Part 23

Newman (Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London 1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol College '26, but resigned in '30, being unable conscientiously to comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a Christian mission, but his further studies convinced him he could not conscientiously undertake the work. He returned to England and became classical teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at London University. In The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, '49, he states his Theistic position, and in Phases of Faith, '50, he explains how he came to give up Christianity. He has also written A History of the Hebrew Monarchy, '47, Theism: Doctrinal and Practical, '58, and a number of Scott's tracts on the Defective Morality of the New Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the Religious Weakness of Protestantism, etc. Also Religion not History, '77; What is Christianity without Christ? '81; Christianity in its Cradle, '84; and Life after Death, '86.

Neymann (Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.

Nicholson (William), English writer on chemistry and natural philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted the British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He also wrote The Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench of Bishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and also by Watson. He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.

Nicolai (Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March, 1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted for founding "The Universal German Library." He wrote anecdotes of Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.

Nietzsche (Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844, author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and of Morgenröthe, and other philosophical works. Died 1889.

Nieuwenhuis (Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht, 3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25, '77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to believe in Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed to De Banier (Banner) de Dageraad (Dawn) and de Vragen des Tijds (Questions of the time.) On 1st March, '79 he started a Socialist paper Recht voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and Freethought. His principle writings are--With Jesus, For or against Socialism, The Religious Oath Question, The Religion of Reason, The Religion of Humanity. On Jan. 19, '87, he was sentenced to one years' solitary confinement for an article he had not written, and was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.

Noeldeke (Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March, 1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He has written a History of the Koran, '56; a Life of Mahomet, '63; and a Literary History of the Old Testament, which has been translated into French by MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, '73.

Noire (Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen, and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist philosophy, '77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, '77. He contends that language originates in instinctive sounds accompanying will in associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.

Noorthouck (John), author of a History of London, 1773, and an Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with the Life of the Man After God's Own Heart. See Annet.

Nordau (Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He became a physician in '73. He has written several books of travels and made some noise by his trenchant work on Convential Lies of our Civilisation. He has since written on The Sickness of the Century.

Nork (Felix). See Korn (Selig).

Nott (Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wrote The Physical History of the Jewish Race, Types of Mankind, '54, and Indigenous Races of the Earth, '55; the last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of disproving the theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile, 31 March, 1873.

Noun (Paul), French author of The Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.

Noyes (Thomas Herbert), author of Hymns of Modern Man, 1870.

Nunez (Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He has written many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is a follower of Mill and Spencer.

Nuytz (Louis André). See Andre-Nuytz.

Nystrom (Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15 Feb. 1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund, '68. He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian war of '67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has established a Positivist Society and Workmen's Institute. Has written a History of Civilisation.

Ocellus Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a translation by the Marquis d'Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an English version.

Ochino (Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to the Reformation by Jean Valdez, he had to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited to England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached in London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went to Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about 1562 for Thirty Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also, and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.

O'Connor (Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet, whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also edited the Journal of Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.

O'Donoghue (Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about 1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin, but became a sceptic and published Theology and Mythology, an inquiry into the claims of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element in religion, at New York, 1880.

Oest (Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.

Offen (Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wrote Biblical Criticism and A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported the Correspondent, Free Inquirer, and Boston Investigator. Died New York, 12 May, 1848.

Offray de la Mettrie (Julian). See Lamettrie.

O'Keefe (J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essay On the Progress of the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks disparagingly of Christianity. He was a follower of Kant, and was classed with Living Authors of Great Britain in 1816.

O'Kelly (Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the O'Kelly's; author of Consciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853; Theological Papers, published by Holyoake; and Theology for the People, '55, a series of short papers suggestive of religious Theism.

Oken (Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg, 2 Aug. 1779. He studied at Göttingen and became a privat-docent in that university. In a remarkable Sketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802, he advanced a scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work on Generation, 1805, and a Manual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From '17 till '48 he edited the scientific journal Isis. In '32 he became a professor at Zürich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.

Oliver (William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.

Omar Khayyam. See Khayyam.

Omboni (Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June, 1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific works.

Onimus (Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris, and wrote a treatise on The Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological Sciences, 1866. In '73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition, and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of the Psychology in the Plays of Shakespere, '78, and has written in the Revue Positive and other periodicals.

Oort (Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many works, of which we mention The Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated by Bp. Colenso, 1865, and The Bible for Young People, written with Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873-79.

Orelli (Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Zürich, 13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in favor of Strauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed Professor at Zürich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.

Osborne (Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. His Advice to a Son, 1656, was popular though much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint against his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.

Oscar (L.), Swiss writer, author of Religion Traced Back to its Source, Basel, 1874. He considers religion "a belief in conflict with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies" of animism and mythology. One of his chapters is entitled "The Crucifixion of the Son of God as Christian mythology."

Ossoli (Countess d'). See Fuller (Margaret).

Oswald (Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.

