Part 26

Rawson (Albert Leighton) LL.D. American traveller and author, b. Chester, Vermont 15 Oct. 1829. After studying law, theology, and art, he made four visits to the East, and made in '51-2 a pilgrimage from Cairo to Mecca, disguised as a Mohammedan student of medicine. He has published many maps and typographical and philological works, and illustrated Beecher's Life of Jesus. Has also written on the Antiquities of the Orient, New York, '70, and Chorography of Palestine, London, '80. Has written in the Freethinkers' Magazine, maintaining that the Bible account of the twelve tribes of Israel is non-historical.

Raynal (Guillaume Thomas François) l'abbé, French historian and philosopher, b. Saint Geniez, 12 April, 1713. He was brought up as a priest but renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris, 1747, where he became intimate with Helvetius, Holbach, etc. With the assistance of these, and Diderot, Pechmeja, etc., he compiled a philosophical History of European establishments in the two Indies (4 vols. 1770 and 1780), a work full of reflections on the religious and political institutions of France. It made a great outcry, was censured by the Sorbonne, and was burnt by order of Parliament 29 May, 1781. Raynal escaped and passed about six years in exile. Died near Paris, 6 March, 1796.

Reade (William Winwood), English traveller and writer, nephew of Charles Reade the novelist, b. Murrayfield, near Crieff, Scotland, 26 Dec. 1824. He studied at Oxford, then travelled much in the heart of Africa, and wrote Savage Africa, '63, The African Sketch Book, and in '73, The Story of the Ashantee Campaign; which he accompanied as Times correspondent. In the Martyrdom of Man ('72), he rejects the doctrine of a personal creator. It went through several editions and is still worth reading. He also wrote Liberty Hall, a novel, '60; The Veil of Isis, '61, and See Saw, a novel, '65. He wrote his last work The Outcast, a Freethought novel, with the hand of death upon him. Died 24 April, 1875.

Reber (George), American author of The Christ of Paul, or the Enigmas of Christianity (New York, 1876), a work in which he exposes the frauds and follies of the early fathers.

Reclus (Jean Jacques Elisée), French geographer and socialist, the son of a Protestant minister, b. Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (Gironde), 15 March, 1830, and educated by the Moravian brethren, and afterwards at Berlin. He early distinguished himself by his love for liberty, and left France after the coup d'état of 2 Dec. '51, and travelled till '57 in England, Ireland, and the North and South America, devoting himself to studying the social and political as well as physical condition of the countries he visited, the results being published in the Tour du monde, and Revue des Deux Mondes, in which he upheld the cause of the North during the American war. In '71 he supported the Commune and was taken prisoner and sentenced to transportation for life. Many eminent men in England and America interceded and his sentence was commuted to banishment. At the amnesty of March '79, he returned to Paris, and has devoted himself to the publication of a standard Universal Geography in 13 vols. In '82 he gave two of his daughters in marriage without either religious or civil ceremony. He has written a preface to Bakounin's God and the State, and many other works.

Reddalls (George Holland), English Secularist, b. Birmingham, Nov. 1846. He became a compositor on the Birmingham Daily Post, but wishing to conduct a Freethought paper started in business for himself, and issued the Secular Chronicle, '73, which was contributed to by Francis Neale, H. V. Mayer, G. Standring, etc. He died 13 Oct. 1875.

Reghillini de Schio (M.), Professor of Chemistry and Mathematics, b. of Venetian parents at Schio in 1760. He wrote in French an able exposition of Masonry, 1833, which he traced to Egypt; and an Examination of Mosaism and Christianity, '34. He was mixed in the troubles of Venice in '48, and fled to Belgium, dying in poverty at Brussels Aug. 1853.

Regnard (Albert Adrien), French doctor and publicist, b. Lachante (Nièvre), 20 March, 1836, author of Essais d'Histoire et de Critique Scientifique (Paris, '65)--a work for which he could find no publisher, and had to issue himself--in which he proclaimed scientific materialism. Losing his situation, he started, with Naquet and Clemenceau, the Revue Encyclopédique, which being suppressed on its first number, he started La Libre Pensée with Asseline, Condereau, etc. His articles in this journal drew on him and Eudes a condemnation of four months' imprisonment. He wrote New Researches on Cerebral Congestion, '68, and was one of the French delegates to the anti-Council of Naples, '69. Has published Atheism, studies of political science, dated Londres, '78; a History of England since 1815; and has translated Büchner's Force and Matter, '84. He was delegate to the Freethinkers' International Congress at Antwerp, '85.

