Part 20

Lennstrand (Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle, 30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish Utilitarian Society, March '88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of 250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has written several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In company with A. Lindkvist he has founded the Fritankaren as the organ of Swedish freethought.

Leontium, Athenian Hetæra, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and elegant manner.

Leopardi (Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati (Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by his lines addressed To Italy. His Canti, '31, are distinguished by eloquence and pathos, while his prose essays, Operette Morali, '27, are esteemed the finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi's short life was one long disease, but it was full of work of the highest character. As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is among the greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.

Lequinio (Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau, 1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the death of Louis XVI. "regretting that the safety of the state did not permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life." In 1792 he published Prejudices Destroyed, signed "Citizen of the World," in which he considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the Feasts of Reason, and wrote Philosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.

Lermina (Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded the Corsair and Satan, and has published an illustrated biographical dictionary of contemporary France, 1884-5.

Lermontov (Mikhail Yur'evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow, 3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow University, from which he was expelled. In '32 he entered the Military Academy at St. Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In '37 some verses on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to the Caucasus, which he describes in a work translated into English, '53. His poems are much admired. The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love, has been translated into English, and so has his romance entitled A Hero of Our Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.

Leroux (Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy, near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In 1824 he became editor of the Globe. Becoming a Saint Simonian, he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with Reynaud L'Encyclopédie Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George Sand the Revue Indépendante ('41), which became noted for its pungent attacks on Catholicism. His principal work is De l'Humanite ('40). In June '48 M. Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After the coup d'état he returned to London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.

Leroy (Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles, b. 1723, one of the writers on the Encyclopédie. He defended the work of Helvetius on the Mind against Voltaire, and wrote Philosophical Letters on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals (1768), a work translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.

Lespinasse (Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May, 1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In the Dageraad he wrote many interesting studies under the pen-name of "Titus," and translated the work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to America and became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange City (Iowa) 1881.

L'Espinasse (Julie Jeanne Eléonore de). French beauty and wit, b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the protégé of Madame du Deffand, and gained the favor of D'Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility and spirit. Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.

Lessing (Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz, 22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenbüttel he published Fragments of an Unknown (1777), really the Vindication of Rational Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended that Christian evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy credence. Among his writings were The Freethinker and Nathan the Wise, his noblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.

Lessona (Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has translated some of the works of Darwin.

Leucippus. Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.

L'Estrange (Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. '44, but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley's Introduction to the Iliad, he became convinced that the "cooking" process there described, has been undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas Scott's series valuable tracts on Our First Century, Primitive Church History, Irenæus, Order, The Eucharist. He also edited Hume's Dialogues on Natural Religion, and wrote The First Ten Alleged Persecutions.

Levallois (Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In '55 he became secretary to Sainte Beuve. Wrote Déisme et Christianisme, 1866.

Lewes (George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18 April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845-6 appeared his Biographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher power. This has been republished as History of Philosophy from Thales to Comte. Lewes was one of the first to introduce English readers to Comte in his account of Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences, '47. In '49 he became one of the founders of the Leader, for which he wrote till '54. In that year he began his association with "George Eliot" (q.v.). His Life of Goethe appeared in '55, and from this time he began to give his attention to scientific, especially biological, studies. In '64 he published an important essay on Aristotle. On the foundation of the Fortnightly Review, '65, Lewes was appointed editor. His last work, Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. '74-79, was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed his books to Dr. Williams's library.

Lichtenberg (Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist, b. Ober-Ramstädt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster, he left many thoughts showing his advanced opinions. Died Göttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.

Lick (James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25 Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.

Lilja (Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, on Man; his Life and Destiny. Died Lund 1870.

Lincoln (Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States, b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery, his election (Nov. '60) led to the civil war and the emancipation of slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he "read Volney and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein he reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but he never denied or regretted its composition." Mrs. Lincoln said, "Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those words." Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.

Lindet (Robert Thomas), "apostate" French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was elected to the States-General by the clergy of his district. He embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop of L'Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals should take the place of religious ones. He became member of the Conseil des Anciens. Died Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and was buried without religious service.

Lindh (Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied at Helsingfors University, '51-57; became lawyer in '71, and is now a member of the Municipal Council of Borgo. He has written many poems in Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has published Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy with the clergy.

Lindkvist (Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860, of pious parents. At the University of Upsala he studied European literature, and became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin, and Spencer. He has published two volumes of poems, Snow Drops and April Days, and lost a stipend at the University by translating from the Danish a rationalistic life of Jesus entitled The Reformer from Galilee. Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on a Stockholm daily paper. In '88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in propagating Freethought, and in Nov. received a month's imprisonment for having translated one of J. Symes's anti-Christian pamphlets. He now edits Fritankaren in conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.

Lindner (Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28 Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained in several works on music. He edited the Vossische Zeitung from '63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.

Liniere (François Payot de), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628; known as the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety he ever did was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her finger in it. Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have undertaken a criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.

Linton (Eliza, née Lynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar of Crosthwaite, Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely to the leading Radical journals, and has written numerous works of fiction, of which we must mention Under which Lord? and The Rebel of the Family. In '72 she published The True History of Joshua Davidson, Christian and Communist, and in '85 the Autobiography of Christopher Kirkland. She has also written on the woman question, and contributed largely to periodical literature.