Oswald (Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history, and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly, The Truthseeker and other journals, and has published Summerland Sketches, or Rambles in the Backwoods of Mexico and Central America, '81; Physical Education, '82; The Secrets of the East, '83, which argues that Christianity is derived from Buddhism, and The Bible of Nature or the Principles of Secularism, '88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural History in Brazil.

O'Toole (Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he "denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the Apostolic see erronious."

"Ouida," See Ramée (Louise de la).

Ouvry (Henry Aimé), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens, Dietetics of the Soul and Rau's Unsectarian Catechism, and author of several works on the land question.

Overton (Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics, 1642, and a treatise on Man's Mortality (London, 1643, Amsterdam, 1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal.

Owen (Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14 March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810-15 he published New Views on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In '17 he caused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world were all false, and that man was the creature of circumstances. In '24 he went to America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the Rappists to found a new community, but the experiment was a failure, as were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In '28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of Christianity. He published a numerous series of tracts, Robert Owen's Journal, and The New Moral World, '35. He debated on his Social System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton, 17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in the direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for his energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.

Owen (Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg's school, near Berne, Switzerland. In '25 he went to America to aid in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the failure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. '28, the publication of the Free Inquirer, which was continued till '32. In that year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on the existence of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he ably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts of which we mention Situations, 1839; Address on Free Inquiry, 1840; Prossimo's Experience, Consistency, Galileo and the Inquisition. He was elected to Congress in '43. After fifteen years of labor he secured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He became charge d'affaires at Naples in '53. During the civil war he strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.

Paalzow (Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark), 26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire's commentaries on The Spirit of the Laws and Burigny's Examination of the Apologists of Christianity (Leipzic, 1793), and wrote a History of Religious Cruelty (Mainz, 1800). Died 20 May, 1824.

Paepe (Cesar de). See De Paepe.

Pagano (Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor of criminal law in 1787. For his Political Essays in three volumes (1783-92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on Criminal Process and a work on God and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.

Page (David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited Life Lights of Song, '64. His Man Where, Whence, and Whither?, '67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert Chambers, he was for some time credited with that writer's Vestiges of Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.

Paget (Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of "Vernon Lee," has written Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy and Baldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since '71 she has lived chiefly in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews, an article in the Contemporary (May '83) on "Responsibilities of Unbelief" being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget's writings show a cultivated mind and true literary instinct.

Pageze (L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the Budget des Cultes, '86, Separation of Church and State, '87, etc.

Paine (Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he married the daughter of an exciseman, and entered the excise. He was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then in London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine went in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the Pennsylvanian Magazine and contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal a strong anti-slavery essay. Common Sense, published early in 1776, advocating absolute independence for America, did more than anything else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of the Crisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washington's order to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely to the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution, he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In 1791 he published his Rights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison, where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time he wrote the first part of the Age of Reason, which he completed on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas, and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own direction was buried on his farm at New Rochelle. Cobbett is said to have disinterred him and brought his bones to England.

Pajot (François). See Liniere.

Paleario (Aonio), i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and martyr, b. about 1500 at Véroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he went to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on the Mortality of the Soul--modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ's Death has been attributed to him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.

Pallas (Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden, he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural History at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled in the Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8 Sept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him the founder of modern geology.

Pallavicino (Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.

Palmer (Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March, 1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in '69. He was brought up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In '80 he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club, for the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the Freethinker's Magazine, Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and was cremated at Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering an eulogium.

Palmer (Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut, 1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an attack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society in New York. After this he dictated his Principles of Nature, 1802, a powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in '19. He also wrote Prospect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.

Panaetius, Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and perhaps of Carneades. About 150 B.C. he visited Rome and taught a moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the world, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a work On Duties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in his De Officiis. Died in Athens 111 B.C.

Pancoucke (Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26 Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d'Alembert, Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire, whose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out the Mercure de France, projected in 1781 the important Encyclopédie Méthodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded the Moniteur, 1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.

Pantano (Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.

Papillon (J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort, 5 June, 1847. He wrote an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy, '65; contributed to the Revue de Philosophie Positive and the Revue des Deux Mondes. His principal work is entitled Nature and Life, '73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.

Paquet (Henri Remi René), French writer, b. Charleville, 29 Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris, where he became an advocate, but devoted his main attention to literature. Under the anagram of "Nérée Quépat" he has published La Lorgnette Philosophique, '72, a dictionary of the great and little philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitled Materialist Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century and other works.

Pare (William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham, 11 Aug. 1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson's Distribution of Wealth, also works on Capital and Labor '54, Co-operative Agriculture, at Rahaline, '70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the Biography of Robert Owen. Died at Croydon, 18 June, 1873.

Parfait (Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30 Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of '30, and wrote many radical brochures. After the coup d'état he took refuge in Belgium. In '71 was elected deputy and sat on the extreme left.