Regnard (Jean François), French comic poet, b. Paris. 8 Feb. 1655. He went to Italy about 1676, and on returning home was captured by an Algerian corsair and sold as a slave. Being caught in an intrigue with one of the women, he was required to turn Muhammadan. The French consul paid his ransom and he returned to France about 1681. He wrote a number of successful comedies and poems, and was made a treasurer of France. He died as an Epicurean, 4 Sept. 1709.

Regnier (Mathurin), French satirical poet, b. Chartres, 21 Dec. 1573. Brought up for the Church, he showed little inclination for its austerities, and was in fact a complete Pagan, though he obtained a canonry in the cathedral of his native place. Died at Rouen, 22 Oct. 1613.

Reich (Eduard) Dr., German physician and anthropologist of Sclav descent on his father's side, b. Olmütz, 6 March 1839. He studied at Jena and has travelled much, and published over thirty volumes besides editing the Athenæum of Jena '75, and Universities of Grossenbain, '83. Of his works we mention Man and the Soul, '72; The Church of Humanity, '74; Life of Man as an Individual, '81; History of the Soul, '84; The Emancipation of Women, '84.

Reil (Johann Christian), German physician, b. Rauden, East Friesland, 20 Feb. 1758. Intended for the Church, he took instead to medicine; after practising some years in his native town he went in 1787 to Halle, and in 1810 he was made Professor of Medicine at Berlin University. He wrote many medical works, and much advanced medical science, displacing the old ideas in a way which brought on him the accusation of pantheism. Attending a case of typhus fever at Halle he was attacked by the malady, and succumbed 22 Nov. 1813.

Reimarus (Hermann Samuel), German philologist, b. Hamburg, 22 Dec. 1694. He was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricus. Studied at Jena and Wittenberg; travelled in Holland and England; and was appointed rector of the gymnasium in Weimar, 1723, and in Hamburg, 1729. He was one of the most radical among German rationalists. He published a work on The Principle Truths of Natural Religion, 1754, and left behind the Wolfenbüttel Fragments, published by Lessing in 1777. Died at Hamburg, 1 March, 1768. Strauss has written an account of his services, 1862.

Reitzel (Robert), German American revolutionary, b. Baden, 1849. Named after Blum, studied theology, went to America, walked from New York to Baltimore, and was minister to an independent Protestant church. Studied biology and resigned as a minister, and became speaker of a Freethought congregation at Washington for seven years. Is now editor of Der Arme Teufel of Detroit, and says he "shall be a poor man and a Revolutionaire all my life."

Remsburg (John E.), American lecturer and writer, b. 1848. Has written a series of pamphlets entitled The Image Breaker, False Claims of the Christian Church, '83, Sabbath Breaking, Thomas Paine, and a vigorous onslaught on Bible Morals, instancing twenty crimes and vices sanctioned by scripture, '85.

Renan (Joseph Ernest), learned French writer, b. Tréguier (Brittany) 27 Feb. 1823. Was intended for the Church and went to Paris to study. He became noted for his linguistic attainment, but his studies and independence of thought did not accord with his intended profession. My faith, he says was destroyed not by metaphysics nor philosophy but by historical criticism. In '45 he gave up all thoughts of an ecclesiastic career and became a teacher. In '48 he gained the Volney prize, for a memoir on the Semitic Languages, afterwards amplified into a work on that subject. In '52 he published his work on Averroës and Averroïsm. In '56 was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in '60 sent on a mission to Syria; having in the meantime published a translation of Job and Song of Songs. Here he wrote his long contemplated Vie de Jesus, '63. In '61 he had been appointed Professor of Hebrew in the Institute of France, but denounced by bishops and clergy he was deprived of his chair, which was, however, restored in '70. The Pope did not disdain to attack him personally as a "French blasphemer." The Vie de Jesus is part of a comprehensive History of the Origin of Christianity, in 8 vols., '63-83, which includes The Apostles, St Paul, Anti-Christ, The Gospels, The Christian Church, and Marcus Aurelius, and the end of the Antique World. Among his other works we must mention Studies on Religious History ('58), Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments ('76), Spinoza ('77), Caliban, a satirical drama ('80), the Hibbert Lecture on the Influence of Rome on Christians, Souvenirs, '84; New Studies of Religious History,'84; The Abbess of Jouarre, a drama which made a great sensation in '86; and The History of the People of Israel, '87-89.

Renand (Paul), Belgian author of a work entitled Nouvelle Symbolique, on the identity of Christianity and Paganism, published at Brussels in 1861.