Linton (William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London, 1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press, and also, we believe, to the Oracle of Reason. He wrote the Reasoner tract on "The Worth of Christianity." He was one of the founders of the Leader, has edited the Truthseeker, the National and the English Republic, and has published Famine a Masque, a Life of Paine, and a memoir of James Watson and some volumes of poems. In '67 he went to America, but has recently returned.

Liscow (Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists, b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow's principal satires are The Uselessness of Good Works for our Salvation and The Excellence and Utility of Bad Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his works show him to have been an outspoken Freethinker.

Lisle (Lionel), author of The Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules (London, 1877).

Liszinski (Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon and scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski's papers was that man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.

Littre (Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher, b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of the National. His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839-61) proved the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte, and in '45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He translated the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote the Literary History of France. His Dictionary of the French Language, in which he applied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal works ever performed by one man. He wrote on Comte and Positive Philosophy, Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his later vagaries. From '67 till his death he conducted La Philosophie Positive. Littré also wrote Science from the Standpoint of Philosophy, '73; Literature and History, '75; Fragments of Positive Philosophy and Contemporary Sociology, '76. He was proposed for the Academy in '63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in '71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in '75 was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion of Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris, 2 June 1881.

Lloyd (John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much in Liberty and Lucifer.

Lohmann (Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the Mirror of Faith. Died 1642.

Lollard (Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose twelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many followers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying with great courage.

Loman (Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many critical works.

Lombroso (Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836, has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology of criminals.

Longet (François Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye, 1811, published a Treatise on Physiology in 3 vols. and several medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.

Longiano (Sebastiano). See Fausto.

Longue (Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of the house of Conti; wrote Les Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople, 1734, in which he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt 31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint Tranquebar, 1735.

Lorand (Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied law at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen associations. He edits La Réforme at Brussels, the ablest daily exponent of Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has lately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army.

"Lorm (Hieronymus)," the pen name of Heinrich Landesmann. German pessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many philosophical poems, he has written essays entitled Nature and Spirit, Vienna, '84.

Lozano (Fernando), Spanish writer in Las Dominicales dal Libre Pensamiento, where he uses the signature "Demofilo." He has written Battles of Freethought, Possessed by the Devil, The Church and Galeote, etc.

Lubbock (Sir John), banker, archæologist, scientist and statesman, b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into his father's bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in '56. By his archæological works he has most distinguished himself. He has written Prehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages ('65), and The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man ('70).

Lucretius Carus (Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. about B.C. 99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised by his atheistic work, De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own hand B.C. 55.

Luetzelberger (Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist b. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He wrote on The Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck's Qu'est ce que la Religion. In '56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.

Lunn (Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets On Prayer, its Folly, Inutility, etc. 1839, and Divine Revelation Examined, 1841.

Luys (Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician at l'Hopital de la Charité, Paris, and author of a work on The Brain and its Functions in the "International Scientific Series."

Lyell (Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14 Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself to geology. In 1830-33 appeared his great work, The Principles of Geology, which went through numerous editions. His last important work was Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.

Maccall (William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left as insufficiently broad. He wrote Elements of Individualism ('47), translated Spinoza's Treatise on Politics ('54), wrote to the Critic as "Atticus," contributed to the National Reformer, Secular Review, etc., published Foreign Biographies ('73), and translated Dr. Letourneau's Biology and other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.

Macchi (Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism, founded l'Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in the Libero Pensiero and the Libero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association of Freethinkers. In '61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for Cremona, and in '79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24 Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on the Council of Ten.

Macdonald (Eugene Montague), editor of the New York Truthseeker, b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer's trade in New York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett's death.

Macdonald (George), brother of the preceding. Wrote on the Truthseeker, and now conducts Freethought, of San Francisco, in company with S. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound Freethinker.

McDonnell (William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author of The Heathens of the Heath and Exeter Hall, '73, both Freethought romances.

Mackay (Robert William), author of The Progress of the Intellect, 1850, Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity, '53, and The Tubingen School, '63.

Mackey (Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich, who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wrote The Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822-24, Pious Frauds, '26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by W. D. Saull, '32, Urania's Key to the Revelation, '33, and The Age of Mental Emancipation, '36-39. Mackey also wrote the Sphinxiad, a rare book. Died 1846.

Mackintosh (Thomas Simmons), author of The Electrical Theory of the Universe, 1848, and An Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died 1850.

MacSweeney (Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the National Reformer, Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet on Moses and Bacchus in 1874. Died Jan. 1881.

Madach (Imré), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823, at Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards lived at Cseszlova. He was in '52 incarcerated for a year for having given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in '61 delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem Az Ember Tragédiája (The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as Adam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in this poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.

Maier (Lodewyk). See Meyer.

Maillet (Benôit de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April, 1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and at Leghorn; and died at Marseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published "Telliamed" (the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land was originally covered with water and that every species of animal, man included, owes its origin to the sea.

"Mainlaender" (Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp Batz, German pessimist, author of a profound work entitled the Philosophy of Redemption, the first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that "Mainländer" committed suicide in that year, but the second part of his work has come out 1882-86. He holds that Polytheism gives place to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. "God is dead, and his death was the life of the world."

Malherbe (François de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.

Mallet (Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work on The Bible, its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).

Malon (Benoît). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One of the founders of the International; he has written a work on that organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor on L'Intransigeant, conducted the Revue Socialiste, and has written on the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works.

Malvezin (Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author of La Bible Farce (Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month's imprisonment. He conducts the review La Fraternité.