Returned to Paris in '70 and became professor at the Lycée Henri IV. In '74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on the Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy, and was re-elected in '81. In '83 he published a Popular Rabelais and has written in Our Corner on that great Freethinker.

Taubert (A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann's first wife. She wrote The Pessimists and their Opponents, 1873.

Taule (Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of Notions on the Nature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.

Taurellus (Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montbéhard, 26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tübingen and Basle. For daring to think for himself, and asking how the Aristotelian doctrine of the eternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation, he was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the principal of which is Philosophiæ Triumphans, 1573. He died of the plague 28 Sept. 1606.

Taylor (Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton, 18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospital, and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered St. John's, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. '13 graduated B.A., and soon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till '18, when he first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He preached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He then went to Dublin and published The Clerical Review and started "The Society of Universal Benevolence." In '24 he came to London and started "The Christian Evidence Society," and delivered discourses with discussion; also edited the Philalethian. In '27 he was indicted for blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty, and on 7 Feb. '28 sentenced to one year's imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. Here he wrote his Syntagma on the Evidences of Christianity, and his chief work, The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins, evidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contributed a weekly letter to The Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On his liberation they both went on "an infidel mission" about the country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published in The Devil's Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, '31, was sentenced to two year's imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol, and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.

Taylor (Thomas), known as "The Platonist," b. London, 1758. He devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries, Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth, 1 Nov. 1835.

Taylor (William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from the German, notably Lessing's Nathan the Wise, brought him some repute. He also wrote a Survey of German Poetry and English Synonyms, 1830. He edited the Norwich Iris, 1802, which he made the organ of his political and religions views. In '10 he published anonymously A Letter Concerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitled Who was the Father of Jesus Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was the father of Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in the Monthly Review, replying therein to the Abbé Barruel; and the Critical Review when edited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism of Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.

Tchernychewsky (N. G.) See Chernuishevsky.

"Tela (Josephus)," the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818 edited the Philosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe is also thought to have been concerned in the production of Ecce Homo, '13. Cushing, in his Initials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to "Joseph Webb," 1735-87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in America; died in Boston." I am not satisfied that this is the same person.

Telesio (Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning, optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in Latin On the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He opposed the Aristotelian doctrine in physics, and employed mathematical principles in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in the Index, but this did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.

Telle (Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee, 1578. He translated Servetus On the Errors of the Trinity, published 1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.

Testa (Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curious Storia di Gesù di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son of Giuseppe Pandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.

Thaer (Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May, 1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to have inspired Lessing's work on The Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.

Theodorus of Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He resided at Athens about 312 B.C. When threatened with crucifixion, he said it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.

Theophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the alleged publication of Le Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died, 25 Sept. 1626.

Thompson (Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on The Problem of Evil, '87; The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the Nineteenth Century Club.

Thomson (Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to sea in '49 and became a merchant captain in '57, and was subsequently manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a Utilitarian Society in '88, of which he is president. He has done much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured on behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct of Fritänkaren.