Rengart (Karl Fr.), of Berlin, b. 1803, democrat and freethought friend of C. Deubler. Died about 1879.

Renard (Georges), French professor of the Academie of Lausanne; author of Man, is he Free? 1881, and a Life of Voltaire, '83.

Renouvier (Charles Bernard), French philosopher, b. Montpellier, 1815. An ardent Radical and follower of the critical philosophy. Among his works are Manual of Ancient Philosophy (2 vols., '44); Republican Manual, '48; Essays of General Criticism, '54; Science of Morals, '69; a translation, made with F. Pillon, of Hume's Psychology, '78; and A Sketch of a Systematic Classification of Philosophical Doctrines, '85.

Renton (William), English writer, b. Edinburgh, 1852. Educated in Germany. Wrote poems entitled Oil and Water Colors, and a work on The Logic of Style, '74. At Keswick he published Jesus, a psychological estimate of that hero, '76. Has since published a romance of the last generation called Bishopspool, '83.

Rethore (François), French professor of philosophy at the Lyceum of Marseilles, b. Amiens, 1822. Author of a work entitled Condillac, or Empiricism and Rationalism, '64. Has translated H. Spencer's Classification of Sciences.

Reuschle (Karl Gustav), German geographer, b. Mehrstetten, 12 Dec. 1812. He wrote on Kepler and Astronomy, '71, and Philosophy and Natural Science, '74, dedicated to the memory of D. F. Strauss. Died at Stuttgart, 22 May, 1875.

Revillon (Antoine, called Tony), French journalist and deputy, b. Saint-Laurent-les Mâcon (Ain), 29 Dec. 1832. At first a lawyer in '57, he went to Paris, where he has written on many journals, and published many romances and brochures. In '81 he was elected deputy.

Rey (Marc Michel), printer and bookseller of Amsterdam. He printed all the works of d'Holbach and Rousseau and some of Voltaire's, and conducted the Journal des Savans.

Reynaud (Antoine Andre Louis), Baron, French mathematician, b. Paris, 12 Sept. 1777. In 1790 he became one of the National Guard of Paris. He was teacher and examiner for about thirty years in the Polytechnic School. A friend of Lalande. Died Paris, 24 Feb. 1844.

Reynaud (Jean Ernest), French philosopher, b. Lyons, 14 Feb. 1806. For a time he was a Saint Simonian. In '36 he edited with P. Leroux the Encyclopédie Nouvelle. He was a moderate Democrat in the Assembly of '48. His chief work, entitled Earth and Heaven, '54, had great success. It was formally condemned by a clerical council held at Périgueux. Died Paris, 28 June, 1863.

Reynolds (Charles B.), American lecturer, b. 4 Aug. 1832. Was brought up religiously, and became a Seventh Day Baptist preacher, but was converted to Freethought. He was prosecuted for blasphemy at Morristown, New Jersey, May 19, 20, 1887, and was defended by Col. Ingersoll. The verdict was one of guilty, and the sentence was a paltry fine of 25 dollars. Has written in the Boston Investigator, Truthseeker, and Ironclad Age.

Reynolds (George William MacArthur), English writer; author of many novels. Wrote Errors of the Christian Religion, 1832.

Rialle (J. Girard de), French anthropologist, b. Paris 1841. He wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, conducted the Revue de Linguistique et de Philologie comparée, and has written on Comparative Mythology, dealing with fetishism, etc., '78, and works on Ethnology.

Ribelt (Léonce), French publicist, b. Bordeaux 1824, author of several political works and collaborator on La Morale Indépendante.

Ribeyrolles (Charles de), French politician, b. near Martel (Lot) 1812. Intended for the Church, he became a social democrat; edited the Emancipation of Toulouse, and La Réforme in '48. A friend of V. Hugo, he shared in his exile at Jersey. Died at Rio-Janeiro, 13 June, 1861.

Ribot (Théodule), French philosopher, b. Guingamp (Côtes du-Nord) 1839; has written Contemporary English Psychology '70, a resume of the views of Mill, Bain, and Spencer, whose Principles of Psychology he has translated. Has also written on Heredity, '73; The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, '74; The maladies of Memory, personality and Will, 3 vols.; and Contemporary German Psychology. He conducts the Revue Philosophique.

Ricciardi (Giuseppe Napoleone), Count, Italian patriot, b. Capodimonte (Naples), 19 July, 1808, son of Francesco Ricciardi, Count of Camaldoli, 1758-1842. Early in life he published patriotic poems. He says that never after he was nineteen did he kneel before a priest. In '32 he founded at Naples Il Progresso, a review of science, literature, and art. Arrested in '34 as a Republican conspirator, he was imprisoned eight months and then lived in exile in France until '48. Here he wrote in the Revue Indépendante, pointing out that the Papacy from its very essence was incompatible with liberty. Elected deputy to the Neapolitan Parliament, he sat on the extreme left. He wrote a History of the Revolution of Italy in '48 (Paris '49). Condemned to death in '53, his fortune was seized. He wrote an Italian Martyrology from 1792-1847 (Turin '56), and The Pope and Italy, '62. At the time of the Ecumenical Council he called an Anti-council of Freethinkers at Naples, '69. This was dissolved by the Italian government, but it led to the International Federation of Freethinkers. Count Ricciardi published an account of the congress. His last work was a life of his friend Mauro Macchi, '82. Died 1884.

Richepin (Jean), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, b. Médéah (Algeria) in 1849. He began life as a doctor, and during the Franco-German war took to journalism. In '76 he published the Song of the Beggars, which was suppressed. In '84 appeared Les Blasphèmes, which has gone through several editions.

Richer (Léon), French Deist and journalist, b. Laigh, 1824. He was with A. Guéroult editor of l'Opinion Nationale, and in '69 founded and edits L'Avenir des Femmes. In '68 he published Letters of a Freethinker to a Village Priest, and has written many volumes in favor of the emancipation of women, collaborating with Mdlle. Desraismes in the Women's Rights congresses held in Paris.

Rickman (Thomas Clio), English Radical. He published several volumes of poems and a life of his friend Thomas Paine, 1819, of whom he also published an excellent portrait painted by Romney and engraved by Sharpe.

Riem (Andreas), German rationalist b. Frankenthal 1749. He became a preacher, and was appointed by Frederick the Great chaplain of a hospital at Berlin. This he quitted in order to become secretary of the Academy of Painting. He wrote anonymously on the Aufklaring. Died 1807.

Ritter (Charles), Swiss writer b. Geneva 1838, and has translated into French Strauss's Essay of Religious History, George Eliot's Fragments and Thoughts, and Zeller's Christian Baur and the Tübingen School.

Roalfe (Matilda), a brave woman, b. 1813. At the time of the blasphemy prosecutions in 1843, she went from London to Edinburgh to uphold the right of free publication. She opened a shop and circulated a manifesto setting forth her determination to sell works she deemed useful "whether they did or did not bring into contempt the Holy Scriptures and the Christian Religion." When prosecuted for selling The Age of Reason, The Oracle of Reason, etc., she expressed her intention of continuing her offence as soon as liberated. She was sentenced to two months imprisonment 23 Jan. '44, and on her liberation continued the sale of the prosecuted works. She afterwards married Mr. Walter Sanderson and settled at Galashiels, where she died 29 Nov. 1880.

Robert (Pierre François Joseph), French conventionnel and friend of Brissot and Danton, b. Gimnée (Ardennes) 21 Jan. 1763. Brought up to the law he became professor of public law to the philosophical society. He was nominated deputy for Paris, and wrote Republicanism adapted to France, 1790, became secretary to Danton, and voted for the death of the king. He wrote in Prudhomme's Révolutions de Paris. Died at Brussels 1826.

Robertson (A. D.), editor of the Free Enquirer, published at New York, 1835.

Robertson (John Mackinnon), Scotch critic, b. Arran, 14 Nov. 1856. He became journalist on the Edinburgh Evening News, and afterwards on the National Reformer. Mr. Robertson has published a study of Walt Whitman in the "Round Table Series." Essays towards a Critical Method, '89, and has contributed to Our Corner, Time, notably an article on Mithraism, March, '89, The Westminster Review, etc. He has also issued pamphlets on Socialism and Malthusianism, and Toryism and Barbarism, '85, and edited Hume's Essay on Natural Religion, '89.

Roberty (Eugène de), French positivist writer, of Russian birth, b. Podolia (Russia), 1843; author of works on Sociology, Paris, '81, and The Old and the New Philosophy, an essay on the general laws of philosophic development, '87. He has recently written a work entitled The Unknowable, '89.

Robin (Charles Philippe), French physician, senator member of the Institute and of the Academy of Medecine, b. Jasseron (Aix), 4 June, 1821. Became M.D. in '46, and D.Sc. '47. In company with Littré he refounded Nysten's Dictionary of Medicine, and he has written many important medical works, and one on Instruction. In '72 his name was struck out of the list of jurors on the ground of his unbelief in God, and it thus remained despite many protests until '76. In the same year he was elected Senator, and sits with the Republican Left. He has been decorated with the Legion of Honor.

Robinet (Jean Baptiste René), French philosopher, b. Rennes, 23 June, 1735. He became a Jesuit, but gave it up and went to Holland to publish his curious work, De la Nature, 1776, by some attributed to Toussaint and to Diderot. He continued Marsy's Analysis of Bayle, edited the Secret Letters of Voltaire, translated Hume's Moral Essays, and took part in the Recueil Philosophique, published by J. L. Castilhon. Died at Rennes, 24 March, 1820.

Robinet (Jean Eugène François), French physician and publicist, b. Vic-sur-Seille, 1825. He early attached himself to the person and doctrine of Auguste Comte, and became his physician and one of his executors. During the war of '70 he was made Mayor of the Sixth Arrondissement of Paris. He has written a Notice of the Work and Life of A. Comte, '60, a memoir of the private life of Danton, '65, The Trial of the Dantonists, '79, and contributed an account of the Positive Philosophy of A. Comte and P. Lafitte to the "Bibliothèque Utile," vol. 66, '81.

Roell (Hermann Alexander), German theologian, b. 1653, author of a Deistic dissertation on natural religion, published at Frankfort in 1700. Died Amsterdam, 12 July, 1718.

Rogeard (Louis Auguste), French publicist, b. Chartres, 25 April, 1820. Became a teacher but was dismissed for refusing to attend mass. In '49 he moved to Paris and took part in the revolutionary movement. He was several times imprisoned under the Empire, and in '65 was sentenced to five years' imprisonment for writing Les Propos de Labienus (London, i.e. Zürich), '65. He fled to Belgium and wrote some excellent criticism on the Bible in the Rive Gauche. In '71 he assisted Pyat on Le Vengeur, and was elected on the Commune but declined to sit. An incisive writer, he signed himself "Atheist." Is still living in Paris.

Rokitansky (Karl), German physician and scientist, founder of the Viennese school in medicine, b. Königgrätz (Bohemia) 11 Feb. 1804, studied medicine at Prague and Vienna, and received his degree of Doctor in '28. His principal work is a Manual of Practical Anatomy, '42-6. Died Vienna, 23 July, 1878.

Roland (Marie Jeanne), née Phlipon, French patriot, b. Paris, 17 March, 1754. Fond of reading, Plutarch's Lives influenced her greatly. At a convent she noted the names of sceptics attached and read their writings, being, she says, in turn Jansenist, stoic, sceptic, atheist, and deist. The last she remained, though Miss Blind classes her with Agnostics. After her marriage in 1779 with Jean Marie Roland de la Platiêre (b. Lyons, 1732), Madame Roland shared the tasks and studies of her husband, and the Revolution found her an ardent consort. On the appointment of her husband to the ministry, she became the centre of a Girondist circle. Carlyle calls her "the creature of Simplicity and Nature, in an age of Artificiality, Pollution, and Cant," and "the noblest of all living Frenchwomen." On the fall of her party she was imprisoned, and finally executed, 8 Nov. 1793. Her husband, then in hiding, hearing of her death, deliberately stabbed himself, 15 Nov. 1793.

Rolph (William Henry), German philosopher, b. of English father, Berlin, 26 Aug. 1847. He became privat-docent of Zoology in the University of Leipsic, and wrote an able work on Biological Problems, '84, in which he accepts evolution, discards theology, and places ethics on a natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883.

Romagnosi (Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and jurist, b. Salso Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able work on penal legislation, Genesis of Penal Law, many pages of which are borrowed from d'Holbach's System of Nature. He became Professor of Law in Parma, Milan, and Pavia. A member of the Italian Academy, he was named professor at Corfu, where he died 8 June, 1835. In '21 he wrote Elements of Philosophy, followed by What is a Sound Mind? ('27) and Ancient Moral Philosophy, '32. A somewhat obscure writer, he nevertheless contributed to the positive study of sociology.

Romiti (Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy in the University of Siena. Has published Anatomical Notes, and a Discourse which excited some commotion among the theologians.

Romme (Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became deputy to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In Sept. 1793 he introduced the new Republican Calendar, the plan of which was drawn by Lalande, and the names assigned by Fabre d'Eglantine. He advocated the Fêtes of Reason. Being condemned to death, he committed suicide, 18 June, 1795. His brother Charles, b. 1744, was also an eminent geometrician, and a friend of Laland. He died 15 June, 1805.